2. Nexus Constructions (Synt) I. Intro an NC is a structure centered around a nonfinite verb form, i.e.

. an infinitive, an ing form, or a past participle. NC vs. the clause. Just like the clause the N expresses a predication. In this they are similar and are based on a predicative relation. The difference is that in the clause the syntagmatic relations are explicitly marked (who does what to whom), whereas in the NC these relations remain in the sphere of logic and open for interpretation according to the general and the immediate context. Therefore NCs are more implicit which makes them a preferred variant of expression in cases when brevity and implicitness are desired. In Eng they are much more widely used that in Bg-an. cf. Working hard, he achieved a lot. He worked hard and he achieved a lot. NCs may have different functions in the . a) a S ex. Smoking cigars may damage your health. b) a predicative ex. She appeared to like it. c) object ex. I saw this play performed last summer. d) the attribute ex. His anxiety to meet you is unabated. e) adverbial modifier ex. He made a fortune by selling junk food. Relations between the constituents of a nexus (inside the nexus): 1. S-P relation ex. I saw him run. 2. P-O relation ex. Seeing the chocolates, I grabbed one. 3. P-AM relation ex. I want you to listen carefully. 4. S-Cs relation ex. They elected him president. II. Types of NCs: 1. NC with the infinitive A) Accusativus cum Infinitivis I saw him smile. [Nominal Adj form] Accusativ here means objective. This structure should be differentiated from the combination Od-Co. cf. I knocked him flat. I saw him run. Od Co The difference between Od and Co on the one hand and the ACI on the other side is that the ___ relation in the former is S-Cs, whereas the ___ relation in the latter is S-P. The ACI is used with the following semantic group verbs: a) verbs of sense perception see, hear, observe, watch, notice, feel + infinitive without to. Ex. I heard the train arrive. I saw him snore. With verbs of mental perception + to ex. I believe him to have arrived. She realized him to be a wheeler-dealer. b) verbs of command, desire and permission command, order, tell, direct, ask, wish, desire, want, forbid, permit, let, allow + to exception let + infinitive without to; Leave her be. . She ordered me to leave. A.C.I. c) verbs of causation cause, get, make, have, force, compel + to I forced them to leave. Exceptions: After make and have no to. I had him mow the lawn. I made him leave the room. With help with to and without to both are correct. The WO in ACI is normally accusativis then infinitivus. The reverse WO is sometimes also possible. Usually after the verb let. Ex. He let fall the book. She let go my hand. There is a certain rivalry between the ACI and the participial ing structure. I saw him run. I saw him running. Dry fact ( ) the process ( ) B) Nominativus cum Infinitivo. NCI is in a way passive variant of the ACI. cf. I saw him run. (ACI) He was seen to run (NCI) A major difference between the ACI and NCI is that the former is an integral, continuous, uninterrupted structure, whereas the latter is split discontinuous structure. Another difference is that the particle to is retained in most cases in the NCI but not in the ACI. A third difference is that the ACI is used in active voice sentences while the typical usage of the NCI is after passive verbs. However, in some cases, the NCI may also appear with intransitive verbs in the active voice: seem, appear, happen, chance. Ex. She seems to like it. He happened to arrive on time. Also after phrases like be sure, be certain, be likely ex. She is likely to like it. He is sure to be late. C) the forto construction this structure is a means of providing the infinitive with clearly expressed (explicit) subject. It may have the following functions in the : a) a S For John to marry this girl would be a disaster. b) a predicative The best thing is for them to take the appropriate measures. c) an attribute I gave permission for him to go. d) object He proposes for you to leave immediately. e) adv mod She stretched out her hand for me to hold it. 2. NC with ing form. The ing form is featured in the following nexus constructions: a) an extrapositional attribute = loose attribute. This is a supplementive clause with a covert subject which refers to the main subject of the . Ex. Saying no word, he gave her a kick. Loose attribute S b) absolute construction this is a supplementive clause having its own subject. Ex. Nobody saying a word, they left the room. Absolute constructions can be verbless ex. The lecture over, they went home. Pipe in mouth he sat by the fire. c) unattached participle in this case the ing form has no subject of its own and refers to no specific reference (only general reference, not to somebody but to anybody in general). Ex. Looking up the hill a cottage is seen. Such structures are rare but their use is relatively frequent is certain set phrases. Ex. Barring accidents he should be here by five. d) nexus object its in a rivalry with ACI cf. I saw him run. I saw him running. 3. NC with the past participle. A) extrapositional attribute. Broken in spirit he retired to his castle. B) absolute construction The talks finished they retired to the hotel. C) unattached participle = dangling modifier. Once married, what could people do. D) nexus object They found the house burned to the ground

3. Word Order (WO) (Synt) The WO of the Eng is rather fixed and rigid because it is extensively employed for signaling the syntagmatic relations which it other languages are marked by morphological means. The basic WO pattern of a language is that of a declarative non-negative, nonemphatic clause, S-V-X, where X is O or C. There are two kinds of deviations from this basic WO pattern: A) inversion involves the S and verb: SVX VSX. B) dislocation - when X is shifted to initial position: SVX XSV (dislocation inversion) SVX XVS (dislocation + inversion). Dislocation and inversion are two fundamentally different phenomena. Inversion has primarily grammatical function to denote that a is not declarative. Dislocation has a primarily communicative function to denote emphasis. There are two types of inversion: a) functional inversion It has grammatical function. Ex. He is here. Is he here? = question forming. b) non-functional (dislocational) inversion caused by diclocation ex. I had hardly seen her. Hardly had I seen her. Inversion can also be full and partial: a) full inversion Vfull S ex. Long live peace. Here comes the sun. b) partial inversion - Vaux S -Vfull ex. Hardly had I seen her. Functional Inversion (grammatical function). This inversion serves to indicate that the is anything but declarative. This may occur: a) in questions ex. He is . Is he?, b) in optative s usually with the auxiliary may ex. May you never see the light of day. (partial inversion), also in some fossilized phrases: ex. Long live peace! So be it! (full inversion). c) in imperative s but only of the negative type with the S you (enhanced prohibition) ex. Dont you do that! (partial inversion), d) in exclamatory s. Here inversion occurs in very rare cases, only in literary style ex. How boring is this movie!, e) in conditional clauses, when if is dropped ex. Had I had money I would have married. Dislocational inversion (caused by dislocation). This kind is best studied along with the different types of dislocation: 1) dislocation of the S since the S is normally in initial position it would be illogical to speak of its dislocation. It makes sense to speak of dislocation only in the case of the complex discontinuous S with anticipatory it. ex. It is easy to deny things you dont understand. (normal case) To deny things you dont understand is easy. (dislocation of the S), 2) dislocation of the verb since placing the verb in front of the S would mean inversion the only possibility of dislocation of the verb without marking the as inverted is in the so called existential s with there ex. There arrived a stranger in the town. There is inversion here but it doesnt mark non-declarativeness of the . 3) dislocation of the O: a) with inversion when the O is accompanied by a negative or limiting modifier ex. Not a word did he say. Neg mod O Vaux S Hardly a hint did she drop. Limit mod O Vaux S b) without inversion b.1) when the O is (or is accompanied by) a stress demonstrative pronoun ex. Can you drink? That I can. Do you know that song. That song I know. b.2.)in colloquial exclamatory expressions ex. A fine trade you are learning! b.3) in expressions of contrast with some some or some others ex. Some things I can do others I cunt. b.4) in cases of link emphasis ex. I wanted to solve the problem, and solved the problem I did. SVO OSVaux. 4) Dislocation of the Pr: a) with inversion a.1) in connection with negative or quantitative modifiers. Ex No coward was he. a.2) in concessive clauses ( ) with as ex. Tired as was the man, he persisted. N.B. There is no inversion however if the S is a pronoun. Ex. Tired as he was, he persisted. b) without inversion b.1) when Cs is a stressed demonstrative ex. He is a shit. That he is. b.2) with link emphasis ex. I expected her to be a bitch, and a bitch she was. b.3) in exclamatory s ex. Right you are! However in literary style inversion does not take place in such exclamations. Ex. Green is the valley, blue is the sky! 5) Dislocation of the AM since the AM is relatively dynamic part of the it is not so fixed as the other parts; of interest are only the cases of its placing in initial position with inversion. a) when the AM has negative or restrictive meaning. Ex. Hardly had he done anything wrong. (restrictive) Never had she been there. (negative) b) when AM is an adverb of degree of frequency ex. Often have I lain there. c) when the AM is expressed by the demonstrative adverbs thus and so ex. Thus did the story end. So shall we finish the lecture. Other cases of inversion: 1) when a statement is repeated with a substitute verb. But only when the S of the repeated statement differs from the S of the original statement ex. Im tired. So am I. (different referents) cf. You look tired. So I am. (same referent no inversion). 2) there is full dislocational inversion when the postfix of the phrasal verb is placed initially. ex. Out went the lights, in rushed the guests. 3) inversion in dialogue, in the comment phrase. Ex. No, said he/he said inversion is possible but not obligatory. Here inversion is acceptable only with more common verbs like: say, reply, continue, etc. and should be avoided with less common verbs like: murmur, add, marvel, declare ex. No, he added/*added he. Inversion here is impossible when the common phrase is more complex. a) when the comment phrase contains an O ex. No he said to me/*said he to me, b) when the comment phrase contains a compound verb form, ex. No said he/he has said/*has he said.

4. The Subject (Synt) The S is the first main part of the and together with the predicate it constitutes the predicative bond which is the structural backbone of the . The S is what the is about. This definition is relatively acceptable with some exceptions notably in personal s. Ex. its raining, where it is not the is about. A more structured definition of the S should take into account at least three parameters. A) meaning, b) syntactic relations and c) morphological realizations. Thus the S is: a) the thing (including abstract notions) whose features or actions are /being/ described by the predicate, b) a main part which does not depend on other constituents and is in a special agreement with the predicate called subject-verb concord. It also takes initial place in the clause clause initial position, c) a typically nominal constituent or any constituent that has been substantivized. Ex. And is a conjunction here and functions as S. Types of Ss. I. Semantically 1. Agentive S Ex. John broke the window. 2. Instrumental S Ex. A stone broke the window. 1 and 2 Ss cannot be coordinated ex. * John and a stone broke the window. 3. Affected S a) the subject in non-volitional actions ex. He fell down. B) in the so called medial s. ex. The chicken is cooking. C) in normal passive structures/s where affected = patient ex. The window was broken by John a patient S agentive complement 4. Recipient S a) with verbs of possession: have, own, possess ex. Marry has a dog. B) with verbs of nonvolitional sense perception: see (but not look at), hear (but not listen to), smell (not always), taste (not always). Usually such s do not have imperative and progressive form in English and do not take adverbial manner ex. *Quickly she saw the rabbit. C) in passive s with recipient S ex. The girl was given a book by the boy. Recipient S |O. pat| C.ag 5. Locative S The city is clouded. 6. Temporal S It denotes time ex. Yesterday was a holiday. 7. Eventive S It denotes event ex. The wedding is on Monday. Morphological realizations of the S 1. A noun-phrase (N-Ph) the prototypical S constituent ex. Blood is thicker than water. Here we have simple N-Ph. The girl you were talking to is my sister. Here we have a complex N-Ph. 2. Finite clause a) that clause ex. That his wife left him doesnt make him unhappy. B) Wh clause ex. What was said above is horseshit. 3. Non-finite clause a) With to+infinitive ex. To say this in public is stupid. N.B. If the infinitive has a S of its own it has to be introduced by for ex. For John to marry Alice would be the ultimate bliss. B) with an ing form ex. Saying that you are sorry wont help you. 4. Anticipatory it+a finite or a non-finite clause To say this in public is stupid It is stupid to say this in public. There are different approaches as to what the S is. A) it is the formal grammatical S whereas to say this is the notional() S. Features of it as a true S: 1.initial position, 2.involved in inversion and negation. But it is not what the is about, B) it is the S (for reasons given above). stupid is the S complement and to say this is apposition. C) in this case we have a complex discontinuous S It is stupid to say this |___________| Discontinuous Subject 5. Unstressed there it is a S in the so-called existential s ex. There is a can under the table. Typically there is followed by be. A) The status of there is arguable here. there is like a true S because (see it). B) The best view here is that there is a discontinuous S. N.B. Structures with there are very important in English because they make it possible to shift the real S in postverbal position. This may be necessary for pragmatic reasons when the S is very clumsy and big and has to be placed at the end ex. There came the day when we finally met after 5 years of negotiations.

5. Predicate (Synt) I. Definition: the P. is the second main part of the and together with the S it constitutes the predicative bond which is the structural backbone of the . It ascribes features to the S and relates to the temporal characterization of the state of affairs. Normally the P is a verb as a part of speech but there are also verbless predications. II. Types of Ps structurally there are simple and compound Ps. Morphologically there are verbal and nominal Ps. The combinations of the structural and morphological parameters yields four types: simpleverbal, simple-nominal, compound-verbal, and compound-nominal. Simple-Verbal P (S-V P) is a finite verb in simple or compound tense form ex. She opened the door. The door has been opened. S-V P S-V P The latter counts as simple because, despite the fact, that there are three verb forms, there is in fact one composite form of the verb open, it is one sense unit, one discontinuous verb form. A sub-type of the S-V P is the so called phraseoligical P. This type comprises two elements a verb with vague meaning like make, take etc. + verbal noun the two elements, however, make one sense unit and cannot be analyzed separately. There are two sub-types here: a) finite verb + indefinite article + verbal noun. Ex Have a smoke/swim/look. Give a smile. Take a walk. This type indicates a momentary action and is one of the major means in English of compensation for the lack of distinction - / . B) vague finite verb + notable absence + abstract noun + preposition (usually of). Ex To get rid of. To catch sight of. To make fun of. To pay attention to. Simple-Nominal P (S-N P) it consists of a noun or adjective without link verb. There are two types: a) in exclamations expressing absurdity ex. She clever! He a gentleman! She a bitch! Such expressions are not to be treated as elliptical s with a supposedly missing verb because if this missing verb is inserted then the meaning would be radically different. cf (compare) She is clever She clever! B) colloquial expressions like Nice thing beer! Quite serious all this. Such expressions may be treated as elliptical s because the insertion of a link verb does not change the meaning of the expression although the communicative effect would not be quite the same. Compound-Verbal P (C-V P) it comprises two verb forms each bearing separate lexical meaning; the two elements are semi-auxiliary and a notional part. The notional form is an infinitive or an -ing form and it denotes the action of the P; the semi-auxiliary has either modal or aspective meaning and it is a finite verb form. Aspective has to do with the manner of the verbal action, the way the verbal action takes place. Relevant distinctions here are beginning of action, ending, duration, stopping, fading etc. As a consequence of the above there are two main types of C-V P depending of the meaning of the semi-auxiliary part: A) modal C-V P, B) aspective C-V P. The meaning of the modal C-V P can be rendered by the following structures, a.1) modal verb + infinitive: can work, may come, would not speak, a.2) verb with a modal meaning + infinitive or -ing form. Verbs with modal meanings are: want, wish, long, crave, desire, hope, intend, etc. a.3) be or have + infinitive He is to arrive tomorrow. He has to arrive tomorrow. a.4) be going + infinitive Hes going to arrive tomorrow. Here belong phrases like had better/best, would rather ex. Id rather stay but Id better go. B) Aspective C-V P in this case the semi-auxiliary denotes beginning, ending, duration, etc. Verbs with aspective meaning are: start, keep, cease, proceed, go, stop, - ex. He began reading/to read. C-V P Compound-Nominal P (C-N P) it consists of a link verb + predicative (subject complement = Cs). The Cs is the notional part She is a teacher. V link Cs P Cs relates to the S. The link verb (V link) connects the S and the Cs and is usually void of lexical meaning. There are cases, however, when V link features some vestige of lexical meaning. Ex. She married young = She married and she was young. In this case the verb married functions both as a V link and as a full lexical verb. Such cases are known as double predicates. The V link can also be in the passive. Ex He was found guilty. V link The gradation of weaking of the lexical meaning of the V link can be demonstrated in the following examples: a) she went away a child. Double P it has retained lexical meaning b) People go naked in the beach. Less lexical meaning, almost delexicalized but not quite c) He went mad. No meaning of movement = pure V link.

6. Predicative (Pr) = Subject Complement (Cs) (Synt) Cs is a part of the C-N P. ex She is nice. He grew pale. Cs denotes features of the S, it completes the meaning of the V link by referring back to the S. Ex. He is a teacher. _______| completes Typically the Cs is an adjectival or nominal constituent but the prototypical Pr is adjectival because the adj. is a linguistic element that denotes cha-tics and features. Classification: 1. According to the meaning of the V link. A) Stative Prs (Prs of being) they denote a permanent quality of the S ex. She looks nice nice in connection with looks denote a stative feature. The prototypical V link is be. All others are reducible to be and can be reinterpreted in terms of be. B) Dynamic Prs (Prs of becoming) these denote a change, transition in the features or qualities of the subject. The prototypical V link here is to become and all others are reducible to it. Ex. He grew pale = He became pale. 2. According to the degree of integration between the V link and the Pr: A) Extrapositional Pr. ex- There he sat, a giant among dwarfs. This kind resembles the apposition. B)the supplementary predicative (S Pr) ex. He married young. Here the connection between the V link and the Pr is more intimate than the extrapositional; the V link nevertheless has retained some of its base lexical meaning and has a double function in this case lexical meaning + link function. Such cases are called double Prs. S Prs. Can also be used with active or passive verbs (active in form and passive in meaning) ex. The house sold dear. The S Pr occurs also after passive forms. ex The door was painted green. C) true Prs. (T Pr) the V link is almost void of lexical meaning and is nothing but a link between the S and the Cs. Ex. She looks happy. The T Pr unlike the two other types is inseparably bonded with the V link. In some cases a particular V link can function with S Pr or T Pr. Ex. to stand. C.1) He stood godfather to the child. C.2) She stood 6 feet in her stockings. With C.1. we have T Pr. the verb is void of lexical meaning and the bond is inseparable. With C.2 we have vestigial lexical meaning in the verb (standing upright) a S Pr. The verbs which typically take Pr of being belong to three major groups: verbs of appearance seem, appear, look, show ex The house showed white in the distance, verbs of taste sound, feel, taste ex The soup tastes sour, and verbs of continuance continue, remain, rest ex They continued friends. Typical verbs of becoming are become, grow, get these are inchoative verbs. Also verbs of motion come, turn, run, go ex She went mad. Morphological realization: 1. Since the Cs ascribes features to the S the prototypical Cs is adjectival. Hence the first and most typical realization is an adjective phrase. Ex. Everything went black single adjective phrase. He appeared glad to see me compound adjective phrase, consisting of a head glad and a modifier to see me. Adj Prs can function with passive V links. Ex Mr. Smith was found guilty. 2. A noun phrase is the second most common realization of the Pr. Ex. His death remained a mystery. a mystery simple noun phrase. Acapulco is the best place there to spend a holiday. the best place head, to spend a holiday a modifier. Her son came home a decrepit wreck double Pr. The Cs in passive s corresponds to the objective Complement (Co) of active voice s. ex. They elected him chairman. Him direct object, chairman Co. He was elected chairman. Chairman Cs. Here we may have cases with as ex The victim was identified as mayors son. 3. Prepositional phrase can also be a Pr. (rare case) ex. He looks of about my age. 4. A finite clause ex His theory is that women are O.K. sometimes. We can have a Pr introduced by as ex. Things remained as they have been in the past. 5. A nonfinite clause two types: a) infinitive clauses usually preceded by to ex His ambition is to become a doctor. In some cases introduced by wh word ex. The problem is where to find her. In rare cases possible without to. Ex. What I usually do is go out and buy ax. N.B. If the infinitive has an explicit S of its own it should be introduced by for ex. The thing to do is for us to take the stone, B) ing clauses. may or may not have an explicit S ex Her conduct was putting the cart before the horse. The most surprising thing was John being elected chairman. It is an interesting phenomenon that nouns may acquire adj-val features when used in the function of Pr. This is due to the fact that the prototypical Pr is adj-val and thats why if a noun has the same function it may resemble the adj. This change of nouns towards adjs can be observed in the following cases: A) the noun may take degrees of comparison which finds expression by different meanings. Ex Im not philosopher enough to solve this. B) neutralization of gender since gender is not an absolutely relative category for English an appropriate parameter for noun is animate vs. inanimate which does not apply to adjs. By neutralization we actually refer to neutralization of animateness. So this parameter can be indirectly manifested by means of the relative pronouns which vs. who. Ex. When a good person, which my friend was, leaves you become sad. Which (not who) refers to good person and indicates its conception as inanimate entity similar to an adj. C) loss of definition of article this is not always the case but it happens. It indicates the adj-val nature of Prs. Ex. He turned traitor. He stood sentry. D) possessive pronouns lose their determinative force. This is best seen in Bg-an. Ex. My friend came to see me. = He is my friend = .

7. Object (O) (Synt) Os are part of the complementation of the verb. They complete the meaning and refer to or denote two participants directly or directly or indirectly affected by the v-al action. Typically Os are nominal constituents. The whole set of verbal complements are complements on the one hand and Os on the other. Os are complements of transitive verbs and depending on the relation to the verbal action they are sub-divided into Od (direct object directly affected by the verbal action), Oi (indirect object - indirectly aff) and benefective object which is very similar to Oi. If there is only one O in the , it must be Od and such verbs are called monotransitive verbs. Verbs that take 2 Os are ditransitive and in most cases they take 1 Oi + 1 Od. The Oi always precedes the Od. Ex. I gave the girl a dick. The Oi can be recognized by its position. Such exs, however, are not typical. The typical case is when the Oi is animate whereas the Od is inanimate. And then the distinction anim vs. inanim helps differentiate between the recipient and the thing received. English demonstrates a universal tendency: [animate] > [inanimate]. Thats why if two elements are structurally identical the animate one would come closer to the verb. This is due to the fact that language is an androcentric phenomenon (created by and centred around and on ppl). There is only one exception to this rule when the Os are pronouns then the Od may precede the Oi ex I gave the girl a dick I gave it to her. If, however, the two Os are structurally different then there is a tendency for the simper structure to come first. Ex. N.P. > P.P (prep phrase) I gave a dick to the girl. Ditransitive verbs are usually verbs like: to give, to show, to send, which take 1 Oi (Ob) + 1 Od. Diagnostic features for Oi are: 1. It cant stand alone, it must be accompanied by Od. 2. It can be paraphrased by means of a prep structure with to and for. There is however a small group of ditransitive verbs where the distinction Od vs. Oi is neutralized. Such verbs do not need these criteria. These verbs are: to teach smbd smth, to forgive smbd smth, to ask, to envy etc. ex. I forgave my husband his stupidity. Any of these two Os can stand alone hence none of them needs criterion 1. Also if we try to paraphrase the suspected Oi (my husband) we get the following . I forgave the stupidity to my husband.*hence it does not need the criterion 2 either. Therefore there is no Oi with verbs of this group. Such verbs should be treated as cases with 2 Ois. Vtr+Od1+Od2 where one of the Os is anim and the other is inanim. This means that the animacy hierarchy would come into effect here on two occasions (at least): 1. The word order anim+inanim ex. I envied my friend his car. *I envied the car my friend. 2. In the passive. Theoretically any O can be paraphrased into S in the passive but with these verbs only the passive with the anim O would be widely used, whereas the passive with the inanim one would be marginal. Ex. My friend was envied the car. The car was envied my friend.? The passive paraphrase is a viable test for the Ohood of a constituent. So any O in Eng can be paraphrased as a passive S. ex. She was given a book. A book was given to her. The children were looked after in this case even the prep O has been paraphrased as a passive S. Passivization in Eng is extremely flexible and is acceptable as long as there is the slightest idea of affectedness not only with Os but even with adv. modifiers. Ex. Napoleon has slept in this bed. This bed has been slept by Napoleon. affectedness = make famous hence, if a constituent in Eng can undergo passivization this is considered an indication of its Ohood (at least some degree of affectedness). Semantic types of Os semantically there are different contents for the Od and for the Oi. A) the Od can be a.1.) an affected participant referring to a person or thing which is directly affected or otherwise involved in the verbal action. This is the typical role of the Od. Ex Jack broke the bottle. affected Od a.2.) effected participant/Od. It denotes smth which exist by virtue or comes as a result of the verbal action. Ex Jack invented the bottle. The difference between a.1. and a.2. is a covert category which can be only indirectly attested by the so called do to test. cf. What did Jack do to the bottle? a) he broke it o.k. affected, b) he invented it - * effected. The type effected or affected is determined by the semantic contents of the verb. a.3. Locative Od it denotes location. In most cases this type results from prep phrases where the preposition has become redundant. This is a phenomenon that seems to be gaining ground in Eng. Ex. To walk the streets (along, through). In Bg-rian to much less a degree. . A.4. cognate Od. This type is from the same or similar root as the verb. ex To sing a song. To dream a dream. A.5. Os of extent or measure ex. 1. To run a mile. 2. The car weighs a ton. 3. The blouse costs 10$. These are called so by Quirk. But other grammars offer another treatments especially for the 2-nd and 3-rd exs. Here the Os are called predicator complements. (a predicator complement is an indispensable addition to the verb without which the verb cannot function or its meaning would be different). Semantic types of Oi: 1. The most typical role of the Oi is that of a recipient and it is invariably animate. cf. I found your mother a place in the room. recipient Oi | Od | *I found the TV set a place in the room. - Because the TV set is inanimate. The correct version of this is: I

found a place for the TV set in the room. 2. In rare cases as an exception we may have expressions like: I gave the door a kick. an affected Oi effected Od Morphological realization of Os. The main distinction here is between non-prepositional and prepositional Os. N.B. Od and Oi are both non-prer-nal. There is no such a thing as prep Oi. The prep-nal O can be mistaken for the prep adv-al modifier. cf. He looked at the girl. The girl was looked at. passive, possible only with prep Os. Hence at the girl a prep O. ex. He waited at the corner. *The corner was waited at. A prep adv-al modifier. The preposition of the prep O is determined (governed) by the verbal semantics. Whereas the preposition of the adv-al modifier does not depend on the verbal semantics, it is determined of the semantics of the adv-al modifier itself. Another morphological type is the complex O which consists of two parts which together from one syntactic unit. The prototypical Oc is the nexus O. (contains a non-finite verb form) ex I saw him run/running. In some grammars the combination Od +Co is also treated as a complex object but this is arguable. Ex. She made him happy. There is one more variety of Oc the prep Oc with the forto construction. Ex They waited for the lecture to be over.

8. Attributes (Synt) This is a secondary part of the which accompanies another constituent. The A is not included in the 5 major constituents SVACO. The constituent to which the A refers is called its antecedent or head and the relation between A and head is an attributive relation between an entity and its features. This relation should be distinguished from the Pr relation. Since the A denotes features the typical A is adj and the typical antecedent is nominal. Syntactically the head of the A can be a S, O, Pr or sometimes adv. modifier. Types of A: 1. According to position: a) prepositive A, b) postpositive A. When dealing with translations one should be careful because there are certain asymmetrical discrepancies between Eng and Bg-an. In some cases Eng allows large prepositive A, which have to be rendered by postpositive ones in Bg-an. Ex. A mid-thirties car. 30-. And vice-versa. Sometimes in Bg-an prepositive A with non-finite verb forms especially participles are quite common but they are to be avoided in Eng. Ex. . The house destroyed by a bomb. 2. Semantically: a) restrictive they are essential for identifying the antecedent. Ex From all cars in the garage my friend bought the green car. b) non-restrictive they simply convey additional info which is not essential for identifying the antecedent. Ex. My blond husband is very silly. Morphological realization: I. prepositive As can be realized by the following items: a) an adj. ex. delightful cottage, b) a participle: crumbling cottage and completed cottage, c) an s possessive form a fishermans cottage, d) a noun phrase a country cottage, e) adv-al phrase a far away cottage, f) a clause a what-do-you-call-it cottage. II. Postpositive As are typically realized by nonfinite verbs structures (nexus constructions) 1. Present participle Ex. The dog barking next door is a bitch., The tree, swaying in the breeze, had a lot of fruit. 2. Past participle ex The car repaired last night is mine. The substance, discovered almost by accident, has revolutionized medicine. 3. The infinitive: ex The first train to arrive was from Siuey Liuey. The scholar, to be seen daily in the library, chokes the bishop on a regular basis. 4. Prepositional phrase can also be a postpositive A. Ex The road to London The girl in the corner The possessive form with of also belongs here. Ex The chimney of the house. 5. Adjs some adjs, usually under French influence, can also be postpositive As. This is marginal type: blood royal, time immemorial, court marshal, knight errant. Some adjs on -ble can also follow the antecedent (which does not mean that they cannot precede it). Ex Darkness impenetrable filled the room. 6. A single adv can also be in a postposition. Ex The road back.

tomorrow. Will he be here tomorrow. Yes, probably. Hence disjunct. 9. The Adverbial Modifier (Synt) I. Definition: the AM is a secondary part of the characterizing the verbal action as to time, place, manner, intensity, quality, condition, purpose, etc. The AM describes the circumstances for the verbal action. II. Classifications: 1. According to meaning this is basically a semantic classification but it also has some syntactic relevance especially in connection with word order (WO) which is more or less fixed to the following pattern: AM time S-V A manner. A place. A time. AM can be: a) of place and direction ex To live in England, To go to England, b) of time and frequency ex At 5 oclock, usually, never. AMs of frequency have special position in the clause: always before the verb but after the verb be and between the first auxiliary and the rest of the predicate. Ex. I usually go there. I am usually there. I am usually walking my dog at 5 oclock these days. c) of manner ex. He opened the window carefully. d) of purpose ex. He stopped to have a drink. e) of cause ex. I was stiff with long waiting. f) of result ex. She looked back to see them coming. g) condition ex. If you love me Ill buy thee a car. h) of concession ex. In spite of the quarrel they remained friends. I)of subsequent events ex. They went to the country to find their house burned to the ground. j) of attending circumstances ex. The sun shining brightly, they went out for a walk. 2. According to morphological realization: a) an adv the most typical ex. They often stayed there. b) a noun phrase ex He visited us last week. c) prepositional phrase ex. He stayed at a hotel. The prepositional adverbial modifier (PAM) is similar to the prepositional O and they can be mixed up sometimes. cf. I waited at the corner. Adv. mod He looked at the girl. Prep O Despite the superficial similarity there is a major difference between such cases. The preposition of the AM does not depend on the verbal semantics, its determined by the semantics of the AM itself. Thats why one and the same verb can be followed by different PAMs. Ex. I waited at the corner/under the table/on my back. On the other hand, the preposition of the prepositional O is determined (governed) by the verbal semantics. Hence one verb can take only preposition ex Look at, wait for, look after, wait on. d) non-finite verb clause (nexus) ex. The weather being fine, they went out for a walk. He struggled to achieve success. e) a verbless clause ex. Grateful for my help, they sucked the hell out of my dick. f) finite clause ex. When they saw me they ran away. g) absolute construction (nexus construction with its own S) ex. The meeting over, they fucked their brains away. The job done, we had a blowjob. h) a single noun ex. He waited an hour. In some cases the adv mod can have residual or vestigial meaning of affectedness and in this way be close to an object. The affectedness can be attested by the (im)possibility of passivization. Ex. Nobody has slept in this bed. This bed hasnt been slept in. Passivization is possible due to the residual idea of affectedness the circumstances (the bed) bear some evidence or traces (affectedness) as a result of the verbal action. This phenomenon isnt possible in Bg-an. cf. . Passivization indicates affectedness of the S. Hence the bed is affected. 3. According to head word i.e. to which other constituent the AM relates. Syntactic classification. The AM can refer to: a) a verb the most typical case ex. She greasily blew the hell out of my dick. b) to a verbal noun a noun identical with the verbal stem Ex. He made a jump forward. c) and adj pretty often ex. She was intensely happy. d) to an adverb ex. She feels very well, e) to a - ex. Usually, we milked the billy goats early in the morning. 4. According to the degree of integration of clause structure. Here the main distinction is between the more integrated (adjuncts) and less integrated, peripheral (disjuncts and conjuncts). The test for this distinction is as follows: A: If an AM cannot appear initially in a negative declarative clause it is an adjunct. Ex. They quickly left the room *Quickly they didnt leave the room. Hence quickly is an adjunct. cf. with perhaps. Ex. Perhaps, they didnt leave the room. Hence perhaps is not an adjunct. The logic of this test is that if an AM is closely integrated in the clause then it is affected by clausal processes like negation and interrogation and cannot be extracted to clause-initial position in negative and interrogative clauses. B: If an AM can be contrasted with another AM in alternative interrogation (or negation) then it is an adjunct. Ex. He wen to Sofia on Monday. Alternative interrogation Did he go to Sofia on Monday of Tuesday. Alternative negation He didnt go to Sofia on Monday but on Tuesday. Hence on Monday is adjunct. cf. To my surprise he wen to Sofia. *Did he go to Sofia to my surprise or to your surprise? He didnt go to Sofia to my surprise nor to your surprise. Hence to my surprise is not an adjunct. If an Am doesnt meet both criteria for adjuncts it is either a disjunct or conjunct. Conjuncts are distinguished from disjuncts because they have primarily connective function conjuncts cannot serve as a response to any question. Ex. We sent him an invitation. Therefore, he will be here tomorrow. Will he be here tomorrow? *Yes, therefore. Hence therefore is a conjunct. If an AM can serve as a response to a yes/no question, it is a disjunct. cf. Probably he will be here 10.Compound sentence (Synt) According to their structure s are subdivided into simple and composite. simple s have only one S-P group(a set of two main parts-subject and predicate), whereas composite s contain more than one clause. Composite s are further subdivided into compound and complex sentences. The compound is structured on the basis of coordination coordinated clauses, while the complex is structured on the basis of subordinationsubordinated clauses. While co-ion is a linking together (by means of conjunctions) of two or more elements of equivalent status and function, subordination is a non-symmetrical relation, holding b/n two clauses X and Y in such a way that Y is a constituent or part of X. The term coordination is used by some grammarians for both syndetic coordination - when explicit indicators of coion are present - and asyndetic one when the relationship of co-ion is not marked overtly. Explicit indicators of coordination are called coordinators. ex. 1. Slowly and stealthily, he crept towards his victim. (syndetic co-ion) 2. Slowly, stealthily, he crept towards his victim.(asyndetic co-ion) the possibility of inserting the coordinator and is evidence that the construction is syndetic coordination. Explicit indicators of subordination are termed subordinators. Both co-ion and s-ion involve the linking of units, but in co-ion the units are constituents of the same level whereas in subordination they are on different levels. ex. his first and best novel- (co-ion), premodifiers of novel; his first good novel- (sub-ion),first does not modify novel directly; it modifies good novel and good in turn modifies novel. Differences b/n co-ion and sub-ion: 1. In subordinate clauses the inf. is not asserted, but presupposed as given. 2. Only with coordination can the order of the two constituents be changed without a consequent change in the semantic relationship of the units. * Coordinators are and, or, and but. The two or more clauses that may be coordinated are termed conjoins. Of the three coordinators, and is the least restricted in its role as coordinator of clauses and but the most restricted. * Semantic implications of coordination by and. And denotes merely a relation b/n the clauses. The only restriction is the semantic one that the contents of the clauses should have sufficient in common to justify their combination, i.e. there should be connection b/n the semantic content of the clauses to motivate their combination, otherwise a nonsense will occur. ex. * The people went out for a walk and the equator is equally distant from the two poles. With and we have eight types of semantic implication: 1. The 2nd clause is a consequence or result of the 1st. We have chronological sequence. Ex. He heard an explosion and he (therefore) called the police. 2. The 2nd clause is chronologically sequent to the 1st, but without any implication of causeresult relationship. Ex. She washed the dishes and (then) she dried them. 3. The 2nd clause introduces a contrast. And could be replaced by but. Ex. Robert is secretive and (in contrast = but) is candid. 4. The 2nd clause is a comment on the 1st. ex. They disliked John and thats not surprising. 5. The 2nd clause is surprising and the 1st has concessive force. Ex. He tried hard and (yet) he failed. Here too but can replace and. The use of and creates a special rhetorical effect, enhancing the impression that the 2nd clause is unexpected. 6. The 1st clause is the condition of the 2nd. Ex. Give me some money and (then) Ill help you escape. 7. The 2nd clause makes a point similar to the 1st. ex. A trade agreement should be no problem, and (similarly) a cultural exchange could be arranged. 8. The 2nd clause is a pure addition to the 1st, the only implication being that the two statements are congruent. ex. He has long hair and (also) he wears jeans. Semantic implications of coordination by or: Usually or is exclusive, excluding the possibility of a realization of all but one of the alternatives. ex. You can sleep on the couch in the lounge or you can go to a hotel. Semantic implications of coordination by but. But denotes a contrast. ex. John is poor, but he is happy. * Linking of more than two clauses: and and or can link more than two clauses, and when this is done all but the final instance of these two conjunctions can be omitted. ex. John might take them by car, or Mary might go with them by bus, or I might order a taxi for them. John might take them by car, Mary might go with them by bus.

1. Vowel length (Pho) Since in the formation of a vowel sound no stoppage occurs anywhere, there is no theoretical limit to the length of time taken in producing a vowel, except the necessity for drawing breath, and vowels of the most varied length can be produced. In Bg-an differences of length are not employed phonologically and the various vowels are all roughly the same length and equally short. In Eng, however, differences of vowel length play a very important part, and failure to observe this is the chief cause of bad pronunciation. We can distinguish differences of vowel length combined with differences of quality, and differences of length due to position. As much as the differences of length due to position are concerned it should be borne in mind that in Eng all stressed vowels and diphthongs are appreciably longer when they stand before a voiced consonant than before an unvoiced one. This lengthening is especially noticeable when the consonant is in final position, and it is in fact only owing to its lengthening that the final consonant can retain its voiced quality instead of becoming unvoiced in final position. For voiced consonants differ from unvoiced ones not only in being accompanied by the voice but in being formed with a weaker air stream. In order to achieve the necessary weakening of the air stream its force must be broken by drawing out the preceding vowel sound. It is in fact impossible to produce a true d in a word like bid without either adding a vowel sound after the d, which must be avoided at all costs, or else lengthening the vowel. Although the lengthening is most noticeable before a consonant in final position, it occurs also when an unstressed syllable follows. Thus greasy may be pronounces either [gri:zi] or [gri:si], but in the first case the [i:] is distinctly longer. In this way we can distinguish four different lengths of vowels in Eng: short vowels bit, cot, cup, lengthened short vowels bid, cod, cub, long vowels beat, sort, cart, and lengthened long vowels bead, sawed, card. Actually, however, it might be said that lengthened short vowels and unlengthened long ones are approximately the same length, differing more in quality that in quantity and that there are in fact only three different vowel lengths. Of course it must be borne in mind that in all these cases we are speaking not of the absolute, but the comparative length. The absolute length will depend on the speed with which a person is speaking; in slow speech the absolute length of a short vowel may actually be considerably longer than that of a long vowel in rapid utterance, but whether the speech is slow or rapid these relative differences of length will always be preserved. The length also depends to some extent on the quality of the vowel; closed sounds are as a rule slightly shorter than open ones under similar circumstances, but these differences are of little importance since they depend on psychological tendencies common to all speakers. Apart from these positional lengthenings there is a distinct tendency to lengthen the short vowels in certain more commonly used words, especially [] sounds, to a lesser extent [e] too. For example the adjs bad and sad are generally pronounced with a much longer [] than the less frequent lad or pad. And here one might be inclined to attribute the lengthening to the emotional quality or the adjs. But it is hard to see any emotional quality in the nouns jam and bag that they should be similarly lengthened, though the corresponding words are not. There is even sometimes a lengthening of [] before unvoiced consonants in back and that. A similar lengthening [e] occurs in bed, dead (compared with fed, tread), and especially in yes, which when spoken by itself is almost always long; sometimes of other vowels too in big and good (compared with pig and hood). Further factors determining vowel length are emphatic stress, and also rhythm, which is of considerable importance. Attention to rhythmical lengthening is extremely important for a good pronunciation.

2. Word stress (Pho) Not all parts of a word are pronounced with equal force. In words with more than one syllable, at least one of the syllables will stand out more strongly than the others and is said to bear the stress or accent. The difference between stressed and unstressed syllables is common to all languages, but the rhythm and stresses of English, with its tendency towards words of one syllable, are very different from those of Bulgarian with its polysyllabic flow. Above all the amplitude of the stress, the difference in force b/n stressed and unstressed syllables, is very much greater in English than in Bulgarian. In comparatively recent times large numbers of manysyllabled words have been borrowed from foreign sources, mainly Latin words sometimes of as many as seven syllables, like indivisibility. In such cases its impossible to pronounce all seven syllables with only one stress; the rhythmical principle asserts itself, and besides the main or primary stress a rhythmical differentiation makes itself felt in the unstressed syllable, some of which are more strongly stressed than others, without however rivaling the primary stress in force. In such cases we speak of secondary stress: indivisibility has e.g. stresses on the 1st and 3rd syllables besides the main stress on the 5th ,indiv,izibiliti. Also a large number of words are compounded of two parts, each of which may retain its original stress, as in arm-chair. In such cases we speak of double or level stress. Single stress It is hardly possible to give any definite rules for the position of the main stress in English. In words of native origin it is nearly always the 1 st or the root syllable that is stressed, while in words of Latin origin the main stress is not very often drawn forward beyond the 3 rd syllable from the end, though it may fall on any of the last three. The chief exception to this tendency is when a native suffix like ly or ness is added to a Latin polysyllable with the stress on the 3 rd last syllable grammatically. But there are also foreign suffixes that allow the stress to very early, especially atory in words like masticatory, dilatory, laboratory. One may also note that every word in English has some sort of stress on one of the 1 st two syllables, though it may be only a comparatively weak secondary stress that may even be disregarded in phonetic transcripts. With very few exceptions( refugee, personel), in polysyllables of French origin the stress is usually withdrawn from the final syllable to the preceding secondary stress, which is in fact mostly the 3rd syllable from the end: exercise, ability. There are a considerable number of suffixes that definitely fix the position of the stress. 1. words of recent introduction in esce, -ee, -eer, -ier, -ese, -oon, -esque, -ique, ose, -ie, ette stress the suffix itself: coalesce, absentee, pioneer, grenadier, Chinese, poltroon, picturesque, unique, grandiose, bourgeoisie, coquette. 2. adjs. in ismal and tic stress the penultimate: baptismal, sadistic. 3. words in ion, -ious, -eous, -uous, -ial, -eal, -ual, -ean et al. Stress the syllable immediately before the prefix: occupation, envious, righteous, impetuous, celestial, corporeal, perpetual, Mediterranean. 4. words in ize, -ise [aiz] yse, ate, (verbs only), -ite,-ute, -fy stress the antepenultimate: recognize, exorcise, analyse, (but characterize), investigate, desolate, attitude, satisfy, definite. If however the form consists of only two syllables the original stress on the final syllable is retained: devise, locate, complete, defy, delute etc. 5. the native suffixes like dom, -fold, -ful, -hood, -less, -ly, -ness, -ship, ward etc. have no effect on the stress which remains that of the simplex. Double stress Double stress occurs most frequently with regular compounds in which each part presents a separate idea. The most important prefixes taking double stress are: a) those implying a negative, or the opposite of the simple word: a-, an-, anti-, dis-, in-, im-, il-, ir-, mis-, non-, un-, Except with anti- and non- is more or less optional, and secondary stress may be used instead: amoral, analphabetic, anticlimax, disconnect, insincere, illegal, imperceptible, irregular, misprint, nonpayment, unknown. If the second element is used in a different sense or function from the simplex, single stress will be used: mistake, nonstop. b) those implying a quantitative qualification of verbs and adjs: half-, over-, under-, out-, super-, ultra-; half-done, over-ripe, underestimate, outgeneral, superfine, ultramodern. c) those implying a temporal qualification mainly of verbs and adjs: ante-, pre-, post-, re-; antedate, prepaid, postwar, recover. d) those implying a relationship with nouns, though the resulting form may be used attributively: joint-, inter-, sub-, under-, vice-, arch-; joint-ownership, inter-league, sub-dean, under-secretary, archbishop. e) those implying directions in combinations serving as adverbs and adjs: up-, down-, under-, over-, out-, in-, trans-; upstairs, downstairs, overhead, indoors, outside, trans-Atlantic. When used as attributes many of these forms lose their second stress for rhythmical reasons. f) the numerals compounded with teen (thirteen) form a distinct group that may be included here. A great many of the words with double stress do not always preserve both stresses except in isolation.

3. Basic melodies of Eng intonation (Pho) Intonation may be defined as the variations of pitch within a or breath group, i.e. the part of a contained between two sense pauses. These variations produce a certain melody. But the number of melodies made use of in a given language are not infinite, they can be reduced to a certain number of types, of which there are five main ones in Eng. In Eng the melody is in the main determined by the so called kinetic tones in which the pitch of the voice is lowered or raised, or both lowered and raised within a single syllable hence the name, because the voice is in motion all the time the tone is being formed. Every breath group contains one such kinetic tone which determines the type of melody. For that reason it is also called the nuclear tone of the . The remaining tones within the are in themselves level as a rule, though they are mostly arranged in a definite scale leading down to less frequently up to the kinetic tone, which in normal, unemphatic speech is the last stressed syllable of the breath group. What comes before the nuclear tone mostly the greater part of the - is known as the head of the group, the syllables after the nucleus form the tail. If the group consists of a single monosyllable, head and tail will both be missing, but the essential part of the melody, the kinetic tone, will still remain and since we can recognize 5 types of kinetic tone, we have a corresponding number of melodies. I. The falling tone: `yes, `there (its there). The extent of the fall can express various shades of meaning, from a simple statement to exasperation at somebodys stupidity. II. The rising tone: yes?, there? It expresses either a question or a suggestion that the statement is not finished, that there is something more to follow, or at least that whatever statement has been made is not intended as very definite. III. The fall-rise tone: `yes? (do you really mean to say so?), `there? (is really there?). Since it is fact emphatic form of tone II it mostly expresses the same meaning, but with the addition of doubt, uncertainty, surprise. IV. The rise-fall tone: `yes (of course, its obvious), `there (its there, cunt you see!). The rise-fall often suggests a certain sense of superiority on the part of the speaker, but also, if the whole tone is raised, glad, surprise or enthusiasm. V. The rise-fall-rise tine: ~yes (Im not at all sure that I agree, but well wait to hear the rest), ~there! (you cant possibly mean that its there, do you!). This tone often contains a tone of flattery or ingratiation or sometimes a rather querulous compliant.

2. The Noun (Morph) I. General characteristics: 1. Semantics - The Noun as a word class is the main nominative unit of language. It has the categorial meaning of entity (thing, person, animal, abstract notion). The N has the power by way of nomination to isolate different properties of substances, situations and present them as self dependent entities. Ex. Her words were unexpectedly bitter.(adj.). They were struck by the bitterness of her words.(ab. noun). 2. Form as a grammatical class the N is characterized by a set of formal features which determine its specific status in the paradigm of nomination. Ex. Man man, men, mans, mens (the paradigm) The N class has its word building distinctions:

a)

Typical suffixes. Ex. Discrimination, freedom b) Compound stems. Ex. Passer-by, rainbow, knighterrant c) Nouns produced through conversion, Ex. Walk (N,V) the class of the N discriminates the gram. categories of number, case, gender and article determination. 3. Syntactic functions typical of the N class are the functions of subject and object and sometimes noun modifier (attribute) Ex. A film festival (attribute) Ex. He is a student (subject complement) Ex. They elected him president (object complement) II. Semantic classifications of N. The class of N can be divided into several subclasses depending on the semantic and gram. features of the lexemes. The most important division of N from the point of view of Grammar is into proper and common N. However there is no strict line of demarcation: proper N as Sunday, April, Easter represent concepts that are not strictly speaking unique but recur at regular intervals. On the other hand common N like The Sun except in the language of astronomy denote unique referents. There are nouns like Heaven and Hell which partake to a large extent of the nature of proper nouns. Common N be further subdivided into countable and uncountable. Countable N represent a separate entity, smth. complete in itself which maybe either concrete (material) or abstract (immaterial). Uncountable nouns denote referents of continuous quantity; Uncountable N do not represent definite entities and therefore are indifferent to the category of number. U.N. too maybe subdivided into concrete or abstract. The concrete countable nouns might be also subdivided into individual N and collective nouns (improper family, orchestra, parliament). The U.N. concrete may be subdivided into several mass N and collective nouns proper (furniture, cattle) Proper nouns give the name of some unique individual, place or other entity. Common nouns give the name of a species of things or concepts. DA TABLE! III. Shift of semantic subclasses the classification of N into categories such as proper and improper, countable and uncountable is founded on separate meanings of the nouns. Words are constantly widening the limits of their meaning, often in such a way that they develop a secondary meaning which may represent a diff. category from that of the basic meaning. Ex. Hooligan (family name) Sometimes the connection between the various meanings of the lexeme is still felt. Ex. tin (metal) a tin (metal box). Pr. N. into C. N. The proper noun as a rule gives the name of a unique referent and as a rule it is not capable of forming a plural, nor is it necessary to define it by means of the article. Yet the proper noun may undergo shifts of meaning which will convert it into a common noun, and it will than be treated like any other common noun. This mostly happens in one of the following ways: a) persons bearing the same name. Ex. She was a Stewart. b) persons with similar characteristics. Ex. Edisons and Markonies may thrill the world with astounding novelties. c) by metonymy the mane of the author may stand for his works. Ex. This picture is a Rubens d) parallel forms may exist with geographical names Ex. The two Americas. Common N. into Proper N. Many Pr.N. have developed out of C.N. ex. a smith the Smiths Unc.N. into Count.N. ex. beauty a beauty Unc.N. like pr.N. do not form a plural, nor do they take the article as a rule. By a shift of meaning an Unc.N. can easily be converted into C.N. and will then be treated grammatically as a C.N. This happens: a) a mass word can be used as a countable in the sense of a portion. b) a mass word may be used as a countable in the sense of a particular kind ex. dry wines, a light white wine c) a word of substance may be used by metonymy for something made from it. Ex. cloth a table cloth, copper a copper.

Abstract into concrete nouns - abstract nouns may take on a more concrete meaning becoming countable in this way. Ex. beauty a beauty Concrete into abstract nouns - the opposite development, the transition from the concrete to the abstract is not always separable from the transition, from the countable to the uncountable. Ex. go to bed go to the bed IV. Partitive phrases in spite of the comparative frequency of various shifts of subclasses, not all uncountable nouns can be directly converted into countable nouns. Often we have to resort to various partitive phrases in order to make the meaning of the uncountable nouns individual and concrete. Ex. a piece of advice, of furniture. I. Structure of the noun phrase it consists of several structural positions: determiner (pre-modifier) and head (post modifier). The head position is obligatory within this structure. It is most frequently occupied by a noun. The noun however on its own is only a lexical item. In order to acquire some grammatical status and be included in a larger structure it has to be accompanied by some grammatical determinant (a girl). The indefinite article attributes the indefinite gram. status. The determiner position is obligatory. The pre and post modifying positions are optional. The pre-mod. position can be occupied by an adj. the beautiful girl. A noun can function as a premodifier a film festival. The postmod. position can be occupied by prepositional phrase the beautiful girl at the first desk. By a participial construction the beautiful girl sitting at the first desk. By a relative clause the beautiful girl who is sitting at the first desk. II. Determiners: 1. articles(a, the) the use of the articles is not the only possibility for determining nouns in the gram. sense of the word. There are other lingual units that function in a similar way: possessive, demonstrative, interrogative, indefinite, negative, defining pronouns. These words are called determiners. They constitute a closed system. This means that they are of limited number and their number cannot be expanded by the creation of additional elements. Within this system the articles are central that is they have no function independent of the noun they precede. Furthermore the articles have no lexical meaning of their own but only contribute definite gram. status to the nouns they determine. The dependence is not unilateral. The definite article can occur with common countable and uncountable nouns. a/an can occur only with single nouns. the articles and the rest of the elements in this closed system are closely connected with the nouns they determine. In addition to determiners there is a large number of other items that occur in determinative function in combination with some central determiner. We can divide those units into two groups: pre and post determiners. Predet. are unique in occurring before the determiner. they can be grouped into three varieties: a) all, both, half b) multiplier double, twice, thrice c) fractions Pre-determiners are reciprocally exclusive 2. Can be subdivided into: a) ordinals first, other, last. There are two kinds of patterning with ordinal numbers: first, next + cardinal numbers = first two Second, third and the other ordinals cannot be followed by any quantifier and modify singular countable nouns. cardinals and quantifiers are mutually exclusive. b) Cardinal numbers are used in the following way: one accompanies singular countable nouns, two, three combine with plural countable nouns. ex. all the four brothers are sailors. c) quantifiers many, little, more, several. These are mutually exclusive several occurs without an indefinite article. Ex. several charming girls. Plenty of, a lot of, lots of also function as post determiners. 3. articles with common nouns concrete countable nouns are used with generic reference. When it is used like this the distinction between singular and plural and the distinction between definite and indefinite are gram. irrelevant. Ex. Kittens like to play. A kitten likes to play. 4. common countable nouns used with specific reference. Ex. there is a kitten playing on the sofa. Some kit.. 5. abstract nouns as a rule do not take an article when standing alone. Ex. you must learn to face life seriously sometimes concrete nouns acquire abstract meanings this shift of meaning results in a shift of semantic subclass. Such nouns are treated as uncountable. ex. outside it was night. III. the use of articles with proper nouns proper nouns can be divided into two groups: given and descriptive names. Given are conventional designations that tell us nothing about the referent itself. Descriptive are derived from common noun, usually with some defining modifier. Ex. the US of A. Descriptive names as a rule include an article. The Netherlands, the Ukraine. Names of people are among the most typical examples of given names. When standing alone names of people do not as a rule take an article. If however the name is accompanied by an adj., the use of an article becomes necessary. The definite article is included in the structure of the phrase when the adj. denotes some permanent quality of the referent of the noun. Ex. The immortal Shakespeare. Exceptions: the adj. young, old, poor, little do not take the article because they are considered to be forming part of the name itself.

3. Number (Morph) I. Definition number is a grammatical category of the English noun based on the functional opposition of two categorial sets of forms: singular and plural. The term singular is used when the noun refers to a single individual, place, object, and notion. The meaning of the singular form is one. The term plural is applied when the noun is used to refer to more than one individual, place, object, and notion. Therefore the opposition of singular vs. plural is semantically an opposition between one vs. more than one. In regard of the category of number all English nouns ca be divided into two major groups: Variable nouns have two forms, and invariable nouns have only one form which may be either singular or plural. Within the group of invariable nouns we have to distinguish between singular and plural. Within the group of the singular we can recognize the following subgroups: a) mass nouns (silver, milk) b) uncountable abstract nouns (love, hate) c) proper nouns (John, the Danube) d) some nouns in s (news, physics) e) substantivised adj. abstract noun (the good, the evil) Singular invariable nouns are always associated with singular verb forms. Plural invariable nouns always require plural verb forms. Here belong the following subgroups: a) summation pl. nouns (trousers, glasses) b) some proper nouns (the Balkans, the Netherlands) c) some nouns in s (thanks, goods) d) unmarked pl. nouns (kettle, police) e) substantivised adj. :personal plural II. patterns of pl. formation variable nouns employ various patterns of pl. formation a) regular (books, boxes) b) voicing (house, houses) it affects spelling as well as pronunciation. c) en pl. form (ox, oxen) d) mutation (man, men) change in the root vowel e) zero pl. (aircraft, series, Chinese) f) forcing pl. patterns many loan words still retain their pl. ending (datum- data) III. nouns of differentiated pl. There are countable nouns the pl. form of which has developed a meaning altogether different from the meaning of the sg. form (arm-arms). Uncountable nouns sometimes can develop pl. forms with differentiated meaning (regard-regards). Pl. of compound nouns (waterfall-waterfalls) IV. nouns of measure. When a noun of measure is not preceded by a numeral it follows the pattern of pl. formation (thousands of people). If the noun of measure is preceded by a numeral the pl. remains unmarked (two hundred books). Phrases with nouns of measure are often used as pre-mod., in this case they occur in as form which is unmarked for the plural (a five dollar bill). Sometimes mass nouns occur in the pl. This use is stylistically marked (the waters of the Nile). V. subject verb concord. Verbs functioning as predicate agree in number and person with the noun subject. This phenomenon is morphologically realized in three different ways: a) gram. concord: sg. noun accompanied by a sg. verb b) notional agreement (the public are tired of false promises) c) proximity (neither the teacher nor the students have the key to that door neither the students nor the teacher has the.) VI. rules of agreement: a) prepositional phrases modifying the subject do not affect subject-verb agreement. (the chair on which you are sitting is broken) b) relative clauses modifying the subject do not affect subject-verb agreement (a person who reads a lot of books enlarges his knowledge) c) defining pronouns such as everybody/one require a sg. verb form (everyone is enjoying themselves) d) after or, nor the verb agrees with the noun immediately preceding it. e) names of countries are treated as sg. units and require sg. verb forms (the USA is a great country) f) in collective sports the name as of countries are associated with plural verb forms (France were doing their best to win the cup) g) with units of time, distance and money sg. verbs should be used (two hundred levs is too expensive for a coat). h) link verbs should agree with the subject in person and number. (his subject is mammals) i) the determiners all/some/most of agree in number with the noun immediately following them. (some of the students failed)

of two syllables ending in y(happy), -er(clever), -le(gentle), -ow(narrow) employ gram. endings er, -est. the rest of the two syllable adj. usually express comparison analytically. Exceptions are common and pleasant(-er, -est). Some adj. have irregular form of comparison. Ex. good better best; near nearer nearest(next).

4. Case (Morph) I. Definition - it is a gram. category of the noun which denotes relations of the noun to other words in the sentence. Case in English is based on the functional opposition of two categorial sets of forms: common case form and genitive case form. The common case form is unmarked. It denotes various relations of the noun to the verb in larger syntactic structures. Ex. Tom(unmarked pr.n.) is a student(unmarked com.n.). The genitive case form denotes the relation of the noun to another noun within a phrase. Ex. Toms arrival. The genitive case is formed by means of : 1. the apostrophe s an hours walk 2. the apostrophe alone My friends house. 3. plural nouns that follow irregular plural patterns attach the apostrophe s womens college 4. proper names ending in s may take the apostrophe s ending or only the apostrophe when they are written. However, s should be pronounced. Ex. Burns/Burnss poems. 5. the gram. ending marking genitive case can be attached not only to a single noun but also to a noun phrase or to a group of nouns. ex. My neighbors childs toy. II. The number of nouns which may be used in the genitive case form is limited. The form commonly occurs with animate nouns denoting human beings. Ex. Marys job.(pr.n.). The partys platform(collective impr.n.). Animate nouns denoting higher animals. Ex. The loins cage. Inanimate nouns denoting periods of time: A few days trip. Inanimate nouns denoting distance and measure: A ten miles walk. Names of continents, countries, towns and universities: Europes future. In set phrases: To keep out of harms way. III. Structural types of genitive case phrases. 1. the dependent genitive this is a construction in which a noun in the genitive case precedes another noun which functions as head of the phrase. The relations between the nouns in the genitive case may be of two kinds accordingly we may distinguish between the specifying genitive phrase and the descriptive genitive phrase. a) the specifying genitive the noun-head in such structures is used with specific reference. (Marys suitcase.) The specifying genitive may be replaced if necessary by a prepositional phrase(with of). The suitcase of Mary. b) the descriptive genitive the head-noun of such phrases is used with genetic reference. A doctors degree. The descriptive genitive cannot be paraphrased by the means of the prep. of. (womens college = college for women). In some cases genitive phrases of this type have become set phrases or even idiomatic phrases. (A cats paw) 2. the independent genitive there are phrases in which a noun in the genitive case is used without the head noun. The independent genitive may be used with nouns denoting trade a grocers shop. Other nouns denoting place They were married at St. Pauls. 3. the double genitive sometimes we find a combination of the apostrophe s ending and the prep. of. He was an old business client of fathers. ...one of fathers clients. 4. the elliptic genitive Johns is a large house. IV. semantic classification of the genitive case structure. The more common meanings of the G.C.S. are: 1. the meaning of possession My brothers room. 2. the subjective genitive case meaning Toms arrival. Tom arrived. 3. objective meaning Johns exmatriculation. = John is 4. the genitive of origin The hunters story. Sometimes the genitive case may be ambiguous. Caesars murder

5. Gender (Morph) G. has a relatively small part in English grammar. In Engl. the category of G. is a reflection of the biological category of sex which means that we can speak of G. only with animate nouns and especially with nouns denoting human beings and higher animals. In English the category of G. is covert (theres no formal gender marker in the noun itself or in the article). We can speak of G. in English only when animate nouns have to be substituted by personals or by a relative pronoun. These five pronouns are called gender sensitive pronouns because they change in accordance with the G. of the noun they refer to. We can subdivide English nouns into two subclasses: a) nouns denoting G. b)nouns of neutral G. these are mostly inanimate nouns which are used without reference to biological category of sex. On the basis of the use of gender sensitive pronouns we can group the English nouns in the following way: a) animate nouns, human beings, masculine G. ex. man, father, husband - who, he b)animate nouns, human beings, feminine G. ex. woman, mother, girl she, who c) animate nouns, human beings, dual class membership ex. baby he, she, who, it d) animate nouns, collective ex. family it, which e) animate nouns, higher animals, masculine G. ex. bull, tiger it, he, which f)animate nouns, higher animals, feminine G. ex. cow it, she, which g) animate nouns, higher animals, common gender group ex. lamb it, he, she, which h) animate nouns denoting higher animals and collective ex. herd, flock it, which i) animate nouns, lower animals ex. ant, bee it, which j) inanimate nouns ex. it it, which k) inanimate nouns, higher organisms the use of gender sensitive pronouns in this case is emotionally based ex. ship it, she, which. When the names of countries are considered as political or economic units they can be treated as feminine nouns. ex. France has firmly established her international prestige. As geographical units the names of countries are treated as inanimate nouns. ex. Bulgaria is a small country. It is. In collective sports the names of countries are treated as collective nouns and replaced by they. Ex. Bulgaria did their best to win the cup. In cases of personification certain nouns can be substituted by gender sensitive pronouns. Nouns treated as masculine: death, war, anger, time, the sun etc. nouns treated as feminine: night, nature, the moon etc. other linguistic means to denote sex of the noun referent: 1. derivation hunt, hunter, huntress 2. compounds boyfriend, tom-cat 3. pairs or groups of nouns horse, stallion, mare. Gender based language. In many cases the use of language is gender biased. Ex. Every student will have his mark... (fatherland, airhostess). To avoid such use we can substitute gender sensitive pronouns she/he with they with reference to the defining pronouns. Ex. Everybody was enjoying themselves. Instead of using either he or she with reference to the defining pronouns we can use she-he/her-his. Instead of a derived noun we can use a phrase. Ex. flightattendant, police-officer.

7. Adjective (Morph) I. morphological structure acc. to it the adj. can be classified into: 1. simple adj. these consist of the root morpheme only. Ex. good, young. 2. derivative adj. these are formed by means of affixes(prefixes) pre-war, immoral suffixes colourless, warlike 3. compound adj. these usually consist of two roots. ice-cold, blue-eyed 4. participials these are adjectivised participles. Ex. interesting, astonished. The usual place of participials is before the noun they qualify. Occasionally participials may be placed after the noun. Ex. He was a gentleman born. II. Lexical meaning acc. to meaning adj. can be classified into qualitative, relative and adj. of number and quantity. 1. Qualitative adj. denote qualities in various degrees. An important gram. feature of most qual. adj. is that they can express comparison by means of specialized gram. forms high, higher, highest 2. relative adj. qualify an object by relating it to another object(wooden table), they do not express comparison. 3. adj. of number and quantity several, numerous, enough etc. some of these can express comparison. Ex. little less least III. Adj. can be substantivised. A word is said to be substantivised if it has acquired to a certain extent the features characteristic of a noun. These features are: a) the ability to form a plural ex. a savage savages b) the ability to have a genitive case form: The savages hut. c) the ability to take articles: a savage the savage d) the ability to be modified by an adj.: a warlike savage e) the ability to function as subject or object of the sentence If an adj. can have all these forms and functions it is said to be fully substantivised. By the reverse process a noun can be adjectivised. A gold rin. IV. Syntactic functions in the sentence these are of noun modifier(silken hair), predicative(She is beautiful), object complement(Tom painted the fence green). When the adj. functions as a noun modifier it can occupy a position either before or after the head noun. With single adj. the premodifying position is more frequent. Ex. She was carrying a heavy bag. Post position is usual with coordinated adj. ex. The wolf, ferocious and intimidating, frightened the dogs. Adj. with complementation occur in post position. Ex. She was carrying a bag heavy with money. Single adj. rarely occur in post position. Ex. It was relief unspeakable. Adj. functioning as predicative occurs after the link verb. It can be occasionally dislocated and placed at the beginning of the sentence. Dislocation entails inversion. Dislocation is possible when stylistic effect is intended. Ex. Green were the hills under the spring sun. Order of adj. Adj. denoting subjective features of the noun referent neednt be placed immediately before the noun they modify. Adj. denoting objective features of the noun referent should be placed next to the noun. Objective feature adj. should follow a specific order: size, colour, type, material etc. Ex. a beautiful purple long-sleeved silk blouse. V. Comparison it is a functional semantic category; it is inherent in adj. denoting qualities or number. Semantically, we can distinguish the following varieties: a) comparison of equality. Ex. she is as ugly as her sister. b) comparison of inequality. Ex. she is not so beautiful as her sister. c) comparison of superiority. Ex. she is more beautiful than her sister. d) comparison of inferiority. Ex. she is less beautiful than her sister. e) comparing different qualities within the same referent. Ex. he is more good than bad. f) comparing two stages of one and the same quality within the same referent. Ex. Varta the better batteries. g) parallel comparisons. Ex. the more the merrier. (no noun referent occurs in the referent structure). These are actually correlations of two comparisons in proportion or in relation. If the person or thing whose quality is being compared is not included in the group, the comparative degree form of the adj. is used. Ex. Jane is prettier than the other girls. The superlative degree form is used when the person or thing whose quality is being compared is included in the group. Ex. Jane is the prettiest of the girls. Occasionally the superlative degree form is used without implying any comparison. Ex. Ill do it with the greatest pleasure. The superlative degree form denotes a very high degree of the quality. Ex. Everybody has been most kind to me. One syllable adj. express the category of comparison by means of the gram. endings er, -est. Polysyllabic adj. express comparison analytically. Ex. She is more beautiful than her sister. Adj. consisting

8. Adverb (Morph) I. Definition the adverb is a class of words expressing either the degree of a quality (she is very ugly) or the property of an action (he runs fast) or the circumstances under which an action takes place. Adverbs modify adj., verbs or other adv. (he runs very fast). II. morphological structure according to their morphological structure adv. can be classified in the following way: 1. simple adv. these are adv. which are not derived from any other word classes and consequently lack any affixes. (then, there, here, now, enough, quite, still) 2. derivative adv. are derived from other word classes by means of various suffixes (headlong, clockwise) 3. compound adv. these contain more than one root morphemes.(nowhere, sometimes, anyway) 4. phrasal adv. (at last, at least, at once, till now) 5. flat adv. as far as their morph. str. is concerned they belong to the group of the simple adv. Their peculiarity is that they coincide in form with the corresponding adj. (he is a fast runner) some flat adverbs have a corresponding adv. ending in -ly (hard-hardly) the two adv. may or may not be differentiated in meaning (tight-tightly) III. categorial meaning of adv. acc. to meaning: 1. of manner modify verbs. (kindly, hard, unawares) 2. of quantity or degree modify adj. or adv. (very, entirely) 3. of time (now, before, still) 4. of frequency frequency of occurrence of an action modify verbs (seldom, often, usually) 5. of place denote place or direction (here, upwards, ashore) 6. of cause and consequence (why, hence, therefore) function as coordinators in complex sentences 7. of comment express modal meaning the speakers attitude towards the relation between reality and the verbal situation denoted (probably, presumably, undoubtedly) IV. degrees of comparison adverbs of manner have degrees of comparison. One syllable adv. and the adverb early from their degrees of comparison by means of the grammatical endings -er, -est. Most of the adv. have analytical forms of comparison use more and most. Some adv. have irregular forms of comparison (wellbetter-best). Other have more than one form of comparison which are differentiated in meaning (farfarther/further-farthest/furthest) v. syntactic functions of adv. In simple sentences adv. function as adv. mod. Semantically adv. mod. may be subdivided into four types: 1. adjunct is governed by the verb, they are obligatory in the sentence str. (take this book away). Without the adjunct the will be incomplete, both syntactically and semantically (put that book) 2. subjunct not governed by the verb predicate, they are subordinate to one element in the S (they have just arrived)(especially, precisely, completely) 3. disjunct syntactically detached from the , their scope is the whole . By means of a disjunct the speaker defines the conditions under which takes authority for what is said or invites the hearer to interpret the info expressed by the in the particular way. (personally speaking milk is better than cofee) 4. conjunct detached from the in which it is included. It joins the to the preceding . It does not display a high degree of technical competence. However it is bald in the use of rhyme. In complex adv. are used to introduce clauses. (you can do whatever you please with your time).

11. The expression of future time reference (Morph) There are a number of ways to express F.T. reference in English. The most important of them are: 1) will/shall + inf. of the full verb 2) be going + inf. 3) Pr. Progressive form 4) Pr. Simple form 5) will/shall + progressive inf. of the full verb These forms and forms all have their particular shades of meaning and they are not generally interchangeable. The most common of these constructions is 1). Will and shall have the double function of modal auxiliaries and auxiliaries of the future. Its difficult, however, to separate those two functions. One reason for the confusion of future and modal use of will and shall lies in the very nature of futurity. We cant be as certain of future happenings as we are of situations in the past and present. For this reason even the most confident prediction must indicate smth. Of the speakers attitude and so be tinged with modality. Will/shall are no exception. The typical future meaning of will/shall can be labeled as prediction smth. involving the speakers judgement. For this reason one ought not to describe it as a future tense. The auxiliaries will/shall are frequently contrasted in speech (esp. after pronoun subjects) to express future meaning. One well die. The auxiliary shall, however, can express neutral meaning only with a first person pronoun as subject. We shall overcome some day. Shall is occasionally found with second and third person subjects in elevated style with prophetic utterance. The earth shall be filled with Gods glory. The aux. will/shall can refer to either an indefinite or definite time in the future. I shall keep my word. The future counterpart of the past simple will/shall can be employed in reference to an imaginary narrative future. These constructions are often used on an imaginary time scale in referring to a later part of a book or article. We shall examine Newtons law in Will/shall followed by the perfect infinitive is the usual means of expressing past in future. By next Wednesday, they will have moved into the new house. In many contexts, however, the modal meanings of will/shall are quite strong. If you wait there on Thursday evening I will come. (voluntary future). 2) be going to + inf. one general meaning of that can be attached to this construction is future fulfillment of the present. In fact, it is useful to discriminate between two meanings: - future fulfillment of present intention: They are going to get married in - future fulfillment of present cause: I think I am going to faint. It is generally clear which of the two meanings applies to a given text. Be going to is inappropriate in most future conditional sentences. If you accept that job youll never regret it. Be going to is suitable, however, if present circumstances are mentioned in the subordinate clause. We are going to find ourselves in difficulty if we carry on like this. Be going to does not guarantee that the anticipated situation will actually take place. This is illustrated most clearly with past time reference. He was going to sue me but I persuaded him it was pointless. 3) The Pr.Prog. refers to a future situation anticipated in the present. A precise definition of the progressive can be: future situation anticipated by virtue of a present plan, programme or arrangement. She is getting married this spring. A notion of fixed arrangement comes to be associated with near rather than distant future. Verbs of notion (arrive, land, stop) when used with the progressive aspect have an element of anticipation. The airplane is landing. The meaning of plan or arrangement with the present progressive restricts its use in the main to verbs of action involving conscious human agency. John is rising at 5 oclock tomorrow. Another restriction on the future on the present progressive is that it does not occur with the so-called non-progressive verbs. We could very well ask who is going to be captain of the team next Saturday. 4) Pr.S. the key to the future meaning of the simple present is that it represents future as fact: it attributes to the future the same degree of certainty that we normally accord to present or past situations. Statements about the calendar are the most appropriate illustrations. The term ends on January the 15th.

14. Mood (Morph) I. definition M. is the gram. category of the verb which expresses modality (the relation between reality and the situation reported, represented from the point of view of the speaker). Mood together with tense, person and number constitute the basis of predication. Only finite verb forms express mood. In modern Engl. we distinguish three mood forms: indicative, imperative and subjunctive. II. Indicative M. the forms of the indicative M. represent the situation reported as part of the reality. The Ind.M. forms of the verb can be marked to express the categories of tense, aspect, voice, person and number. They went home early in the morning. The Ind.M. forms can be used in cond. sentences to denote a condition the realisation of which is considered possible. If it rains Ill stay at home. III. Imperative M. represents the situation reported as a command (Go out.) or a request (Stop talking, please). In mod. Engl. the Imp.M. has only one form which coincides with the base of the verbal lexeme. This form is used in the second person. Be quiet and hear what I tell you. In the negative the auxiliary do is always used. Dont be angry with me. A more emphatic use will either require the aux. do or an overly expressed subject. Do wait a minute. The aux. do implies insistence or persuasion. You mind your own business. Irritation expressed Everybody behave yourselves. Its impossible to introduce please in sentences with doemphasisers or in sentences with overtly expressed subject. There are cases in which the subject is introduced to denote the semantic agent and make the expression unambiguous. Ill drive and you sleep awhile. Passive structures, though rare, are possible especially in British usage. Be seated. In short answers the verb do/dont is used as a pro-predicate. Shall I open the window? Please do./No, dont. since the Imp.M. form is always used in the second person, the speaker employs other means to denote a command to the third person. Let the child go home at once. With 1-st person plural to let is used to express an exhortation to an adjoint action. Lets go and have some coffee. In informal style: Dont let anyone fool himself that he can get away with it. IV. The Subjunctive M. its forms represent the situation reported as smth. Imaginary or desired (a nonfact). The S.M. in old English had a special set of inflections diff. from those of the Ind.M. In mod. English only few forms have survived. For practical reasons we can divide these forms in two: past and present subjunctive. 1. Past Subjunctive here only the verb be has retained its P.S. form: were is used for all the persons singular and plural. The P.S. is widely used in mod. English both in literature and colloquial language. The term past is nearly traditional because what we call P.S. form does not necessarily represent a past situation. In adverbial clauses of condition it denotes an unreal condition referring to the present or future. I want to go everywhere and wish I were a gipsy. In object clauses the P.S. form denotes an action or state simultaneous with the action expressed in the main clause. I wish he were less remote. The S.M. forms do not undergo back shifting in subordinate clauses. 2. Present Subjunctive its forms coincide with the base of the verbal lexeme. The Pr.S. denotes a situation referring to the present or future. This form is seldom used in Br. English it may be found in poetry and elevated prose, where these forms are used with certain stylistic aim. Though all the world be false still will I be true. The Pr.S. form is used also in the language of official documents. If anyone be found guilty, he will the right to appeal. In Am. English the Pr.S. is widely used in colloquial style as well. Y called the hospital and insisted that one of the doctors come to the phone. The Pr.S. occurs also in simple sentences and in set phrases functioning as linguistic formulae. May success attend you. Structures with modal auxiliary verbs may function as substitutes of the S.M. forms. Whenever you may come, you are welcome.

1. The sign character of language (Semant) Semiotics comes from the Greek SEMA (MARK SIGN), which is also the root of the term SEMANTICS(the study of meaning). Semiotics studies the innate capacity of human beings to produce and understand signs of all kinds. The sign action is called semiosis. Semantics and Pragmatics are two divisions of (branches) of Semiotics: Semantics studies the meaning of words (the sign, the concept, and the world); Pragmatics studies the relation between the sign, the object, and the subject. Sign is any mark, bodily movement, symbol, token etc. used to indicate and to convey thoughts, inf. Commands, etc; it is the basis of human thought and communication. According to Pierce the sign is s.th. that stands to s.b. for s.th. in some respect or capacity. The sign always carries inf. Signs in nature and signs in society are prior to linguistic signs. Signs in nature are a part of the system they represent. Signs in society are the so called paralinguistic signs which are beyond language, foe example gestures, postures of the body etc. linguistic signs are arbitrary, there is no inherent relation between the object and the sign. The 1st linguist who spoke about the sign character of language is Saussure. According to him the sign consists of a signifier and a signified which resemble the two sides of a coin, and cannot be separated. The signifier is the concept and the signified is the string of sounds: signified / ___Concept_ | Sound-image \ Signifier According to Pierce the sign resembles a triangle: Interpretant (concept) / \ indirect relation b/n the / \ object and the sign (through representamen /_ _ _ _ _ object | the mind) The representamen is the relation between the object and the interpretant, which is not direct. The interpretant is the mental correlate of the sign. It is the head and itself has a sign-like quality. The interpretant enables the sign user to denote with it the object for which the sign stands. For example, the word a chair is the interpretant of a picture of a chair(it is equivalent to the sign). The interpretant can also be an association: for example, in translation when we hear dog we associate it with the Bulgarian . According to frege:

addressee (ex. The physician with its objective symptoms). Like all signs symptoms may figure in both paradigmatic systems and syntagmatic chains. Icon there is a topological similarity between a signifier and its denotata. Pierce distinguishes three subclasses of icons: images, diagrams and metaphors. Ex. La Giokonda, A snapshot of reproduction of the famous painting is the iconic sign for the copy, which thus becomes the denotatum, but which itself is an iconic sign for the original portrait, its denotatum; but this painting, too, is an iconic sign for Leonardos model, the lady known as Mona Lisa, its denotatum. Index a sign whose signifier is contiguous with its signified, or is a sample of it. ex. Pierce says that the footprint R.Crusoe found in the sand was an index to him of some creature. Sign indexes give the appropriate temporal and spatial characterization (coordinates) of the object. Symbol a sign without either similarity or contiguity, but only with a conventional link between its signifier and its denotata, and with an intentional class for its designatum. Symbol sub-species are: alegory, badge, brand, device, emblem, insignia, mark, and stigma. Ex. One can say that the hammer and sickle were either the symbol or he emblem of the communist party; also the Eiffel Tower of Paris. But we cannot say that H2O is a chemical emblem. Emblems are non-verbal acts which have a direct verbal translation, or dictionary definition, usually consisting of a word or two, or perhaps a phrase. Name a sign which has an extensional class for its designatum. According to Kecskemeti considered in terms of its intention a name is simply a blank unless and until a description referring to the same object is supplied. According to Morris, proper names belong to a mode of signifying called namors. Human individuals are identified by verbally attestible namor, a personal name

He views the object as a token (which is the particular occurrence of a sign a real, a particular object) and as a type(which is the class of all occurrences of the sign): a token the chair; class chair. Denotation is the relation of reference and designation is the relation of meaning. In medieval Latin the corresponding pair of terms for the Stoic semainon (signifier) signans semainomenon (signified) signatum Sauussure called them significant and signifi. In German they were called das Significat (signifier) and der Significant(signified). * Sintagmatics of the sign are the rules that govern the relationship between the speaker and the situation. Pragmatics of the sign are the rules that governs the relationship between the speaker, the addressee and the state of affairs. *Properties of the linguistic sign. Signs are arbitrary. 1) the relation between the sign and the object is arbitrary. 2) signs have material nature. 3) there is a general agreement within a society how to call an object. 4) within a given language signs are motivated. 5) objects are named after their most conspicuous feature. Saussure introduced the term veleur, which means the significance that the word has within the system. N.B. 1) the relation sign - other signs is non-arbitrary. 2) the relation sign object is arbitrary. 3) the producer of signs is the speaker. 4) the interpreter of signs is the listener. The mechanism of communication which lies in the basis of a sign involves encoding, decoding, transfer and accumulating of info. *Signs that do not function in relation to the world as unicorn, mermaid do not have referents in the world. *Prepositions and conjunctions denote relation between other signs and do not have referents in the world. They function only syntagmatically and pragmatically. Charles Morris speaks of three types of signs symbols, indexes and icons. However there are three more types signals, symptoms and names. Signal is a sign which mechanically or conventionally triggers some reaction on the part of a receiver. An example of a signal is the exclamation: Go!, or the discharge of a pistol to start a foot race. Symptom a compulsive, automatic, nonarbitrary sign such as the signifier coupled or the signified in the manner of a natural link. The denotata of symptoms are generally different for the addresser ( ex. The patient with its subjective symptoms) and for the

** A relation between s such that the truth of the second necessarily follows from the truth of the first is called ENTAILMENT. ** A relation between s such that the truth/falsity of the second necessarily follows from the truth/falsity of the first is called PRESUPPOSITION.

2. Word meaning and meaning (Semant) Word meaning there are several approaches to the to the explanation of word meaning: 1) extensionalism: the relationship between word and O is called the relationship of reference, and there is a tradition to equate the problem of meaning with the problem of reference. According to this view the meaning of a word can be explained in terms of the relation between that word and O or Os to which it refers. Common nouns refer to sets of individuals, verbs refer to actions, adjs refer to properties of individuals, and adverbs refer to properties of actions. Any theory of meaning which attempts to explain all aspects of word meaning in terms of reference is mistaken. Though in proper names there is a one to one correspondence between word and O it is not obvious that proper names have any meaning at all. 2) the image theory of meaning it is possible to explain the meaning of a word in terms of the image in the speakers or hearers mind. These images cannot be visual. a) one may have more than one image for a single expression. b) two expressions may have the same image. ex. A tired child curled up and nearly asleep/stamping its foot and screaming. * Any word which relates to more than one image is predicted to be ambiguous. * There are many words with which it is impossible to associate any image at all: and, or, because. 3) According to Saussure language is a system of interdependent terms in which the value of each term results from the simultaneous presence of others. Angry \ Each of the members of these set of words Happy \ stands in a certain relation one to another and Calm \ this relation is a determinant of the interprePleased / tation of the word. - The interpretation of Annoyed / and, or, because is not clear whether Upset / it can be analyzed in terms of concepts. 4) Componential analysis: demonstrates the relations of meanings between words. These meanings are not analyzed as unitary concepts but as complexes made up of components of meaning which are themselves semantic primitives. Ex. spinster may be analyzed as a complex of features (markers; components). [female], [never married], [adult], [human]. The components together, in different combinations, constitute word meanings. The central problem is to explain the relation between the words and the independent components. 5) Katz semantic marker is a theoretical construct which is intended to represent a concept that is part of the sense of morphemes and other constituents of natural language. By a concept in this connection we do not mean images or mental ideas or particular thoughts. Concepts are abstract entities; they dont belong to the conscious experience of anyone though they may be thought about, as in our thinking about the concept of a circle. They are not individuated by persons. meaning. there are three main ways in which linguists and philosophers have attempted to explain meaning in natural language: 1) by defining the nature of word meaning word meaning is taken as basic in terms of which meaning and communication are explained. 2) by defining the nature of meaning - meaning is taken as basic, word meaning is explained through meaning and the process of communication. 3) by explaining the process of communication both meaning and word meaning are explained in terms of the ways in which s and words are used in the act of communication. We use words to refer to Os and actions; s are used to describe events, beliefs, options. Language is the vehicle by means of which we affect communication: - In terms or rationalism the meaning of language is more or less what the world is like; rationalism explains language through its relation to the world. In terms of cognitivism the meaning of language is a reflection of how we mentally organize the world. * Tarskys definition of meaning S is true if and only P where S is the name of the and P is the conditions which guarantee the truth of that . * extension the circumstances that make the true - P * intention the proposition that the expresses - S The suggestion is that to know the meaning of a is to know under what conditions that would be true. Ex. Snow is white is true if and only snow is white. * To give the meaning of a is to state (all and only) the conditions necessary for its truth. Ex. S means that PS is true if and only if P. The formula states that some condition P will constitute the meaning of S if and only if P is true when S is true. Ex. John killed Bill is true if and only if John caused Bill to die. * s can be used to make statements. A truth conditional semantics accounts only for one types of s declarative indicative s. * According to Quine the unit of communication is the and not the word. The interpretation of the s of a language must be explained compositionally in terms of the combination of the words making up those s.

3. Polysemy and homonymy (Semant) *One and the same word may have a set of different meanings. This is called polysemy (P) and the word is called polysemic: ex. bank financial institution/bank of a river. With P the various connotations stick to the basic one and form a cluster. The various connotations of a polisemantic word have different ability to combine with other words from semantical point of view. Grammatically the various meanings do not change the various characteristics of the word. Classification of the different types of P: 1) shifts in application: ex. green 1. in colour, 2. unripe, 3. young and tender. 2) specialization: the word acquires a new meaning when used as a technical term: ex. parts of the body: head, hand, finger, foot used for various mechanical parts. 3) figurative expressions: a word used figuratively acquires another shade of meaning: ex. mountains of baggage. to put two and two together. 4) borrowings a word of foreign origin may have a different meaning from what it had in the language from which it was borrowed, and the old meaning may still influence the new one: ex. actual 1. existing in fact or act. 2. existing or acting at the time. Under French influence it acquired the meaning concerned with present 5) mechanisms of shifting of the meaning: a) radiation the basic meaning is at the centre and all other connotations are directly connected with it:

b) concatenation: it is the other variant of shifting. It means union by linking together, union in a series or chain.

Homonyms are words different in meaning but identical in form. Homonymy (H) is the result of coincidence, while P is inherent in language. There are several types of H: 1) complete H: there is a perfect coinciding in form, both phonetical and grammatical. It is possible only with words from the same grammatical category: ex. calf as an animal/calf as part of a leg. genitive form calfs/ pl. calves. 2) partial H: a) words coinciding in phonetical and grammatical features: ex. 1. to lie to be in a prostrate position. 2. to lie not to tell the truth. present simple lie lie, past simple - lay lied, past participle lain lied. b) only phonetical form is identical: ex arm arms (body parts), arms (weapons). c) words belonging to different grammatical categories may become partial homonyms: ex. cheap (adj), cheap (adv); since (adj), since (conj); by (prep) by (adv); Formal classification of homonyms: a) homophones coincide in sound but differ in spelling and meaning: ex night knight, site sight, right write, road rode. b) homographs coincide in spelling but differ in sound and meaning: ex lead [led] metal; lead [li:d] to conduct. c) perfect homonyms identical in spelling and sound but different in meaning: ex. grave 1. a burial place, 2. important. There are several types of distinguishing between P and H: 1) when the identical forms have different origins they are treated as homonyms. 2) when they have one origin, even if the meanings are different, they are treated as polysemic. 3) we can use the tests of ambiguity ex. I went to the bank; coordination test: John and Bill went to the bank it can be taken to mean that one went to the financial institution and the other to the river. Do so test: John went to the bank and so did Bill. We should not say it with the two meanings. However, there are no objective and reliable criteria to differentiate between the two. Ambiguity may result from grammatical or lexical differences: ex. they hit the ball hit (present or past?), Flying plane can be dangerous. the act of flying planes or planes that are flying. A polysemic word has variety of synonyms each corresponding to one of its meaning, where the antonyms are the same we have P, difference of antonyms implies H. ex. / hair - dark / skin - dark Fair/ weather - foul \ tackle - foul \ sky - cloudy \ judgement unfair

4. Synonymy (Semant) Synonyms are words with nearly identical meaning. Synonymy can be described in two ways: 1) in terms of necessary resemblances and permissible differences. 2) contextually, by means of diagnostic frames how they behave in a certain syntactic structure. Synonyms must have a significant degree of semantic overlap and a low degree of implicit contrastedness: ex. spaniel and alsatian are not synonyms, because similarity is not sufficient. Synonyms are lexical items whose senses are identical in respect of central semantic traits but differ, if at all, only in respect of minor or peripheral traits. Synonyms dont constitute a homogeneous whole, some pairs of synonyms are more synonymous than others there is a scale of synonymy. Absolute synonymy is the zero point of the scale of synonymy. Two words are absolute synonyms if and only if all their contextual relations are identical. Absolute synonyms are rare because there is no justification for two words to exist in the language with the same meaning. This may happen as a result of borrowing. Extending some distance along the scale we reach the cognitive synonymy: X is a cognitive synonym of Y if X and Y are syntactically identical and any grammatical declarative sentence S containing X has equivalent truth conditions to another S, which is identical to S except that X is replaced by Y. ex. fiddle, violin. Cognitive synonyms must have certain semantic properties in common. Ex. 1. Her father came into the room. 2. Her daddy came into the room. With these two sentences we have equivalent truth conditions their meaning isnt changed. They have the same denotational meaning; daddy, in addition, has expressive meaning. We convey information in the propositional mode. Ex. 1. I felt a sudden sharp pain in my rectum. 2. Ouch! The content of the message conveyed by the two s is the same, or at least very similar. However they differ in respect of Semantic Mode. The meaning of 1 is in the propositional mode, while the meaning of the 2 is in the expressive mode. Only declarative s express proposition. Interrogative and negative s do not express complete proposition but they have proporsitional content. In the 2 it is up to the listener to fill up the missing info. Cognitive synonyms must be identical in respect of propositional traits, but they may differ in respect of expressive traits. Proposition is an abstract notion. The abstract meaning of a declarative when it describes a state of affairs in the world. There are several classes of words according to their expressive meaning: 1. explitives they have only expressive meaning, these are exclamations: Wow!, Ouch!, Gosh!. They may have grammatical role within the s. ex. Get that damn dog off my seat! They may be words from taboo areas: Holy shit!, My ass!, Piss off!. Also words like already, still, yet they dont change the truth conditions of the . Ex. 1. He is (still) here. 2. The second type express propositional and expressive traits simultaneously: ex. Daddy, mummy, 3. Capable of expressive meaning but only in certain contexts: ex. Oh, look a baby! Isnt he adorable. Words not capable of manifesting expressive meaning: ex. Infant in no context does it express such a meaning. Plesionyms are distinguished from cognitive synonyms by the fact that they change the truth conditions of the sentence. One of the members of a plesinymous pair denies the other. Ex. 1. It wasnt foggy, just misty. 2. He was not murdered, he was legally executed. In the first clause the member is asserted, in the second the member is denied. According to Molchova there are four types of synonyms: 1) absolute synonyms identical in meaning without any difference whatever. They can be used one for the other in any context without causing the slightest change. 2) phraseological synonyms = plesionyms words synonymous only in phrases. That is, a wods has to have several connotations, which become clear from the context, from the phrase, usually a more or less conventional phrase. In all those phrases the word may be replaced by a synonym. Ex. Field: area, a debate covering a wide area; branch unsurpassed in his own branch; useful in his own sphere. 3) stylistic synonyms = cognitive synonyms. They are not connected with the meaning of a separate word so much as with the meaning and the general effect of the whole context. Emotional colouring plays an important role in these: ex. To be angry to see red; To put ones monkey up; To make ones blood boil. These are synonyms to to cause or raise anger. 4) relative synonyms are words standing for the same notion but varying in the shade of meaning: they may differ in degree, emotional colouring and range of usage. Ex. Key, clue, hint. clue is less certain than a key; and a hint is less certain than a clue. Sources of synonymy are: a) references to the emotions: Gay as a lark, Happy as a king, Jolly as a sandboy, Merry as a gig = rejoicing. b) everyday speech, jargon, slang: crony, chum, pal, buddy = friend. c) affected speech: meticulous = exact

/detailed. d) archaisms and borrowings French joyous; English merry. According to Arnold Schwarzenegger: she regards synonyms as groups of words: ex. sustain, suffer, undergo, experience they all mean to live through something. to experience = to know something from first hand, to undergo = to bear something, to be subjected to something, to suffer = to experience something that implies injury, to sustain = formal use; to undergo something without giving way. When a native and borrowed words are synonyms of each other there is a tendency for the words of native origin to be used colloquially and the words that are borrowed to be used formally. 5. Antonymy (Semant) Antonyms are two or rarely more words of the same language belonging to the same part of speech, identical in style and nearly identical in distribution, associated and used together so that there denotative meanings render contrary or contradictory notions. A-s share the following characteristics: 1) they are fully gradable (most are adjectives; a few are verbs) 2) the members of an antonymous pair denote degrees of some variable property such as length, speed, weight, accuracy etc. 3) when the members are more strongly intensified they move in opposite directions along the scale representing degrees of the relevant variable property. Thus, very short and very long, for instance, are more widely separated on the scale of length than short and long. |__________|___________|___________| very short short long very long 4) antonyms do not strictly bisect a domain: there is a range of values of the variable property, lying between those covered by the opposed terms, which cannot be properly referred to by either term. Thus its long and its short are contrary, not contradictory statements. Furthermore, Its neither long nor short is not paradoxical, since there is a region on the scale of length which exactly fits this description.*The terms of an antonymous pair are symmetrically disposed around a neutral region of the scale, called pivotal region. *** There are antonyms which bisect the scale: ex. dead and alive. *Antonyms are always interpreted comparatively: ex. its long means longer than x, where x is some implicit reference point on the scale of length. The most frequent reference point is some sort of average value within a class: ex. a tall man entered the room is likely to refer to someone taller than the average adult male human. *Antonyms can be divided into three sub-classes: on the basis of the relationship between the semantic properties of those lexical units of the adjective lexemes which appear in sentences of the form Its X and the semantic properties of the semantical units which appear in corresponding comparative forms there are basically two possible relationships: pseudo comparatives and true comparatives. ex. This box is light, but its heavier than that one. In this case heavier is treated as pseudo-comparative because here it does not mean heavier to a greater degree but of a greater weight. In Its cold today, but its hotter than yesterday hotter mean hot to a greater degree and is therefore described as a true comparative. With pseudo and true comparatives we have three possibilities: group1) a pseudo-comparative corresponding to each member of a pair of antonyms. ex. 1. Its short, but its longer than the other one. 2. Its long, but its shorter than the other one. group2) a pseudo-comparative corresponding to one member of a pair, but the other member has a true comparative. ex. 1. Johns a dull lad, but hes cleverer than Bill.(pseudo-com.) 2. *Bills clever lad, but hes duller than John.(true-com.) group3) both members of a pair have true comparatives. ex. 1. *Its hot, but its colder than yesterday. 2. *Its cold, but its hotter than yesterday. The antonyms in group1 are termed polar antonyms, those in group2 overlapping antonyms, and those in group3 equipollent antonyms. these three groups have other differences as well, in respect to certain other properties. P.A. are typically evaluatively neutral, and objectively descriptive. O.A. all have an evaluative polarity as part of their meaning: one term is commendatory (e.g. good, pretty, polite) and the other is deprecatory (e.g. bad, plain, rude). All E.A. refer to distinctly subjective sensations or emotions(e.g. hot, cold, happy, sad, nasty, pleasant). The three groups differ also in respect to the possibility of forming how questions. With P.A. only one member of a pair yields a normal H? and it is impartial: How long is it? but * How short is it? With O.A. both terms of a pair yield normal H?s but one term yields an impartial question ( how good is it?) and the other a committed question (how bad is it?). With E.A. both terms of a pair yield normal H?s, and both questions are committed (how hot/cold is it?) Molchova classifies the English A-s into two main groups: absolute and derivational antonyms. 1) Absolute A-s. are words regularly contrasted as homogeneous sentence members connected by copulative, disjunctive, or adversative conjunctions, or identically used in parallel constructions, in certain typical configurations. a) antonyms proper-trier semantic polarity is relative, the opposition is gradual. They always imply comparison: love---------------------------------------------------hate attachment liking indifference antipathy b) complementarity is a binary opposition: the denial of one member of the opposition implies the assertion of the other: not male means female c) conversives -they denote one and the same referent as viewed from different points of view-that of the subject and that of the object. The substitution of a conversive does not change

the meaning of a sentence if it is combined with appropriate morphological and syntactical changes and appropriate prepositions are selected: ex. He gave her flowers she received flowers from him. 2) derivational antonyms the affixes in them serve to deny the quality stated in the stem: ex. known unknown; appear disappear; capable incapable; useful useless. *Derivational antonyms are contradictory (contradictory notions are mutually exclusive and inconsistent, denying one another). *Absolute A-s are contrary (contrary notions are inconsistent but they are polar members of a gradual oppositions, which may have intermediary elements. 6. Types of changes in the word meaning from a synchronic and diachronic point of view. Linguistic and extra-linguistic factors. (Semant) History, social structure and human psychology, cause changes in the meaning of the word. In some cases, though quite rare, only one of these factors is the cause for the change. Usually the change is cause by several factors and thats why it is very difficult to determine the main cause. 1) linguistic causes: they are of phonological, grammatical and semantical character. a) in Eng, different words were borrowed at different periods when different phonetic rules operated and one and the same form was moulded in a different way. The result of the synchronical level was two different words (doublet forms): ex. arc arch, to attack to attach. Unstable spelling in middle Eng also led to the development of different words: ex. flower flour. Each form of those doublets was attached to one of the meanings of the mother word so that meaning and form blended. That made it easier to get away from the mother word and start its own existence. b) grammatical reasons the so called substantivization: ex. substantivization of adjs: the rich, the poor, the wounded. The article the signals only that substantivization has become part of the semantics of those items. c) the verb in Eng must always be accompanied by its subject, because of the loss of personal endings. If there is not a doer of the action it is put to perform its function; it is not used with its own meaning: its raining, it hurts. d) do is almost void of meaning when used in literary works for the sake of metre. Ex. I do love you, I never did swear so. In case like: Dont come late do lost its original meaning and acquired a purely grammatical function: ex. I dont know. Do you know her? Yes, I do. Do performs a grammatical function and is void of lexical meaning. It replaces know her, it becomes very abstract. You play chess, dont you?. do stands for the whole meaning of the disjunctive question. e) Yes and No can carry the meaning of a whole phrase: ex. Do you like it? Yes/No. f) The conjunctions (provided and providing) are separates words: - on synchronical level they dont have anything in common with the corresponding verbal forms except that they are perfect homonyms with them; - diachronically they are divided from the corresponding past and present participles of the verb to provide. With the change of their grammatical status there was a change in their meaning. 2) historical causes: with the appearance (development) of new notions there comes the need to name them so a new word is coined or an old word, native or borrowed, acquires a new meaning: ex. In ancient time used to write with a feather, in Latin named penna. Through French the word entered the Eng language in the form of pen. Nowadays pens are made of different materials so the referent of the word pen is different from the referent of the old word. The only fact that we use pen is that it is used for writing, the common feature between the old and the new referent. 3) social factor: this factor works in two ways: specialization (creating terms) and slang and cant. a) specialization a word acquires additional meanings when used as a technical term: ex. words denoting parts of the body are very frequently used as technical terms: head, hand, finger, foot. b) slang is a source of enriching standard language. c) cant is the speech of the underworld, it has intentional character to make the word as unintelligible as possible. There are no hard and fast boundaries between slang and cant. 4) psychological factor: the speaker gives an additional meaning or even changes the meaning of a word by endowing it with an emotional colouring, suiting the state of mind on the mood he is in at the moment of speaking the context or the intonation suggests the shifting of the meaning. The psychological factor helps the meaning got be either elevated or degraded. The causes of semantic changes are linguistic and extra-linguistic. Linguistic changes are: 1) differentiation between synonyms due to the constant interdependence of vocabulary units in language and speech. 2) fixed contents changes resulting from ambiguity in certain contexts. 3) ellipsis. Ex 1) Differentiation of synonyms is a gradual change observed in the course of language history: ex. time and tide they used to be synonyms; then tide (periodically shifting waters) time (used in general sense). Ex. 2) fixed context meat refers only to flesh food; meat and drink (set expression big pleasure). sweetmeats (compound). Ex. 3) ellipsis: a) the qualifying words of a frequent phrase can be omitted: sale cut-price sale. to propose to propose marriage. b) the kernel word of the phrase may seem redundant: minerals mineral waters. METAPHOR AND METONYMY I. Metaphor (M) is a figurative expression. The M is a fanciful idea based on a common feature of two entities. The common feature is never mentioned, the hearer must

come to it by himself. In almost all cases the common feature is practically the only thing in common between the two referents. The greater the difference between the two referents the more difficult it is to find the common feature. From a linguistic point of view M is a non-literal use of language. All Ms can be transferred into similes. M is the relation of similarity between two objects. The M is an intentional transfer. The transfer is founded on some similarity between the primary referent and the actual referent. The actual referent is the one to which the word is actually applied when transferred. It is worth mentioning that it is mostly nouns that are subjected to M, less so verbs and still less adjs. Classification: nouns: 1) the name of an object stands for another object, a) names of plants especially flowers, are based on the common appearance of the two referents: ex. snowdrop, crowfoot, b) names of parts of an animal body are often used with humorous intent for parts of the human body: beak, bill, paw. c) names of objects are used for parts of the human body. Also with a humorous or derisive connotation: onion (head), trap (mouth). d) the name of a concrete entity may stand for an abstract one: ex This place is hell. f) the name of an abstract entity may stand for another abstract one: ex. Knowledge is light. g) the name of an abstract entity may stand for a concrete one: ex. To be the pride of somebody, to be the glory of he country. 2) the name of an object stands for a person: ex. A lamp post. = a lean, tall person. A poker = a stiff person. 3) names of animals stand for persons: a lion = a brave and fearless person, a viper = wicked and malicious person. 4) proper names of people used as common names. A Don Quixote = a naive idealist. A don Juan = lover. 5) names of nations as common nouns: A Turk = ferocious, wild or unmanageable person. 6) names of places used as common nouns: Mecca = any place one aspires to visit. Verbs: to hang around, to burst into a laughter, to break a promise. Synaesthetic M synaesthesia is an association that connects elements from different sensory spheres, the point of similarity being constituted by their effect on the perceiving subject. It affects mainly adjs and only occasionally nouns. It is a favourite figure especially used in poetry: ex. Warm reception, burning question, a thin excuse, running water, small talk. The more extraordinary the M the stronger its effect on the hearer. After frequent use the effect of any M fades away no matter extraordinary. Little by little it loses its emotional colouring and it ceases to be felt as a stylistic figure. If the M-cal element is lost then the word is considered to be a dead M. Otherwise it is a living M. ex of dead M: daisy, horse-play, hooligan. The M-cal figure of speech, regarded from the point of view of shift of meaning, often leads to polysemy. This often happens with some dead Ms. M-ic use gives rise to new formations. It is the motif for forming by conversion such words as to fish to seek by indirect means, to dog to follow closely, pursue, track. METONYMY (Mt) it is based on contiguity of two entities. It excludes any similarities between the two entities. The relation between the two entities is external and not inherent Mt. Has no need of creative inspiration which is the basis for the M. with the M. there is a gap purposely left by the speaker which has to be filled in by the hearer through long and often laborious mental activity. With Mt the gap is of entirely different character. It exists in reality. From the purely linguistic point of view. With Mt we have one word beginning to stand for another entity. 1) a classical type of Mt is the synecdoche - there are two types: a) naming an entity after the name of some of its parts: ex. blue stockings = a woman having literary tastes, brass hat = high ranking officers. b) the name of the whole stands for the part: ex. church = congregation, school = the children. 2) Mt of diverse character: a) the name of the animal for its fur: fox, mink, chinchilla, b) the name of the material for the object: ex glass = something made of glass, c) the name of the container for the thing contained: ex. cup = a cup of some contents, The kettle if boiling. d) the name of the place for its inhabitants: Wall Street = USA financial power, The White House = the president. e) the name of the organ for the capability: to have a good ear for, to have an eye for. f) the name of the thing contained for the container: ex. sardine = the can in which it is preserved, g) the name of the instrument for the person who uses it: ex pen = a writer, gun = an artillery man, h) the name of the author for his work: ex A Shakespeare, A Byron. A sub-class of Mt we may have when the name of the inventor stands for the invention: ex. Winchester = a rifle. Another sub-class here is that of the name of a person for an article somehow connected with the latter: ex. cardigan, sandwich, boycott. i) the name of the place where the article was first produced stands for the article itself: ex. china = porcelain. j) the name of the symbol for the symbolized, k) the brand for the article: ex lucky strike, volga, l) the date of the event for the event: ex. the 9-th of September the socialist revolution in Bg, m) the hour for the train: ex Im going by the 6.30. Mt, like M, is also a means of word formation: mint and money are actually dead Mts. Both come from the Latin moneta (which had both meanings). Mt is one of the mechanisms which gives rise to polysemy: ex. board 1) a table used for meals = food served at the table, 2) a table at which a council is held = the persons who meet at a council table. NARROWING AND WIDENING OF MEANING I. Widening of meaning: when a semantic area of a word becomes wider we may conclude that it has undergone widening of meaning. By semantic area is to understood

the quantity of connotations reflecting extra-linguistic items and situations. Widening of the sematic area may be of two different types: polysemy is one of them, but there is another kind of widening, which is connected with the volume of the concept reflected in the meaning of a word. With polysemy there is a basic meaning reflecting an extra linguistic fact and all the other meanings are connected with the basic one, whereas with widening the basic meaning is changed in terms of volume. With polysemy the different meanings co-exist, while with widening the old range of meaning gives way to the new one: ex. rival is connected with river etymologically. In ancient Rome rivalis were neighbours who made use of the water of the same river. Rivalis had the meaning belonging to one river. The word later became a law term and after that acquired the meaning of one who is in pursuit of the same object as another; one who strives to equal or outdo another in any respect. Thus the word became more abstract beginning to cover an area wider than two neighbours using one river. *In figurative expressions there is also widening of meaning: ex bad egg, bad hat, to cry for the moon. *Idioms proper are also an example of the same phenomenon: to save face, to care two straws. *Widening of meaning may be carried to an extent where the word becomes so abstract that it loses its meaning. Then desemantization takes place. Words used hyperbolically reach this final stage of widening of meaning: ex. terrifically hungry, frightfully kind. *Words without meaning used to fill the gaps in the flow of speech are also regarded as a widening of meaning, which has been carried to the point of complete desemantization. *With widening of meaning there is always a tendency for the basic meaning to shift from the specific to the general, from the concrete to the abstract. NARROWING OF MEANING With NofM a word stands for a given notion. When the word is used in each specific case, its meaning will refer to a specific object or phenomenon under specific circumstances and in this way its meaning will be narrowed to this. The narrowed meaning is fixed in the semantics of the word: ex. when a Bg-an says Im going to the seaside this summer this means to the Black Sea coast. *When abstract nouns become concrete their meaning is narrowed. Ex. He is his mothers hope. *There are instances when the narrowed meaning has ousted the other meanings entirely. Ex. vegetable comes from the Latin vegetabilis full of life, animating; now it is restricted to only certain edible plants. *The name of the material of which an article is made is used for the article itself: ex glass = a cup. *A natural device in the NofM of the word is to accompany it by a qualifier lexico-syntactical device: ex. black art is equivalent to magic, necromancy. The meaning of art is not only restricted by black but the combination with the latter results as if in a new word; first night = the first night of a performance. *The existence of synonyms plays an important role in the narrowed meaning of some words. There is no justification of two words in a language to have exactly the same meaning it is inevitable for one of them either to be ousted or restricted of meaning. *There are also cases that show that borrowings have restricted the meaning of native words. Ex. the Old Eng feond meant enemy. With the adoption of the word enemy from French, fiend was restricted only to gods enemy the devil. There are two characteristic features of NofM: 1) there is a basic tendency for the abstract to become concrete, 2) there is also a tendency for the generic to stand for the specific. ELEVATION AND DEGRADATION OF MEANING The speaker may give additional meaning or even change the meaning of a word by endowing it with an emotional colouring suiting the state of mind or the mood he is in at the moment of speaking. In such cases it is the context or the intonation that suggests the shifting of the meaning. The psychological factor helps the meaning to be either elevated or degraded. Judging by the moral standards of a given society the speaker expresses his own attitude using a given word by charging it with a connotation of values which are not proper to it. 1) elevation of meaning: when a word is used to stand for higher values than it usually expresses, if at all. The elevated meaning, although secondary, may gradually gain the upper hand and at a given historical period may become basic: ex. right the antonym of left in time acquired the opposite of false; nice of Latin origin it meant a person who did not know, an ignorant person. Today there is a tendency for this word to be desemantized: a nice book/day/walk/girl/word. Queen in old Eng meant woman. 2) degradation of meaning: with dofm a word is used to express a base moral value not inherent in its original meaning. *Names of animals have no emotional colouring. When applied to human beings they acquire a derogatory connotation: ex. she is a viper. But out of that context the word viper remains non-emotional. She is a pussy-cat (cunt). *The use of names of different nations with degraded meaning: ex. Dutch comfort, Dutch carriage, Dutch feast. *Proper names with abusive connotation: ex. Jim Crow and abusive name for a Negro in the USA. *Words expressing a positive value from frequent usage may acquire just the reverse meaning: ex. common person mean, base. *A word with a positive meaning may be used to express just the opposite for the sake of contrast: ex. that precious husband of yours. *Sometimes derivatives acquire a negative connotation from the point of view of value: ex.

he works hard he hardly works. Mood = disposition moody = bad disposition. OTHER TYPES OF SEMANTIC CHANGE 1) Hyperbola is an exaggerated statement not meant to be understood literally but expressing an intensely emotional attitude of the speaker to what he is speaking about. Ex. its a nightmare, you are the world for me. The poetic hyperbola creates image and in the linguistic hyperbola the denotative meaning quickly fades out and the corresponding exaggerated words serve only as general signs of emotion without specifying the emotion itself. 2) litotes (understatement) it expresses the affirmative by the negation of its contrary: not bad good. Some understatements do not contain negation: rather decent. The litotes as a rule does not create permanent change in the semantic structure of the word concerned. 3) irony expresses ones meaning by words of opposite meaning for the purpose of ridicule: a nice/pretty mess. 4) taboo and euphemism: created by social and psychological factors. Taboo are rough, unpleasant expressions or words. Euphemism is the substitution of words of mild or vague connotation for rough and unpleasant expressions. *If a word is struck by a taboo then it must be replaced by a harmless alternative. The more backward the community the more words are taboo. a) words of animals were taboo with many people. That was the result of a superstitious belief that if one pronounces the name of an animal it would get angry and cause mischief. b) during the Puritanism in Eng the words devil and god were absolutely taboo. c) parts of the body were also tabooed: ex. hand it was believed to be separate from the body and omnipotent. d) moral principles are also factors for tabooing certain words connected with sex and physiology. *Language has two means of replacing tabooed words: 1) modification changing one or several sounds in the tabooed word: ex. god and lord and the various oaths connected with them: for goodness sake, goodness gracious; god gad, gog, gom, gosse, golly; lord lam, lawks, losh. 2) substitution with a harmless word or expression borrowed from another dialect or language: ex. sweat perspiration, madman maniac. *The figurative substitute of a tabooed word is called euphemisms: it is a linguistic veil on everything sacred, dangerous, unpleasant or indecent: ex devil Old Harry, scratch, the old gentleman; hell the other place, the hot place, very uncomfortable.

7. Word formation (Semant) Word formation (WF) is a means of forming new words by using the linguistic building material that is at hand in a given language. In Eng we distinguish between several ways of WF: derivation (affixation), composition, contraction, blending and conversion. A close look at the means of wf during the various periods of the history of the Eng language will reveal that different means of wf were preferred at different times. In Moder Eng popular means of wf have been conversion and phraseology while in Old and Middle Eng - affixation and composition. Affixation in Eng the affixes are of native as well as of foreign origin. The affixes as such are part of the backbone of the language. Those of foreign origin in Eng were not borrowed as word formatives. It is the words, of which the affixes are a part, that are borrowed. When many foreign words with the same affix become well established in the language, the affix begins to be felt as a word formative: ex. the suffix for abstract nouns cy (French cie, from Latin tia) word to be found in may French and Latin words borrowed in Eng at one and the same time: prophecy, primacy, policy etc. The Eng language adopted this model of wf from the XVI century onwards purely Eng forms started to appear: secrecy, permanency, dependency etc. Borrowings with the suffix ic (Latin icus, French ique), lunatic, fantastic, pathetic. Purely Eng formations: atomic, optimistic, antagonistic. No matter whether the roots are foreign or native the new words formed by derivation and using the borrowed suffixes are Egn formations, which shows that the suffix is already felt as a building material of the Eng language. The great variety of abstract notions which could not be satisfied by the suffixes existing in the language: -dom, -hood, -ness, conditioned the easy adopting of the suffixes: -ism (the notion of school, a system of views), -cy (the notion of quality connected with the person or object expressed in the noun root), -ation (the notion of process). The function of prefixes in Eng is purely semantical. They are used to give a certain nuance to the meaning of the word. So that the same prefix may be used as a formative of different parts of speech: mishap a noun; misunderstand verb. Suffixes perform a grammatical function besides the semantical one they differ from the different parts of speech. During the Old Eng period the prefixes be-, bi-, were very productive. Today they are completely obsolete except for the new words in which they exist as archaisms. In many such words they have lost their status as morphemes: because, to become, before, to begin, behind etc. In a few other words they are still felt as prefixes: to becloud, bedarken, bedazzle, to be fit etc. The prefix with is no longer productive but is still felt as a prefix in words like: withdraw, to withstand, to withhold etc. Some Old Eng prefixes still productive in Modern Eng are: fore-, out-, over-, un-, up-, under-, mis-. Fore- in Old and Middle Eng it was a prefix to verbs adding the connotation of before: foresee, foretell, foreshadow, foretaste. Later this prefix was ousted by the Latin pre meaning before, in front, in advance: precede, predict. Out- its always been a productive prefix: outline, outgrow, outbreak, outburst, outcome. Over- overdo, overburden, overcome, overall, overestimate. Un- 1) primitive Germanic, Indoeuropean (= not) 2) originally identical with and expressing reversal or deprivation. One of the most productive prefixes: unattached, unaware, unforgiven, unable. Under- understand, underground, undertone, undergo. Up- upright, uprise, upbringing. Mis- with the meaning of amiss wrongly: misfortune, misgive, mislead. In modern Eng there is no prefix with grammatical function. Suffixes, however, have a double role to perform both adding something to the meaning of the word and bearing a grammatical function. Thats why different grammatical categories have different suffixes. However there are suffixes performing only grammatical functions. ex.. ed- p.t. and p.p. of weak verbs. en-p.p. of strong verbs and ing-present participle. Verb suffixes: -l: nestle, paddle, crumble, stumble etc. er: pitter, patter, twitter, chatter etc. noun suffixes: -er(profession, location): worker, singer, dancer, foreigner, villager etc. ster(degrading nuance): gamester, gangster, spinster etc. ness: goodness, bitterness, sweetness etc. dom, - ship, -hood, -th: strength etc. adjectival suffixes: -y, ful, less, -ish, adverbial suffixes: -ly-manly, masterly etc. -ward(s). Thoroughly naturalized affixes, so productive that they have replaced affixes with native origin: -dis, -en, -re, -able, -ation, -ism. Composition. C. is a means of forming new words which causes two or more roots to be merged into one, whose meaning might be the sum total or it might be idiomatic. The components of a compound word cant have a complete grammatical form of their own, i.e. they cant be words in themselves. As far as the meaning is

concerned it differs from case to case- from the most non-idiomatic(light-blue, waterfall) to the idiomatic(butterfly, rainbow). Types of compounds acc. to their gram-al structure: 1. With a specific morpheme as a link. a) Two roots linked by o- gasometre, speedometre. b) two roots linked by s- statesman, tradesman, foolscap etc. Compounds without any morpheme as a link. a) compound adjectives formed of a noun root + adj. root: ice-cold, milk-white, home-sick. b) numeral root + noun root: five-year, eight-hour, fiveminutes. c) two adj-al roots: dark-brown, pinkish-red, light-blue. d) noun, adj or adv-al root + the suffixes ed, -en: gray-haired, heart-broken. e) compound verbs formed of a noun root + verb root: backbite, handpeck, backwasg. f) compound nouns: adj-al root + a noun root: blackberry, blacksmith, goldsmith. g) compound nouns: noun root + noun root: backbone, bagpipe, rainbow. 3)compound words formed by inner syntax, the structure of the words reminds the structure of a sentence or a phrase this type is very frequently met: lily-of-the-valley, forget-me-not 4) compound words which are easily dissolved and become phrases again: stone wall, gold watch, speech sound. The components of a compound words are root morphemes. Their grammatical nature, if any, is irrelevant and has no effect on the grammatical nature of the compound as a whole. The last root in the compound bears the morphological markers of the whole word. The relations in a compound are not of grammatical character. They are of a semantic character. Each type of compound shares one and the same deep structure with other linguistic units which are phrases or even s. Every compound has at least one synonym: tradesman a man who trades, ice-cold cold as ice, fire-proof proof against fire. Contraction it is shortening of a word by omitting some of its elements. The shortened form may either preserve the old meaning or acquire a new one. There are three types of contraction: 1) Aphaeresis: when the first sound or syllable is dropped. a) ex. French: avanguard / espace / aventurer / espier Eng: vanguard / space / venture / spy. b) in colloquial speech words are often clipped for the sake of brevity: ex. periwig wig, caravan van, telephone phone. c) in rapid speech there is always possibility for the initial syllable to be dropped, especially if it is not stressed umbrella brolly, stomach tummy. d) proper names are usually shortened Theodora Dora, Elisabeth Beth. 2) Syncope: when a sound or a syllable is dropped out in the middle of a word: a) French borrowings have undergone syncopation capitain captain, cheminee chimney, b) in colloquial speech some abbreviations are made for the sake of speed shant, cant, wont, shouldnt. c) proper names are often syncopated Benedict Bennet 3) Apocepe when a final sound or syllable is dropped out. a) in different kinds of slang and jargon there are clipped forms, especially students jargon Professor prof, laboratory lab, gymnastics gym, mathematics maths, b) proper names often undergo apocope Alexander Alex, Edward Ed, Ronald Ron, Victor Vic. *In written Eng there are words that have an abbreviated spelling but take full pronunciation. They can be considered orthographical clippings: Doctor Dr., for example e.g., note well N.B. N.B. Only nouns are subjected to contraction. *in many cases the contracted forms have a special stylistic colouring: contracted personal names connotation of endearment, contractions in jargon connotation of intimacy. Blending is closely related to contraction. With blending two words are blended into one and in the process sounds from each word are dropped out. a) in modern Eng there are words that are the result of blending but are not felt as such: gossip = god + sib (Old Eng = kinship), goodbye = god be with you. b) a favourite way of forming new words, especially in American Eng, is blending pairs of synonyms: flurry (flaw + hurry), blunt (blind + stunned), smog (smoke + fog), flush (flash + blush) slide (slip + glide), c) acrostic words are the result of the blending of the initial letters or initials syllables of a compound name. This type of blending is typical for neologisms reflecting notions in socialists society: kolkhoz (kolektivnoe khozjaistvo). During the war many acrostic words cropped up for the names of institutions of military bodies: SCAP (Supreme Command of Allied Powers), RAAF (Royal Auxiliary Air Force). Names of organizations BBC the British Broadcasting Corporation, MP Member of Parliament. *In contemporary Eng there is a tendency to use the initial letters of a personal name for the name itself: W.O.Grant. Conversion it is becoming one of the most productive means of wf in contemporary Eng. It applies especially to the category of the verb and noun, less so to adjs and far lesser to other parts of speech. Phrases which have acquired the status of a word (functioning like a word) can also take part in conversion. Even set phrases can be converted: stove-polish, cold-shower. Conversion is wf in which the paradigm is the word formative element. The two words related by this type of wf differ in terms of paradigm on the morphological level. Conversion excludes all kinds of affixes playing the role of wf with the exception of the paradigmatic marker. Another typical feature of conversion is that words belonging to one and the same class, cannot be coined by this means of wf. So it is not possible for a verb to form another verb, or a noun another noun. The basic forms of two words related by conversion are homonyms. Ex. To run

n. run (conversion). 1) the basic forms of both verb and noun are homonyms. 2) they differ in their paradigms and distributional nature on syntactical level. 3) there is a relation between the lexical meaning of the two words. During the Middle Eng period conversion was very productive. Many pairs of words were created and established in the language: ex. stream (v) stream (n), rumour (n) - rumour (v), yellow (adj) yellow (v). *Verbs like to suffer, to live, to eat, to hear, to come, to see etc cannot form nouns by conversion due perhaps to their semantic structure they express actions of long duration or mental and physical perception. They are durative verbs. Verbs like to ache, to drink, to attack, to go, to look etc form the respective nouns because they express either an action of starting or one that can be divided into separate moments. Words with lexical grammatical suffixes that clearly show their grammatical category can hardly be converted: nouns in tion, ex. creation, liquidation. Types of pairs related by conversion: 1) genetic pairs (from Old End): anger (n) / mind (n) / name (n) / love (n) - anger (v) / mind (v) / name (v) / love (v). 2) borrowings (mainly from French): accord (n) / concern (n) / distress (n) - accord (v) / concern (v) / distress (v). 3) genuine conversion: a) simple stems: book (n,v), cook (n,v), try (n,v), nail (n,v). b) derivative stems: condition (n,v), requisition (n,v). c) compound stems: blackmail, windowshop. d) phrases: drawback (phr. n.), handcuff (phr. v.). e) back formation: hitch-hike (v,n). f) blendings: paratroop (v,n), onomatopoeia: blah-blah (n,v), pooh-pooh (n,v). *There are two main types of nouns coined by conversion: 1) nouns which name a single action of whole process: ex. go, say, sneeze, cough etc. 2) nouns which denominate the action in its integrity: start, stand, roll, leap. *Groups of verbs resulting from conversion: a) a process whose connection with the nouns is as if the noun were the instrument of the action: to drum, to nose, to pipe. b) a process expressing the business of a person denominated by the noun to cook, to boss, to nurse. c) a process expressing an action like the noun: to shower, to thunder, to nail. d) a process expressing certain specific connection with the noun: to milk (the billy goat), to bottle. e) a process connected with the noun in meaning but acquiring different connotations depending on the extra-linguistic circumstances: to water.

. 8. Loan words in modern English (Semant) (Etymological sources) Words of Indo-European and Germanic origin A loan word is a word taken over from another language and modified in phonetic shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning according to the standards of the Eng language. In order to trace the origin of a word we have to undertake an etymological investigation. This is quite a difficult task because units of speech very remote from each other in sound as well as in lexical meaning may be etymologically identical. If we know when a word first appeared in a language well be sure of the phonetical developments of the period and by the form of the word well judge whether it had been influenced by these developments or not. The consonant shift with the Germanic languages is quite reliable: ex. by it we may judge that full is a very old word and existed in Eng before the consonant shift since it was affected by it. Indo-European p turned into f in Germanic. (painos) (full). A)*Since Eng belongs to the Germanic branch of the Indo-European group of languages it is obvious that the oldest words in Eng are of Indo-European origin. It may be said that they constitute the very heart of the language. We differentiate several semantic groups: a) words expressing family relations brother, mother, father, motherfucker, fatherfucker. b) names of parts of the human body foot, knee, eye, ear, nose, dick, vagina, cunt. c) names of elements and celestial bodies water, wind, moon, sun, star, d) names of tree, birds, animas birch, tree, cow, wolf, goose, e) words expressing basic actions to come, to know, to lie, to sit, to ejaculate, to suck (dicks preferably, in rare cases balls). f) words expressing qualities red, white, quick, g) numerals one, two, three, hundred, B) * Words of Germanic origin: 1) nouns: ankle, bone, cloth, ground, ice, iron, life, sea, ship, shoe, 2) adjs: dead, dear, green, gray, sick, sorry, 3) verbs: to burn, to draw, to drink, to find, to go, to forgive, to tell, to sing, to fuck, to lick, to have (sex all the time and not only) 4) pronouns: all (the bitches), each, he, self, such, 5) advs: again (OHHH darling, cum again, pretty, pretty please!!!), forward, near, 6) prepositions: after (sex), at, by, over (her), under (him), up, 7) adverbs: here, there (here, there suck it everywhere, !). Words from French and other languages I. After the Norman Conquest in1066 there was an influx () of French words in the Eng language. 1) nouns: advice, age, autumn, beauty, car, cattle, change, choice, colour, courage, creature, enemy, fruit, family, flower, honour, pleasure (YEAHH), question. 2) adjs: brave, common, close, foreign, general, important, large, poor, opposite, 3) verbs: agree, appear, catch (her in the rye, and then you fuck her.), cover, decide, dress (undress her), enter, hurt, repeat, say, try, wait, refuse. * There are a few words in the basic words stock of contemporary Eng of various other sources. They have entered the basic words stock because they are names of notions which in the course of time have become basic. Some belong to languages with which Eng does not have much in common: II. Latin borrowings: 1) nouns: cheese, cook, cup, dish, kitchen, mill, pepper, plant, port, wall, wine 2) adjs: correct, equal, perfect, quiet, 3) verbs: to add, to spend (the night with her), to turn, III. Scandinavian borrowings: 1) nouns: bag, egg, fellow, harbour, law, leg, skirt (lift it up yeah), sky, wing, 2) verbs: to call, to crawl (for my flesh to crawl along and for the gander to bark at me), to give, to take, to want, to wank, 3) adjs: ill, low, wrong, ugly, odd, 4) prepositions: till, IV. Others: church (Greek), silk, tea (Chinese), potato, tomato, tobacco (Spanish).

8. Loan words in modern English (Semant) A loan word is a word taken over from another language and modified in phonetic shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning according to the standards of the Eng language. There are also translation loans (word and expressions formed from the material already existing in the British language but according to patterns taken from another language, by way of literal morpheme-to-morpheme translation) and semantic loans (word which develop a new meaning due to the influence of a related word in another language) ex pioneer. *The Eng language system absorbed and remodeled the vast majority of loan words according to its own standards it is sometimes difficult to tell whether a word is borrowed or native. *Many loan words, inspite of the changes they have undergone, retain some peculiarities in pronunciation, spelling or morphology: 1) the initial sounds [v], [], [] are a sign that the word is not native: vacuum, jewel, genre. 2) combinations as ph, kh, eau in the root indicate the foreign origin of the word: philology, beau. 3) x is pronounced [ks] and [gz] in native words and words of Latin origin, and [z] in words coming from Greek: six, exist, xylophone. 4) the combination ch is pronounced [] in native words and early borrowings: child, chair; [] in late French borrowings: machine, parachute and [k] in words of Greek origin: epoch, chemist. 5) prefixes which mark certain words as foreign learned: ab-, ad-, con-, dis-, ex-, per-, pro-, re-. *The term assimilation of loan words denotes a partial or total confirmation to the phonetical, graphical, and morphological standards of the receiving language and its semantic system. Oral borrowings due to personal contracts are assimilated more completely and more rapidly than literary borrowings. *A classification of loan words according to the degree of assimilation: 1) completely assimilated loan words: they follow all morphological, phonetical and orthographical standards. They may occur as dominant words in synonimic groups. They take an active part in word formation: ex. the first layer of Latin borrowings: cheese, wall etc. Scandinavian loans: husband, fellow, gate. French loans: table, chair, face, finish. *A loan word never brings into the receiving language the whole of its semantic structure if it is polisemantic in the original language. *The borrowing of a new word leads as a rule to semantic changes in words already existing in the language. 2) partly assimilated loan words: a) loan words not assimilated semantically because they denote objects and notions peculiar to the country from which they come: sombrero, toreador, b) loan words not assimilated grammatically: ex. nouns borrowed from Latin or Greek: crisis-crises, phenomenon-phenomena, c) loan words not completely assimilated phonetically some of them keep the accent on the final syllable: ex. machine, cartoon, police. some of them contain sounds or combinations of sounds that are not standard for the Eng language and do not occur in native words: ex. bourgeois, sabotage, memoir, d) loan words not completely assimilated graphically: ex. French borrowings in which the final consonant is not pronounced: ex. bouquet, ballet, buffet, 3) unassimilated loan words (barbarisms) they are used by Eng people in conversation or in writing but not assimilated in any way, and for which there are corresponding Eng equivalents; ex. Italian: addio, ciao. *Words of identical origin that occur in several language as a result of simultaneous or successive borrowings from one ultimate source are called international words: antennae, antibiotic, atomic.

10. Sequence of tenses (Morph) The general principle is that in English the tenses of the subordinate clauses must correspond with that of the main clause if it is in the past. The most frequent and obvious applications of this rule is in the case of indirect speech where the tenses actually used by the speaker are shifted back a degree in time to conform with the past tense of the main clause. In the shifted tenses the past perfect stands for the past simple, present perfect and past perf. itself which cannot be shifted back any further. He said: I have not seen her today = He said that he had not seen her today. This shifting of the tense is used to dissociate the speaker from the idea he is reporting and to represent this idea as subjective. This can be seen from several facts: a) the sequence of tenses is not used in connection with subjunctive mood forms. He suggested that she leave immediately. b) the S. of T. is frequently discarded when the statement is a general truth from which the speaker does not want to dissociate himself. The ancients thought that the sun moved round the earth, they didnt know that it is the earth that moves round the sun. c) when it is not the case of a general truth that always holds good, but nearly of a fact that is still true when the statement is repeated, the S. of T. is obligatory in the case of Pr. T. even though it may lead to apparent illogicality. You always said that he was dead but here he is. In such cases the back shifted tense comes close to the past of reality. d) The use of the past in connection with the future in the main clause to express an action that is happening now but by the time of the future action will be already past. Tell her I died blessing her. This is a device which actually represents the past tense that will be used in direct speech in the future. Backshiftiing of the past simple or the present perfect to the past perfect is not so essential. There seem to be several tendencies operating against it, and it is difficult to formulate definite rules, but two points seem fairly clear: - Backshifting is necessary when we wish to stress the subjective nature of a statement. He said she was very beautiful. - Backshifting is necessary as a rule when we are speaking of dynamic situations, less so when we are speaking of states and circumstances. Backshifting is thus generally avoided in subordinate temporal clauses. He said: I hurt myself while I was bathing. = He said that he had hurt himself.In such cases we get a rather anomalous use of the past perfect referring to a situation posterior to the coming one. The same occurs with sentences that give the circumstance under which actions take place. He said he was at the theatre last night and had waved to us but we had taken no notice. The past subjunctive were does not undergo back shifting. The present perf. in contrast with the pr. simple does not have to be shifted if it expresses smth. that is still true at the moment of speaking. John told me he has been promised a job with Smithsons. Backshifting is not always dependent on a past tense form actually expressed in a governing clause; often the main clause may be understood. When were you going to Bristol? = When did you were going to B. The question of the S. of T. arises chiefly with object clauses giving the contents of a thought or speech, but not as a rule with most other types of subordinate clauses where the question of subjective colouring does not arise. With most subordinate clauses there is a logical relation b/n the temporal plain of the main clause and that of the subordinate clause. I didnt come to the party because had a headache. In simple subordination the logic of the circumstances will inevitably bring about correspondence between the tenses. He was already there when I arrived. In more complex degree of subordination where indirect speech is also involved the S. of T. is generally the rule. I will write to you when Im in the humour. = I promised to write to you when I was in the humour. Shifting of the Future the backshifting of a future form represents a special situation, since it often entails a shift of person too and in this way the question of choice is b/n will and shall. The tendency is to use the past tense form of the same auxiliary as in direct speech. I will consider what I shall demand. = He promised he would consider what he should demand. When the change is from 2 or 3 person to 1 person, the aux. is usually altered. She hoped I should be a good teacher. Backshifting of modal verbs: must/ought to have no corresponding past forms and remain unshifted. She said she must be back by ten. When conclusion is implied must is combined with perfect infinitives. He said there must have been at least five of them.If had to occurs in the direct speech, the indirect may take the phrase had had to or remain unchanged. Conditional sentences expressing unreal conditions do not usually change the verb phrase. He

said he would do it if I allowed him. Commands and exclamations in reported speech: commands are indicated by the infinitive I told them to be quiet.; exclamations How brave you are. = ..told him how brave he was. Questions in reported speech all questions in reported speech are indirect questions normally introduced by the verb ask. Do you know her? = She asked me if I knew her. Questions containing a pro-predicate are also reported with ask. I dont know the way, do you? = He said he didnt know the way and asked her if she did. Answers containing only yes or no may be reported by a pro-predicate. Can you swim, he said. No = He asked me if I could swim and I said I couldnt. 12. Aspect (Morph) I. Definition the category of A. in English is based on two functional oppositions: 1) b/n progressive and nonprog. forms 2) b/n perfect and non-perf. forms II. Opposition 1) reflects the eternal constituency under verbal situation: a) progressive verb forms represent the situation as incomplete (a process in progress) She is singing now. b) activity performed repeatedly over a period of time. He is typing his own letters these days. c) the progressive may underline the temporary nature of the situation. He is living in Turnovo now. d) the progressive tend to characterize the time rather than the agent. In the 17th century Shakespeare was still living. e) the progressive may function in contrast with the perfect. A sun that had set/was setting. f) progressive aspect forms sometimes have emotional colouring. You are always making poor excuses. g) the progressive may be used for stylistic purposes: to make a question or request more polite. When will you be starting. The non-progressive form usually denotes completion in the past. They lived in Paris for 10 years. The non-prog. form in the past tense may also be used to denote habitually repeated situations. He went to the seaside each summer. The pr. non-prog. form may be used with the following meaning: a) habitually repeated situations He writes for the newspapers. b) permanent feature of the subject She speaks Spanish fluently. c) activities coinciding with the present moment such as sports commentaries, demonstrations, stage directions, cases in which the words themselves form part of the activity they report. I declare the meeting closed. d) in conditional clauses denoting real conditions with nonpast time reference. I might tell him if he comes. e) in temporal clauses after the conjunctions: when, before, after. I was reading when he arrived. III. Perfect non-perfect: This is an opposition of quite different nature. Perfect forms locate the situation reported prior to the moment of speaking or some fixed moment in the past or future. The perfect form is therefore used to connect an action that has taken place in the past with some fixed moment of time be it present, past or future. This can be done either by expressing the result of the action as it affects the fixed moment of time or by regarding the time of the action as part of a period stretching up to the fixed moment. Perfect forms can express the following meanings: a) result: when we are thinking not so much of what actually happened at a given moment of time as of its effect on the present state of affairs we employ the present perfect form. I have lost my watch would you please tell me the time. I lost my watch out hiking last Sunday. Resultant actions will be expressed without any time indication, because the time of the situation is not important, only its result. When the important point is who performs the action the nonperfect form should be used. Who broke the window? When the speaker is not referring to one definite occurrence but to smth. that may have been done by various people at different times the perfect form should be used. Who has read Great Expectations? b) Persistent situation: the pr.perf. may be used either to express an action covering a period of time up to the present moment or repeated momentary action performed at some point during such a period. Typical time indications demanding the perf. form in such cases will be: for two days, for several minutes, these two hours, this morning. I have seen her twice today. Up till now, not yet, ever since, since then all these time indications include in themselves the idea of the present moment. Ive been away most of this year. Time indications referring to a definite point or period of time in the past will demand non-perf. form. I was born in 1979. Some adverbs of time however are polysemantic and it is only when they refer to a definite moment of time that they exclude the use of the perfect. Then (at that time) this adverb demands the past simple form. When it means accordingly it may take the perfect. Then you actually have seen him do that. Once (at a certain time) with this meaning it requires the past simple form of the verb. He once lived in Sofia for 2 years. When once means a single time it requires the use of the perfect form. I have seen him only once. Before (before then) requires the past simple. ..before he arrived. Before now in this sense it requires the pr.perf. I have never seen him before. Since as an adverb it means from that time till now and contrast with after fro that time but not up to the present. Since the invention of gun powder, wars have become more cruel. He became more sober after his marriage. As a conjunction since means from the time when smth. happened. The main clause in such cases takes the perfect, but the subordinate clause after since will be in past simple. Much has happened since I last wrote to you. With verbs of intellectual state in the main clause the pr. simple may be used instead of the pr.perf., in the

subordinate clause we should use the perfect. I feel easier in my mind since I have spoken to him. c) experience when the period of time over which a situation takes place is represented as an indefinite period stretching up to the present moment, we get a structural type that may be similar outwardly with the result of the perfect, the difference being that in the context even the result is of no great importance. All that matters is that the action has been performed at some time or other. Have you ever Chinese food? This type of meaning is frequently confirmed with the use of adverbs such as: ever, never, always, lately, recently. d) the perfect of recent past in contrast to the other uses, the perfect of recent past can be contrasted with past simple suggesting infrequent repetitions. He rarely remarked on what he read, but I have seen him sit and think of it. The past perf. form may occur as the result of backshifting in reported speech. IV. used to + inf. and would + inf. these two types of phrases can be used to denote habitual activities in the past. Used to may be employed in sentences with verbs of state with non-personal subject. There used to be a monument in the middle of the square. The implication is that the situation does not take place any more. When used to is combined with dynamic verbs the gram. meaning is that of repetition. They used to get up early in the morning and swim in the sea. Would can only be used with dynamic verbs. This phrase implies repetition in particular circumstances.

10. Tense (Morph) Tense is a gram. category of the finite verb forms in the indicative mood. Tense locates verbal situations in time. Time is a property of reality and is independent of human ???. Time is reflected by man through his perceptions and intellect and finds its expression in language. Time is appraised by the individual in reference to the moment of his or her immediate perception of the extralinguistic reality. The moment of immediate perception (present moment) is continually shifting in time. The linguistic content of the present moment is the moment of speaking. The moment of speaking serves as the demarcation line b/n the past and the future. The linguistic expressions of time, according as they refer or do not refer to the denoted situations, directly or indirectly, to the moment of speaking are divided into absolute expressions of time (present oriented) pr relative expressions of time (oriented relatively to some other point or period of time which is identifiable in the larger context). Time denotation may be detailed (absolute names of time now, in the past, very soon, yesterday; factual at the epoch of Napoleon, during the time of WW1; relative correlating 2 or more events at one and the same time with, before that). Of all the temporal meanings conveyed by such detailing lexical denotation of time, the finite verb generalizes in its categorial forms only the most abstract significations taking them as characteristics of the reflective situation. It is the category of T. that forms the necessary background for the adverbial contextual time denotation in an utterance. In modern English the cat. Of T. can be said to operate in 2 correlated stages. At the first stage, the situation receives an absolute time characteristics by means of opposing the past tense form to the present. The marked member of this opposition is the past form. At the second stage, the situation receives a elative time characteristics by means of opposing the forms of the future to forms of no future marking. Thus we have future and future in the past. Present simple form. In all the uses of the pr. s. form, there is a basic association with the moment of speaking. 1. Usage (unrestricted use) this use is found with verbs of state. It places no limitation on the extension of the state into past and future time. War solves no problems. Limits to the duration of the state may be implied by an adverbial modifier which indicates a contrast of the present with some other period. War no longer solves any problems. The present simple is suitable in the expression of general truth and so is found in scientific statement for all time. Two and three makes five. 2. Instantaneous use the i. use of the present simple occurs with verbs of non-state. This form denotes an event or an action simultaneous with the moment of speaking. It normally occurs in certain easily definable contexts: a) commentaries; b) demonstrations (TV shows). In most of these case the event or action probably doesnt take place exactly at the instant when it is mentioned, its subjective rather than objective simultaneity that is conveyed. c) in exclamations Up we go! d) in stage directions The specter vanishes. e) the situation and the act of speaking are identical I accept your offer. This usage is more characteristic of ceremonial contexts ship launching. 3. Habitual use the h. use of the pr. s. form is confined to verbs of nonstate. The habitual present represents a series of situations. He who hesitates is lost. To emphasise the element of repetition in such sentences one might paraphrase them. Every time one hesitates is lost. Sometimes a plural object helps to single out the habitual meaning. He scores a goal. (instantaneous) He scores goals. (habitual) On other occasions, an adverbial expression of frequency reinforces the notion of repetition. He cycles to work twice a week. When the verb permits both instantaneous and habitual interpretations, some other linguistic indication of iteration should be supplied. 4. Simple present referring to the future. The simple pr. may refer to future time exclusive of the present. I start work next week. 5. Simple present referring to the past. This use is traditionally known by the term historic present. In this case past happenings are portrayed or imagined as if they were going on at the moment of speaking. The present tense form is accompanied by an adverbial modifier indicating past time. The present tense form is used with past time reference in two diff. situations: a) as highly-coloured popular style of oral narrative; b) to narrate fictional events A diff. kind of historic present is formed with verbs of communication. John tells me you are getting married. The present simple may be used to cover information which in strict historical terms belongs to the past (literary criticism). Free variation b/n past and present simple forms occurs in cross-references from one part of the book to another. The problem was/is discussed in chapter II above. Simple past form. there are two elements of meaning involved in the commonest of past tense. One basic component of meaning is: the situation takes place before the present moment. This means that the present moment is excluded. He lived in Italy for 10 years. Another component of meaning is: the speaker has a definite time in mind. This specific time in the past is characteristically by an adverbial expression accompanying the P.T.F. of the verb. Once this was a beautiful spot. With the P.T.F. a difference b/n state and non-state is less significant than it is with the present tense form. The past simple form applies only to completed situations. There is nothing in the past

corresponding to an indefinitely extensive present state. Even whole eras of civilization may appear as complete indivisible happenings. For the past simple form there is no clear cut contrast b/n instantaneous and unrestrictive uses of the present. There is, however, a distinction to be drawn b/n the so-called unitary past and the habitual past describing a repeated situation. In those days he enjoyed a game of tennis. There is also a contrast b/n past situations happening simultaneously and past situations happening in sequence. He enjoyed and admired the sonnets of Shakespeare. He addressed and sealed the envelope. The first sentence doesnt alter its meaning if the order of verbs is reversed, but an alteration of the order of verbs in the second sentence suggests an alteration in the order in which the situations took place. Other temporal relations b/n two consecutive P.T.F. are possible if overtly signaled by a conjunction or an adverbial expression or if made clear by our knowledge of historical precedence. The Portuguese lived on the fringes of Mediterranean civilization; the F. had the advantage of being in its midst. The past tense is used in syntactically dependant clauses to express hypothetical meaning. Its time we had a holiday. Two extensions of the normal past meaning: 1) the past tense is the natural form of the verb to employ in narrative. Whether the situations narrated are true historical events or the fictional events of a novel. There has grown up a convention of using the past for narrative even when the events portrayed are supposed to take place in the future as science fiction. In the year 2121 the interplanetary transit vehicle X. made a routine journey to the moon with 30 people on board. 2) The second special development of the normal past meaning is the use of the past simple in some contexts of everyday conversations refer to the present feelings or thoughts of the people talking. Did you want me? Yes, I hoped you would give me a hand with the painting. The subject of this exchange would probably be the present wishes of the second speaker. The present and past are interchangeable in this context, but there is quite an important difference in tone. The effect of the past tense form is to make the request indirect, thus more polite. The speaker is quite prepared to change his own attitude in the light of the attitude of the listener. The use of the present tense form in this situation would seem rather demanding if it would make a request more difficult to refuse without impoliteness. The past tense form may be used to point a contrast with an unspoken present alternative. I thought you were leaving. (..but now I see you are not.) Imaginary use of the Present Simple Form. The S.Pr.F. may be used with reference not to real time but to imaginary present time (fictional use). Technically, a distinction may be made b/n the historic use of the present and its fictional use. It is customary for novelists to use the past tense to describe imaginary situations. The employment of simple present strikes one as a deviation from normal practice. Some writers use the present in imitation of the popular present tense form of spoken narrative. Mr. T. takes out his papers, asks permission to place them on the golden table at my ladys elbow, puts on his spectacles and starts reading by the light of the shaded lamp. The succession of the Pr.T.F. so used tends to represent a sequence of events. In some other narrative contexts the Pr.T.F. is conventional (in stage directions). Similarly, installments of serial stories (shown on the radio, TV or periodicals) usually begin with recapitulation of previous installments in the present tense. The story so far: J. B. visits his aunt Another special use of the present simple is that of the travelogue itinerary. To reach the lake, we make our way up to the source of the river, then

16. Modal Verbs (Morph)

I. Modality it is a functional semantic category which expresses the speakers view on the relation b/n the activity reported in the sentence and reality. Modality can be expressed in the realm of the sentence in different ways: 1) mood indicative (I speak English.); imperative (Speak English!); subjunctive (God save the Queen!) 2) modal adverbs Perhaps, its raining.(probably, possibly, maybe) 3) modal verb phrases It must be raining. II. Modal verbs they represent a situation as possible or impossible, certain or doubtful, necessary or unnecessary etc. They neednt be used in every sentence and they are to be regarded as an optional meaning of expressing modality. The category of mood, however, is marked in every sentence because its indispensable to predication. Modal adverbs express different degrees of certainty on the part of the speaker or the desirability of the action of the speakers point of view. We find the following modal verbs in English: can, may, must, shall, will, need, ought to, would, could, might, dare. Besides the aux. have and be can constitute modal verb phrases. A modal verb in combination with the infinitive of a notional verb constitutes a compound verbal modal predicate. M.V. are defective since their paradigms lack many forms characteristic of regular verbs: no 3 rd person singular in the present simple tense, no non-finite forms (inf., particles, gerund), they have no analytical forms, some of them lack the past tense form. M.V. have two structural peculiarities: a) they are followed by the infinitive of the notional verb without to (with the exception of ought). You may go out. b) their interrogative and negative forms are constituted without the aux. do. M.V. normally can express two types of meaning: 1 the speaker imposes the situation onto reality. You must submit the essay by Friday. 2 the speaker interprets the relation b/n the situation reported and reality. It must be raining outside. Each of the modal meanings is characterized by a specific usage some of the meanings may be found in all kinds of sentences; other meanings occur in only in affirmative, others only in negative and others occur only in interrogative. Different meanings may be associated with different forms of the infinitive. You must do it. If M.V. have more than one form (will would) their different meanings are not necessarily found in all their forms. The M.V. should and might can be used with reduced modal meaning in combination with a notional verb as a substitute of the subjunctive mood form of the notional verb. Its necessary that an investigation be made (Am.Engl.) should be made (Br.Engl.). III. Semantic juxtaposition of M.V. Can/may the use of can and may is parallel only in two meanings: possibility (due to circumstances) and permission. In these meanings however they are not interchangeable. You may find this book at the library. He can find this book in the library. Their time reference is always different. May refers only to present or future, the form might is used with past time reference only in reported speech. He said I might find the book at the library. Can/could - may refer to present past or future. He can find the book in the library. Could/might combined with a perfect infinitive of the notional verb indicate that the action is not carried out in the past. When may/can express permission, the difference between them is rather that of style than of meaning. May is more formal than can. May I speak;Can I have Besides, the verb may in negative sentences expresses prohibition, but this use is not very common. You may not do that. May/must can be compared in two meanings: a) supposition may denotes certainty, must denotes strong probability. He may be an actor. He must be in his office now. b) they can express prohibition in negative . In negative answers to questions with may, asking for permission we generally find mustnt. May I smoke here? No, you mustnt. must/have to/ be to must indicates obligation or necessity imposed by the speaker. He must do it himself, I wont help him. Have to expresses necessity imposed by the circumstances. He has to do it himself, he has got nobody to help him. Had to implies that the situation took place in the past. He had to do it himself. Be to expresses necessity, resulting from previous arrangement. We are to wait for them at the entrance. Sometimes the idea of obligation is absent in be to, and the meaning is that of a previously arranged plan. We are to go to the cinema tonight. In public notices we find must because they express obligation imposed by some authorities. Visitors must not feed the animals. If the speaker wishes to make it clear that the plan was not fulfilled the perfect infinitive should be used. We were to have met him at the station. In reported speech (in past time context) must remains unchanged in all of its meanings. They believed the story must be true. Shall/should historically they were two forms of the same verb expressing obligation but later they came to express different meanings so that in present day English their use is not parallel and they are treated as two diff. verbs. Shall - 1. The modal meaning of obligation in shall is always associated with its function as future aux. The use of shall with second and third persons is restricted to formal style and is mainly found in subordinate clauses. 2. It is used in affirmative and negative with the first and third persons, shall is used to ask after the will of the addressee. Shall I get you

some coffee? Should used with a reference to the present or future and remains unchanged in reported speech. It has the following meanings: 1. Advisability you should go to bed. Its late. The combination should + perf. inf. has past time reference. He should have stayed at home.2. Strong probability of the speakers supposition. The film should be very good as it is starring first class actors. In this case it equals must. 3. Emotional colouring the use of should in this case is structurally dependent. Why should I help you? 4. Weakened aux. should is used in some types of subordinate clauses with strongly reduced modal meaning. I am sorry that this should have happened. Must/ought to/should All the three verbs can express obligation. Must sounds forceful. You must answer right away. Should and ought to are often interchangeable when expressing obligation. Ought to lays more stress on moral obligation. You ought to help him. Should is commonly used in instructions and corrections. You should use a fork for the eggs. Should/ought to/was to + perf.inf. Should and ought to + perf.inf. show that the action has not been carried out though it was desirable. You should have helped him. Was to + perf.inf. indicates an action that has not been carried out though it was planned. He was to have arrived last week. Will/would Would is historically the past tense form of will. Its used in 2 ways: 1. in past time context to represent a situation as an actual fact. 2. in non-past time context to express unreality or as a more polite form of will. Will/would are treated as forms of the same verb with the basic meaning of volition (a general term which includes such meanings as consent, intention, willingness, and determination to perform an action). However, in some of their meanings the use of Will is parallel only to would denoting an actual fact in the fact; in other meanings will is found alongside of would expressing unreality with non-past time reference. Would expressing an actual fact in the past; 1. habitual action. In this meaning Will/would are found in affirmative . She would sit for hours under the tree 2.refusal to perform an action. He was wet through but he wouldnt change. 3. The subject fails to perform its immediate function. I tried but the door wouldnt open. 4. used with the first person to express determination. I would do anything for him. Will/would expressing unreality in the present: 1. in interrogative , expressing willingness or consent. Will you dine with me tomorrow? 2. the clauses of condition, introduced by if. If you will only let me talk, we are not going to quarrel. The use of Will/would is not parallel in the following cases: 1. will may be used to express supposition with reference to the present or future. This meaning is found with second and third persons. You will have heard the news, Im sure. 2. would may be used rather sarcastically to imply that the situation was not expected. I dont understand him and I dont approve of his decision. No, you wouldnt. Will/would in set phrases: Boys will be boys. Would can be used as a weakened aux. I wish they wouldnt do it. Expression of absence of necessity the following verbs express necessity must, have to, be to, should, ought to. But the verbs must, be to, should and ought to in their negative forms do not express absence of necessity. It can only be expressed by the negative forms of need and have to. Neednt indicates that the speaker gives authority to the subject or the non-performance of an action. You neednt go there. Dont have to is used when absence of necessity is based on external circumstances. You dont have to come to school on Monday. In the past tense dont have to both indicates that there was no necessity and hence no action. You didnt have to go there.

9. Verb (Morph) The V is the most complicated grammatical word class because it performs a central role in the expression of the predicative functions of the . The V has a complicated structure of grammatical categories. The V has also various sub-class divisions, what is more the V falls into two sets of forms profoundly different from each other. The finite and non-finite sets of forms. 1) semantic features of the V: the generalized meaning of the V is a situation presented dynamically. This generalized meaning is embedded in the semantics of all the Vs including those that denote states, events, forms of existence, types of attitude and so on. This holds true not only about the finite Vs but also about the non-finite Vs. This is proved by the fact that in all of its forms the V can be modified by an adverb and with the transitive V it takes a direct object. The most generalized meaning of the notional V determines its characteristics and combine ability with nouns expressing the agent (subject) and in cases of the transitive V. The generalized meaning of the V also determines its combine ability with an adverb which modifies the V. 2) syntactic functions of the V: in the the finite V invariably performs the function of the predicate expressing the categorical features of predication (tense, mood, person, number). The non-finite V performs various other syntactic functions except the function of the predicate because they cannot express tense, mood, person and number. 3) formal features word building patterns: a) the V stems may be simple (go, read), b) built by means of conversion of the noun verb type (to cloud), c) sound replacive blood, to bleed, d) stress replacive transport, to transport, e) through prefixation large, to enlarge, f) through suffixation stupid, to stupefy, g) compound V stems blackmail, h) phrasal V stems: there are two structural varieties: h,1) have, give, take + noun ex. take a walk, h,2) verb + postfix ex. stand up, get off. The grammatical categories of the V are: tense, aspect, voice, mood, person and number and are only marked in the present simple form as well as in the past forms of the V to be. According to their lexicogrammatical features the Vs can be notional (with full nominative value), semi-notional and functional (with partial nominative value). V / \ Notional semi-notional and functional / | \ | | | Trans intrans link catenative modal auxiliary Transitive Vs usually combine with objects in the : they gave Tom the job. Intransitive Vs cannot take an object: the train arrived a 5 oclock at the station. Link Vs function as a structural link between the subject and the subject complement: he is a teacher. Catenative Vs introduce non-finite forms of notional Vs in the : he had his hair cut. Modal Vs express the relation between the reported situation and reality and are used with the infinitive of the notional V: you must do it. Auxiliary Vs: be, have (they constitute analytical, grammatical forms expressing categorial meanings), do (used in negative and interrogative s with predicates in the present simple form or on the past simple form). Modal and auxiliary Vs share four properties called NICE properties N for negation, I interrogation, C code, E emphasis. Semantic classification of notional Vs (based on the relation of the subject of the V to the denoted situation). | - Quality | - intellectual | - STATE- | - Temporary state | - emotion/attitude | | - Private state ------- | - perception | | - Stance | - bodily sensation Situation type | - goings-on | |--EVENT - | - process | | | - momentary event | | | - transitional event |- NON-STATE ---| | | - activity |-- ACTION - | - accomplishment | - momentary act | - transitional act 1) State refers to people or things, what they are like, the position they have taken: a) the Vs of quality be, have: she is beautiful; b) Vs of temporary state be, have: she is happy; c) private state: c.1) intellectual know, like, c.2) attitude like, love, hate, c.3) perception hear, see, c.4) hurt, itch, ache, d) stance: position, - action, 2) non-state : a) events refer to things that happen. There is no stated human or animate agent or instigator for an event: a.1) process a change of state takes place or is implied ex. the general condition appetite improved, a.2) momentary event an event takes place in a moment of time ex. he fell on the ground, a.3) transitional event an event is taking place in a moment of time but entails a change of state ex. they arrived at the station at 5 oclock, a.4) goings-on such events take place involving an animate object. Such events are viewed as being in progress. There is no indication of an end to the going-on ex. this plan is still working, b) actions: they do not just happen. They are usually performed by an animate agent or instigator. Actions are the result of the exercise of a will or intention on the part of the agent. Actions are done by someone. We can identify four types of actions corresponding to the four types of events: b.1) activity a person or other animate agent is involved in doing something. The action is viewed as durative and no result is implied she sang in clubs, b.2) accomplishment a person undertakes an action with a

result or achievement. Accomplishments take place over a period of time Bell discovered the phone. b.3) momentary act an agent performs an action taking place in a moment of time but without end or result he kicked he door. b.4) transitional act the action takes place in a moment of time and involves a change of state he kicked the door open.

1. Simple (Synt) For a better understanding of the we need a complementary approach combining different definitions and an outline of the major features of the . 1) the 1st major feature of the is predicativity (pr-ty). This is the structural feature of the (it does not refer to the relation between the contents of the and reality). Actually pr-ty is the backbone of the . Its also the basis of human thinking and communication. Pr-ty means saying something about something. Pr-ty is a binary relation between two members one member (a subject) is the thing which the thought or is about and another member (the pr-te) which pr-tes something about (describes) the subject. Pr-ve relations should be differentiated from attributive relations. cf. very blue sky attr-ve relation, the sky is blue pr-ve combination, because it denotes some statement or thought whereas the attr-ve relation is just a label of things, objects, etc. By means of pr-ty we are able to relate one notion to another and thus express a statement. cf. blue + sky are notions but the sky is blue/should be blue/would have been blue are statements formed on the basis of the relation of these two notions. Inherently one of the notions is what is being subjected to description (the subject) and the other notion is the description thereof (the pr-te). The subject is anchored in space whereas the pr-te relates to time; thus they both make a spatial temporal framework. Thus pr-ty relates closely to space and time and a very terse definition of pr-ty is relating features and characteristics to an object in space and time. Pr-ty is most often expressed by the subject prte relation. Nevertheless in some cases there may be verbless pr-tes (he a gentleman!) or there may be even one member s (Help!, Fire!) which do express pr-ty but in a rather truncated manner. 2) 2nd feature modality (M). M is not a structural but a semantic feature of the . It has to do with the relation between the statement and reality. A statement is the content of the i.e. whether a statement is true (factive) or is regarded as desirable, imaginable, compulsory etc. M may be expressed by different means of language: the category of mood, modal verbs (can, may etc), modal words (perhaps, maybe, probably etc). 3) 3rd intonation (I). I is a two-fold function of the : to delimit the in the flow of speech (one of the definitions of the is a stretch of speech between two major pauses and pauses are I-nal means). And the twofold function of I is to render communicative meanings such as interrogation, exclamation, declaration. In some cases its only intonation which makes the difference between a word or phrase at one hand and a on the other: cf water and Water!. cold water and Cold Water!?. The words and phrases in these examples are simply labels and express notions whereas the corresponding s express simple thoughts and are units of communication. 4) 4th grammatical well-formedness (GWF). GFW means that a can only serve human communication if it is well shaped in accordance with grammatical rules: cf. he played vs. *he has play. Other features and aspects of the : the is unique as compared to other linguistic units such as words and phrases because s do not exist as such in the language system they are created on the spur of the moment. The is a chunk of text built up as a result of speech making process; words and phrases are listed in the lexicon of the language but there is no preliminary list of s. The , just like any other unit of language, is pairing of meaning and form. Thus a has a semantic (meaning) aspect and a structural (grammatical) aspect. And these are not necessarily in a one-to-one correspondence. In some cases we have one meaning expressed in different structures: ex. Jack owns that car. That car belongs to Jack. In other cases we have one structure with different meanings: ex. Flying planes can be dangerous. Apart from a semantic and structural aspects s also have a communicative (pragmatic) aspect, where a distinction is drawn between old (given) info and new (focal) info. The former is called theme and the latter is called rheme. This pragmatic theory stems from the Prague school of linguistics in 1930s and is known in Bg-a as and in Eng as functional perspective. The simple is a which can be analyzed as a single clause, in terms of subject, verb, adverbial modifier, complement and object. These are the five syntactic constituents of the Eng . The hub of the is the verb. it determines to a large extent the pattern of the . And according to different types of verbs there will be different number and types of complements. Structurally simple s can be divided into two-member s and one-member s. ex. Jane smiled it contains two main parts subject and predicate. There is a relatively limited group of s which do not have the full set of two main parts, only contain one main part and are accordingly called one-member s. This one main part is neither a subject nor a predicate because they are correlative notions: ex. Fire!, Come on!. One member s are to be distinguished from two-member elliptical s: ex. You look vary sad. Why (should I)not (look sad)? Verbless two-member s fall into two types: a) subject-predicate type. The majority of s here are exclamations expressing absurdity: ex. she a beauty! James clever! Such s are not elliptical two-member s because if a supposedly missing verb is supplied, this would result in a radically different meaning. b) predicate-subject type: ex nice thing beer, quite serious this. Such s are kind of elliptical because the meaning wouldnt change radically if a verb is inserted. However only the communicative effect would not be the same.

3. Reference (TL) There are three types of reference (R): personal, demonstrative (d-ve) and comparative. Personal reference is reference by means of function in the speech situation through the category of person. D-ve reference is reference by means of location on a scale of proximity. Comparative reference is indirect reference by means of identity or similarity. We also have extended R. and text R. The pronoun it may refer not only to a noun or nominal expression but also to any identifiable portion of text extended reference. It may refer to a fact in which case we speak of text R. 1) Personal R.: the category of personals includes: personal pronouns, possessive determiners (usually called possessive adjs) and possessive pronouns. Personals referring to the speech roles: speaker and addressee are typically exophoric (ex-ic). They become anaphoric (an-ci) in quoted speech. Personals referring to other roles are typically an-ic. They may be ex-ic when the context of situation permits identification of the referent in question. With generalized ex-ic reference YOU and ONE mean any human individual. WE is used in similar fashion but more concretely, involving a particular group of individuals with which the speaker wants to identify himself. We also distinguish ROYAL and EDITORIAL WE, MEDICAL WE (how are we?) and IMPERSONAL WE used in expository writing. THEY is used to mean persons unspecified. IT occurs as a universal operator in a few expressions (Its hot/cold). In one respect possessive pronouns differ from other personal reference items regarding their an-ic function, whereas the other personals require only one referent for their interpretation, possessive pronouns demand two a possessor and a possessed. Possessive pronouns are doubly an-ic because they are both referential (to the possessor) and elliptical (to the thing possessed). Third person pronouns other than IT may refer cataphorically (cat-ic) to a defining relative clause (he who hesitates is lost). All third person pronouns occur in clauses in which their referent is delayed to the end (they are good theses peaches). IT is very frequently used in this way where the subject of the clause is a nominalization (its true that he works very hard). 2) d-ve R: Neutral the Near near: far: Far (not near) singular this that Selective participant plural these those place here there circumstance time now then The d-ves occur with an-ic function in all varieties of the Eng. Both this/these and that/those refer an-ically to something that has been said before with reference to proximity. that tense to be associated with a past time referent and this for one in the present and future (that/this night). a) singular and plural. The plural forms may refer an-ically not merely to a preceding plural noun but also to sets that are plural in meaning. the singular d-ves may refer to a whole list irrespective of whether or not it contains items that are themselves plural. b) head and modifier. a d-ve as modifier may refer without restriction to any class of nouns. A d-ve as head can refer freely to non-humans. The only instance where d-ves can refer pronominally to human referents whether an-ically or ex-ically is in relational clauses where one element is supplying the identification of the others (ex. do you want to know the woman who designed it? that was marry smith.). 2.1) an-ic and cat-ic d-ves. that is always an-ic. this may be either an-ic or cat-ic. Structural cataphora is very common especially with the definite article but it has no cohesive function. Textual cataphora is true reference forward in the text and therefore is cohesive. the in many ways resembles the d-ves but it has no content. It merely indicates that the item in question is specific and identifiable. The reference is either ex-ic or endophoric. If it is ex-ic then we can have specific situation (ex. dont go: the train is coming) or simply any situation (ex. one member of a class the son, a whole class the stars). With endophora cat-ic reference is limited to the structural type and is never cohesive (ex. the ascent of mount Everest). The only case when the is cohesive is with an-ic reference. It some cases the can be both cat-ic and an-ic [the (cat) people we stayed with had four children. The (cat. an) eldest girl was about nine.] or even cat-ic, an-ic and ex-ic (look at the moon! The daytime moon always seems so sad). The d-ve adverbs here and there regularly refer to extended text and then often with a meaning that is not one of place but of respect (ex. you are wrong there). The temporal dves then and now are much more restricted in their cohesive function. The cohesive use of the d-ve then has the meaning of at the time just referred to and the use of now is confined to those instances in which the meaning is this state of affairs having come about. 3) comparative reference: identity same, equal, identical General similarity such, similar, likewise | difference other, else, different Comparison | numerative more, fewer, so, many Particular epithet better, so good, as bad as General comparison expresses likeness between things (its the same cat as the one saw yesterday). With so and such we may observe extended and text reference. Particular comparison expresses comparison between things in respect of a particular property. (we are demanding higher living standards. Take some more tea.)

4. Substitution (TL) Substitution (S) is a relation between linguistic items such as words or phrases whereas reference is a relation between meanings and ellipses can be defined as S by zero. According to the grammatical function of the substitute (s-te) item there are three types of S: 1) nominal (one, ones, same), 2) verbal (do), 3) clausal (so, not). 1) nominal: the s-te one/ones always function as head of a nominal group and can s-te only for an item which is itself head of a nominal group (I dont like the green dress. I like the red one). One has the same function as dress head. There is no s-te for mass nouns because with S a feature is repudiated and a new feature is introduced (green dress, red dress). Ex These biscuits are stale. Get some fresh ones. This bread is stale. Get some fresh. The nominal s-te one, ones is always accompanied by some modifying element. This element is not necessarily the same in its structural function in the nominal group as that which it repudiates (bullets made of platinum (qualifier). Leaden ones (qualifier)). So S is used where the reference is not identical or there is at least some new specification to be added. one can never s-te for a proper name, because a proper name is already fully defined as unique (ex. have you seen john? well I saw the tall one just now. (more than one john)). With S there is always a contrast and re-definition. With S we can introduce a feature without repudiating another. (ex. did you like fires? Only wood one.) Homonymy of one: a) the personal pronoun one (generalized reference, used exophorically, no cohesive function), b) cardinal number its not modified and is always stressed (ex. he made one very good point), c) the indefinite article one it belongs to the class of non-specific determiners (a, any, either, neither). Its plural form is some and it has the same function as a. (ex. Id like a cup of coffee. Then pour yourself one.) d) the pro-noun generic noun: it s-tes for human reference. Generic nouns are person, people, man, woman, child, boy, girl, object, stuff, business, matter, affair. (ex. the children seemed to enjoy the outing. The one who didnt was George.). The nominal s-te same can s-te for: a) an adj (john sounded rather regretful. Marry sounded the same), b) for a noun, c) for a fact (john thought it was impossible. Yes I thought the same). d) for a process (they all started shouting. So I did the same) 2) verbal S: The verbal s-te in Eng is do. This operates as head of a verbal group. do may s-te either for a verb or for a verb + certain other elements in the clause but it can never s-te for the whole clause. (Does granny look after you every day? She cunt do at weekends) At weekends is introduced, every day is repudiated. Homonymy with do: 1) lexical verb do appears in the following phrases and always transitive. (do some job. I have work to do| Lets do the accounts). 2) General verb do (ex. that will do him good) 3) the pro-verb: it s-tes for an unidentified and unspecified process (Im glad hes doing something) 4) the grammatical operator do (does she sing? Yes she does (operator), No but Marry does (operator, sustitute). 3) Clausal S: the positive form is so, the negative is not. Clausal S takes place in report, condition and modality. a) S of reported clauses (dont you think youd be safer down on the ground? Of course I dont think so) b) S of conditional clauses (everyone seems to think hes guilty. If so, no doubt hell offer to resign). c) S of modalized clauses (would you like my opening the window. Certainly not). Unlike ellipses S does not occur in the passive (has the doctor been called by anyone. * I dont know. *I havent done. *Someone has done. No he hasnt been(ellipses).

5. Connectors and connection (TL) Connection refers to relations between propositions. The presence of a connector is a signal that there is a semantic relation between two propositions. Propositions can also be connected without a connector. Connectives can be: 1) conjunctions (coordinating and subordinating: and, or, because, for, so,). Their function is to make composite s from simple s. 2) sentential adverbs (yet, nevertheless, consequently). They make s out of s. 3) prepositions with a connective character (due to, in spite of, as a result of), 4) interjections and particles (you know, isnt it). Predicates of various categories (to conclude, to concede, to add, it follows that). 1) conjunctions: conjunctions are classified into: a) conjunction, b) disjunction, c) concession, d) contrast, e) condition, f) reason, g) finality, h) circumstantial (time, place, manner). a) Conjunction and it may express: a.1) simultaneous (ex. She is reading and he is writing). a.2.) succession (ex. He opened the window and looked out), a.3) location (ex. He went to the store and bought some beer), a.4) conclusion (ex. the number 5 is a prime number and it is divisible only by one or itself), a.5.) conditionality (ex. Give me your picture and Ill give you mine), a.6) cause (ex. Paul pounded on the stone and he shattered it), b) disjunction: b.1) exclusive relation of disjunction (ex. She is in the kitchen or in the bathroom), exclusive disjunction is more natural if one of the disjunctions if true the whole is true. It two are false the whole is false. Exclusion can be: b.1.1.) necessary (ex.I cannot be both married and single), b.1.2) accidental, b.2) inclusive relation (Ex. He is a president or an actor or both). If the speaker intends to do both alternatives the use of the is incorrect pragmatically not grammatically. c) conditionals facts determine or condition each other. c.1) counterfactual conditionals what is known is that the negation of the antecedent is true (ex. If it had not rained, the soil would have dried up), c.2) hypothetical conditionals the relation between antecedent and consequent is cause and relation if then; in case then. c.2.1) as if relation the antecedent is true in the real world. The consequent is assumed to be false in the actual world. It may denote a comparison on apparent sufficient condition of the fact expressed in the antecedent, c.3.) actual conditionals: because, for, therefore, so, since, due to, hence, thus, while, consequently, ass. d) contrastives their use for exceptional causes of events. With contrastives the antecedent is sufficient condition for the negation of the consequent. They express unexpected or contrastive relations between facts: but, though, although, yet, nevertheless, whereas, in spite of, notwithstanding, anyway. The contrastives are used to express nonsatisfaction of possible, probable or necessary condition. but can be combined with yet and nevertheless (ex. We slept late but nevertheless we caught the boat. unexpected consequence). Events and properties can be contrasted (ex. The glass was very thick, but nevertheless it broke. event. The glass is very thick but nevertheless it is fragile properties). e) sentential adverbs yet, nevertheless, consequently, f) prepositions

6. Ellipsis (TL) Ellipses (E) can be defined as substitution by zero. With E something is unsaid but nevertheless understood. (ex. John bought some carnations and Catherine some sweet peas the verb is omitted. Would you like to hear another verse. I know 12 more. the noun is omitted). There are three types of Es: 1) nominal, 2) verbal, 3) clausal. 1) nominal E has basically to do with what parts in the nominal group can have the function of the head after the head has become elliptical. The function of head is always filled by a common noun, pronoun or proper noun. Proper nouns and pronouns are not further specified. Common nouns can be further specified by deictic, numerative, epithet, classifier. When the common noun is omitted the function of head is taken over by one of the latter elements. 1)a) Determiners functioning as head: determiners or deictic words are specific and non-specific. The specific are demonstrative pronouns, possessive pronouns and the definite article the. The non-specific are each, every, all, both, any, some, either, neither. (ex. The men got back at midnight. All were tired out (all is a deictic word functions as head)). (ex with non-specific determiners Here are my two white silk scarves. Where are yours?). 1).b)In the following example the numerative is upgraded to function as head ex. Four other oysters followed them and yet another four. the second four is head. 1)c) epithet as a head ex. which lasts longer the curved rods of the straight rods. The straight are less likely to break. 1)d) classifier as head - Here are my two white silk scarves. OK would you prefer the cotton. The cotton if the classifier functioning as head. 2) Verbal E: it is sub-divided into a) lexical E have you been swimming? Yes I have (the verb is missing), b) operator E What have you been doing? Jacking off. What precedes the verb is missing. Ex. Taking photographs is a waste of time (non-elliptical). What is he doing? Taking photographs. Operator E. Another ex. Jane was secretary once but I dont think Marry ever has been. (non-elliptical). Jane should have been told but I dont think she has been. (lexical E). 3) clausal Es: it is of two types: a) modal and b) propositional. The is divided into modal and propositional part. The modal element embodies the speech functions of the clause. It consists the subject plus the finite element of the verbal group. The propositional element is the remainder of the verbal group plus any complements or adjuncts. Part of the propositional element can precede the modal element. Ex In the park the duke was going to plant . the ___ is the modal element. E occurs most often in questionanswer pairs. Modal E ex. What were they doing? Holding dicks. The modal element is missing. Propositional E: Has the plane landed? Yes it has. I hear Peter is having an operation. Yes hes having an operation (this is the full ). Yes he is. (propositional E). With clausal E we have to omit more than one element. With the omission of a single element we speak of reference. The line between what is elliptical and what not is not very sharp. Ex. 1. Simons playing. Lets not interrupt. 2. Sandra cleans for me when Im out (the flat is omitted). 3. Run! Here we do not have E though 1 can be treated as elliptical because the complement is missing.

11. Complex (Semant) According to their structure s are subdivided into simple and composite. simple s have only one S-P group(a set of two main parts-subject and predicate), whereas composite s contain more than one clause. Composite s are further subdivided into compound and complex sentences. The compound is structured on the basis of coordination coordinated clauses, while the complex is structured on the basis of subordinationsubordinated clauses. I. Subordination links units on different levels. only two clauses can be linked by subordination. If there are two clauses in the and one of them is subordinate then the other is superordinate (main) clause. If two or more independent clauses are coordinated, each of them can be made superordinate in relation to other clauses. subordination enables us to organize multiple clause structures. Each subordinate clause may itself be superordinate to one or more other clauses, so that a hierarchy is built. 1) independent clause is a clause capable of constituting a simple . 2) dependent clause makes up a gram. only if subordinate to a further clause. Ex. it is late (independent), *because it is late (dependent). Im going home because it is late. (indep. +dep.) II. structural classification of dependent clauses. 1) finite clause: a clause containing a finite verb. ex. because John is working. 2) non-finite clause: containing a nonfinite verb. ex. (John) having seen the pictures. 3) verbless clause : without verbal element. Ex. although always helpful (subordinator) (adverbial) (complement) III. the complex is a unit which can be broken down into immediately smaller units, which are clauses. One of the factors which determine the order in which the constituent clauses of a are arranged is the principle of resolution the final clause bears maximum emphasis. In reading aloud it is often marked by intonation. There are three major types of subordination: 1) initial. Ex. If you agree we shall leave tonight. The initial subordination is limited to one degree of embedding. This is because no subordinate clause can itself be the first element of another subordinate clause, but must at least be preceded by a subordinator. Ex. [{That ( if you could) you would help me} is of small comfort] where if you could is subordinator 2) medial. Ex. We shall leave, if you agree, tonight. Medial subordination is the one that causes most difficulties of comprehension, especially if the nested element is long and complex. 3) final. Ex. We shall leave tonight, if you agree. There is a tendency to favor final subordination. It can reduce awkwardness to a minimum. Ex. [ It is of small comfort { that you would help me ( if you could) }] Temporal clauses and if clauses favor the initial position. Adv. correlative construction require initial placement of the subordinate clause. In spoken English where immediate ease of syntactic composition and comprehension is important/necessary, coordinate structures are often preferred to equivalent structures of subordination: ex. subordination: As it was wet, we decided to stay at home. Ex. coordination: it was wet, (and ) so we decided to stay at home. IV. when there are more than two clauses in a complex , it is possible for ambiguities to arise through alternative analysis that can be given to the same group of clauses: ex. I knew that you had seen him before I met you. interpretations: a) = I knew that, before I met you, you had seen him. b) = before I met you, I knew that you had seen him. Ex. He knows and I know that he knows. The question is whether the final subordinate clause belongs to the second of the coordinate clauses, or to both together. Punctuation or intonation can distinguish them: a) he knows, and I know that he knows. b) He knows, and I know, that he knows. Ex. Something tells me hes cheating and I cant do anything (indep. clause) (subor.clause) (coordinate clause) to make it clear we reintroduce that into the second of the two subordinate clauses: something tells me that he is cheating and (that) I cant do anything. V. Devices for avoiding ambiguity: 1) altering the order of the clauses. 2) using punctuation. 3) supplying elippted elements 4) using intonation.

1. Text and Discourse (TL) The word text is used in linguistics to refer to any passage, spoken or written, of whatever length, that does form a unified whole. A text may be spoken or written, prose or verse, dialogue or monologue. It may be anything from a single proverb to a whole play, from a momentary cry for help to an all-day discussion on a committee. A text is best regarded as a semantic unit: a unit not of form but of meaning. thus it is related to a clause or not by size but by realization, the coding of one symbolic system in another. A text does not consist of s ; it is realized by, or encoded in, s. text is a communicative occurrence that has the following features (seven aspects of textuality): cohesion the grammaticalized aspects of context (reference, elipsis, substitution, connectedness), coherence expressed , informativity, situationality, intertextuality, intentionality and acceptability. A text is a unit of language in use. Language is the basic menas of communication. s are not isolated, we communicate with sequences if utterances and pair s with the context of their use, even if the text is a single . Text is referred to as a process or product when we think of it as process we usually refer to it as discourse. Discourse analysis is the analysis of language in use. As such it cannot be restricted to the description of linguistic forms independent of the purposes or functions which these forms are designed to serve in human affairs. Discourse analysis is concerned with language in use in social contexts, in particular with interactional dialogues between participants. We distinguish also between context of situation and cognitive context (in our mind); cultural context. When speaking of social context we mean the definition of self and situation. Cognitive context concerns our past experience and knowledge. Cultural contexts have to do with shared views and meanings. Context is always genitive and language is communicative addressed to a person, interpreter who is always a recipient. The messages we convey can be informative, communicative, interactive (their aim is to modify the behaviour of the recipient Open the window). Language is reflected even in syntax. Communicative processes guide the emergence and development of syntactic structures. There is much in the structure of languages that can only be explained on the assumption that they have developed for communication in face-to-face interaction. The features of language to prove that language is designed for communication are: 1) redundancy of meaning it is designed to ease the process of communication. 2) designed from the point of view of the recipient theme and dream; it takes into account the current state of information of the recipient. The basic properties of language are structure, meaning, action it forms a structure, conveys meaning and accomplishes actions.

2. Cohesion and Coherence main aspects of text (TL) When we speak of cohesion we first need a term to refer to a single instance of cohesion a term for one occurrence of a pair of cohesively related items this is called a tie. We can characterize any segment of text in terms of the number and kinds of ties which it displays. The different kinds of cohesive tie are the basis on which we can distinguish between the different kinds of cohesion: reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical cohesion. The concept of cohesion is a semantic one; it refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text and that define it as a text. Cohesion occurs where the interpretation of some element in the discourse is dependent on that of another. The one presupposes the other, in the sense that it cannot be effectively decoded except by recourse to it. When this happens, a relation of cohesion is set up, and the two elements, the presupposing and the presupposed, are thereby at least potentially integrated into a text. Cohesion is part of the system of a language. The potential for cohesion lies in the systematic recourses of reference, ellipsis and so on that are built into the language itself. Cohesion is expressed partly through the grammar and partly the vocabulary. We can refer therefore to grammatical cohesion and lexical cohesion. In Wash and core six cooking apples. Put the apples into a fireproof dish., one of the ties is grammatical (reference, expressed by the), the other lexical (reiteration, expressed by apples). The types of cohesion reference, substitution and ellipses are grammatical, but we also have lexical cohesion. Conjunction is on the borderline of the two; mainly grammatical, but with a lexical component in it. Cohesion is a semantic relation. But, like all components of the semantic system, it is realized through the lexico-grammatical system; and it is at this point that the distinction can be drawn. Some forms of cohesion are realized through the grammar and others through the vocabulary. It may be added that certain types of grammatical cohesion are in their turn expressed through intonation. Since cohesive relations are not concerned with structure, they may be found just as well within a as between s. Cohesive relations have in principle nothing to do with boundaries. Cohesion is a semantic relation between an element in the text and some other element that is crucial to the interpretation of if. This other element is also to be found in the text; but its location is in no way determined by the grammatical structure. the two elements, the presupposing and the presupposed, may be structurally related to each other, or they may not; it makes no difference to the cohesive relation. What cohesion has to do with is the way in which the meaning of the elements is interpreted. Where the interpretation of any item in the discourse requires making reference to some other item in the discourse, there is cohesion.

7. Lexical Cohesion (TL) Lexical cohesion (LC) embraces two distinct though related aspects which we refer to as reiteration and collocation. Reiteration is a form of lexical cohesion which involves the repetition of a lexical item, or the occurrence of a synonym of some kind, in the context of reference; i.e. where the two occurrences have the same referent. A reiterated item may be a repetition, a synonym or near-synonym, a superordinate or a general word; and in most cases it is accompanied by a reference item, typically the. Ex. 1. There was a large mushroom growing near her, she stretched herself up on tiptoe, and peeped over the edge of the mushroom. (repetition of mushroom). 2. I took leave and turned to the ascent of the peak. The climb is perfectly easy (climb refers back to ascent, of which it is a synonym.) 3. He clutched the sword and threw it. The great brand made lightnings(here brand refers to sword, of which it is a near synonym). 4. Henrys bought himself a new Jaguar. He practically lives in the car. (here car refers back to Jaguar; and it is a superordinate of Jaguar that is, a name for a more general class.) All these instance have in common the fact that one lexical item refers back to another, to which it is related by having a common referent. This general phenomenon is regarded as reiteration. Collocation ex. Why does this little boy wriggle all the time? Girls dont wriggle. girls and boys are hardly synonyms, nor is there any possibility of their having the same referent; they are mutually exclusive categories. Yet their proximity in a discourse very definitely contributes to the texture. There is obviously a systematic relationship between a pair of words such as boy and girl; they are related by a particular type of oppositeness, called complementarity. We can therefore extend the basis of the lexical relationship that features as a cohesive force and say that there is cohesion between any pair of lexical items that stand to each other to some recognizable lexical semantic (word meaning) relation. This would include not only synonyms and near synonyms such as climbascend, decease-illness, and superoridantes such as elmtree, boy-child, but also pair of opposites of various kinds, complementaries such as boy-girl, stand up-sit down, antonyms such as like-hate, wet-dry (pussy) etc. and converses such as order-obey. It also includes pairs of words drawn from the same ordered series. Ex. If Tuesday occurs in one and Thursday in another, the effect will be cohesive; similarly dollar-cent, NorthSouth. The members of such sets often stand in some recognizable relation to one another; they may be related as part to whole, like car-brake, box-lid, or as part-topart, like mouth-chin. The members of any such set stand in some kind of semantic relation to one another, but for textual purposes it does not much matter what this relation is. There is always the possibility of cohesion between any pair of lexical items which are in some way associated with each other in the language. So it is to be found a very marked cohesive effect deriving from the occurrence in proximity with each other of pairs such as the following, whose meaning relation is not easy to classify in systematic semantic terms: laughjoke, blade-sharp, ill-doctor. The cohesive effect of such pairs depends not so much on any systematic semantic relationship as on their tendency to share the same lexical environment, to occur in collocation with one another. In general, any two lexical items having similar patterns of collocation that is, tending to appear in similar contexts, will generate a cohesive force if they occur in adjacent s.

6. The articles specific/generic reference (Morph) I. Articles (a, the) the use of the articles is not the only possibility for determining nouns in the gram. sense of the word. There are other lingual units that function in a similar way: possessive, demonstrative, interrogative, indefinite, negative, defining pronouns. These words are called determiners. They constitute a closed system. This means that they are of limited number and their number cannot be expanded by the creation of additional elements. Within this system the articles are central i.e. they have no function independent of the noun they precede. Furthermore the articles have no lexical meaning of their own but only contribute definite gram. status to the nouns they determine. The dependence is not unilateral. The definite article can occur with common countable and uncountable nouns. a/an can occur only with single nouns. The articles and the rest of the elements in this closed system are closely connected with the nouns they determine. In addition to determiners there is a large number of other items that occur in determinative function in combination with some central determiner. We can divide those units into two groups: pre and post determiners. 1) Predet. are unique in occurring before the determiner. They can be grouped into three varieties: a) all, both, half, b) multiplier double, twice, thrice, c) fractions . Predeterminers are reciprocally exclusive. 2) Post determiners can be subdivided into: a) ordinals first, other, last. There are two kinds of patterning with ordinal numbers: first, next + cardinal numbers = first two. Second, third and the other ordinals cannot be followed by any quantifier and modify singular countable nouns. Cardinals and quantifiers are mutually exclusive, b) Cardinal numbers are used in the following way: one accompanies singular countable nouns, two, three combine with plural countable nouns. ex. all the four brothers are sailors, c) quantifiers many, little, more, several. These are mutually exclusive several occurs without an indefinite article. Ex. several charming girls. Plenty of, a lot, of lots of also function as post determiners. II. Articles with common nouns concrete countable nouns are used with generic reference. When it is used like this the distinction between singular and plural and the distinction between definite and indefinite are gram. irrelevant. Ex. Kittens like to play. A kitten likes to play. 4) common countable nouns used with specific reference. Ex. There is a kitten playing on the sofa. Some kit.. 5) abstract nouns as a rule do not take an article when standing alone. Ex. you must learn to face life seriously. Sometimes concrete nouns acquire abstract meanings this shift of meaning results in a shift of semantic subclass. Such nouns are treated as uncountable. ex. Outside it was night. III. The use of articles with proper nouns proper nouns can be divided into two groups: a) given and b) descriptive names. a) Given are conventional designations that tell us nothing about the referent itself. b) Descriptive are derived from common noun, usually with some defining modifier. Ex. the United States of America. Descriptive names as a rule include an article. The Netherlands, the Ukraine. Names of people are among the most typical examples of given names. When standing alone names of people do not as a rule take an article. If however the name is accompanied by an adj., the use of an article becomes necessary. The definite article is included in the structure of the phrase when the adj. denotes some permanent quality of the referent of the noun. Ex. The immortal Shakespeare. Exceptions: the adj. young, old, poor, little do not take the article because they are considered to be forming part of the name itself. When the adj denotes a temporary feature the indefinite article should be included in the structure of the phrase: ex. He was received by an unsually sad Marry-Ann. The definite article is often used with family names in the plural: ex. The Browns. The indefinite article may occur with a family name meaning one member of that family: ex. She was a Stewart. *Names combined with titles. Titles are common nouns. When they stand by themselves they take an article. Ex. Once upon a time there lived a king. He is the king of Britain. When a territorial name is included in a title, the definite article is also included. Ex. The prince of Wales. When the title is combined with a personal name the article is dropped. ex. Queen Elizabeth, Prince Charles; exception the Emperor Napoleon. *Titles of periodicals. The names of novels, plays are usually treated as independent entities forming a proper noun. The title itself may contain an article it its own right. Ex. cf. The mill on the floss. and George Elliots Mill on the floss. In referring to classical literature the article is often added. Ex. The Prometheus inchained. Names of paintings and statues are usually accompanied by the artists name and take no articles. Ex. Michelangelos David. Names of newspapers and periodicals usually print the definite article: ex. The daily news. The times. In referring to periodicals the definite article should be used: he was reading The Spectator. Names of ships always take the definite article. Ex. The Titanic. Names of hotels: ex. The Ritz, but Hotel Ritz. Names of countries. Given names take no article: France, Holland, Nigeria. Descriptive names usually include the definite article. The United States of America. Names of districts the majority are given names. ex. Wessex. Descriptive names take definite article: The Balkans. Towns and villages nearly always have given names: London, New York; the chief exception is The Hague. Names of mountains: names of mountain ranges are frequently formed of an adj+mountain: The Rocky Mountains. Smaller or less

well known mountains or mountain peaks are given names and take no article. Ex. Rila, Mount Everest. Names of seas and oceans: these are always descriptive and include the definite article: The Black Sea. Names of lakes: Lake Michigan. Names of rivers: The Thames. Buildings and institutions: a) West Minster Abbey, b) adj+definition The National Gallery, c) The Tate Gallery. IV. Specific/generic reference: common nouns can be used in two different ways with specific or generic reference. Generic reference is used to denote what is typical or normal for members of a class. Ex. tigers are dangerous animals. A tiger is a dangerous animal. The French are amicable people. Specific reference is observed in classes when the noun is used to denote specific specimen of the class: ex. A lion and two tigers are sleeping in the cage. The lion in the cage is quite young. 1) Generic reference uncountable nouns and plural countable nouns used with generic reference do not take an article. Ex. He likes cheese, (uncountable concrete). He likes literature (uncountable abstract). He likes computer games. (countable plural). The use of a defining modifier require the definite article. Ex. He likes the music of Beethoven. Nationality words are used with generic reference accompanied by the definite article. Ex. The Turks captured Turnovo in 1393. Adjs denoting personal qualities, when substantivized take the definite article as a rule. Ex. The rich, the blind. Such nouns are always used with plural verbs. Non-personal adjs can be sunstantivized too. They take the definite article and combine with singular verbs. Ex. The evil. Common concrete nouns sometimes acquire abstract meanings. In such cases they take no article. Ex. They left town early in the morning. It is spring. 2) specific reference the indefinite form is taken to be the unmarked form in the system of definiteness. Its natural to consider the indefinite as basic to the idea of definiteness. The definite can be shown to be secondary to the indefinite in the following . John bought a computer and a CD player but later returned the CD player. The use of the definite article in the second part of the is dependent on the earlier mentioning of the same noun with the same referent preceded by the indefinite article. Ex. The computer John bought is Japanese. These are two s that contain linguistic reasons for the use of the definite article within the noun phrase structure. In such cases we speak of linguistic specific reference. Sometimes the definite article is used with nouns whose reference is immediately understood by the users of the language either because of the cultural situation or because the referent is only one. ex. It is in the press, the moon, the ground. In such cases we speak of situational specific reference.