CHAPTER - 5

SURVEILLANCE RADAR (Radar) 5. RADAR THEORY

5.1. Introduction The word RADAR was originally derived from the descriptive phrase "Radio Detection And Ranging". Although this phrase has for a long time been used, it seems to be an incomplete description of what Radar can be used for. The present-day RADAR can provide much more information than finding the range of an object. The fundamental principal of all Radar systems is to calculate the distance of an object from the Radar site by measuring the time a pulse of radio energy takes to travel to the object and back again. The importance of radar in aviation is that it can provide information about the precise position and velocity of the aircraft. In addition, the more complex equipment can supply other useful data, such as, velocity, identification, height, etc. Radar can contribute to the safety and surveillance of the aircraft in thick density areas. For example, near an aerodrome, where the air traffic density is very high, radar may be used to sequence the aircraft onto final approach as a final approach aid, and for separation soon after take off. There are two basic types of Radar system: Primary Radar - A system, which uses reflected radio, signals. Secondary Radar - A system in which radio signals transmitted from the Radar station on the ground initiates the transmission of radio signals from another station, e.g. aircraft. A basic primary radar system is illustrated in fig.1-1 below. Pulses of radar energy are transmitted in the desired direction. Some of the pulses of energy may encounter the target. A portion of this energy is reflected by the target and returns back to radar receiver. Information about this target is then extracted and displayed in a suitable display system such as radarscope.
Antenna Target

Tx.

Rx.

Display (Radarscope) (Fig.5.1: Basic block diagram of Radar)

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The basic principal of secondary radar is much the same but there is one important difference which should be clearly understood. While primary radar employs reflected pulses, the secondary radar requires the object to transmit its own energy. The secondary radar systems have become more complicated than the primary radar and now they are capable of providing much more information than the primary radar. Both primary and secondary radar shall be dealt with in detail in the following paragraphs. Some of the terminologies being used in Radar are:
Radar Energy: part of radio energy spectrum between about 1mm and 100cm which is transmitted in a series of pulses of fairly short duration in the region of 5 s. Radar Echo: visual indication on a display of a signal reflected from an object in the Primary Radar. Radar Response: visual indication on a display of a Radar signal transmitted from an object in reply to an interrogation in the Secondary Radar. Radar Blip: a collective term meaning either Echo or Response.

Use of Radar in Civil Aviation

Surveillance is one of the most important elements in aviation. Through surveillance an air traffic control post can monitor the movements of aircraft as well as can provide guidance and avert accidents. In aviation surveillance is done in two ways: a) Through position reporting b) Through Radar. Providing surveillance through position reporting by aircraft is highly unreliable and could cause misunderstandings resulting in fatal accidents. Therefore, radar has been widely used in civil aviation as one of the major surveillance tools for many years now. The prime purpose is to detect the aircraft flying within the controlled as well as uncontrolled airspace for traffic separation and control, and also for providing guidance during landing. Some of the uses of radar in aviation are as follows: ASR (Airport Surveillance Radar) It is a medium to low power primary radar installed for surveillance and traffic separation in the airport terminal area. It works in S-band with pulse power up to 1 MW and antenna revolution around 15rpm. PAR (Precision Approach Radar) With this radar an air traffic controller guides the approaching aircraft to take the correct approach to the airport. PAR works in the band 9000 - 9180 MHz and normally of low power. ARSR (Air Route Surveillance Radar) As the name denotes, ARSR works as an air-route surveillance radar with relatively high coverage range of 200 to 300NM. It works in L-band (1250 - 1350 MHz) and normally placed in the air routes with high traffic density.

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5.2 PRIMARY RADAR 5.2.1 General Block Diagramme The purpose of primary radar system in aviation is to present a continuous supply of useful information to the air traffic controllers on the ground regarding the range, bearing and, in some cases, elevation of the aircraft within the operational range of the radar system. Thus, every primary radar system must be capable of: Transmission Reception Display

A basic block diagram of the primary radar is shown in Fig.1-2. Trigger Unit, which is also called as the Master Timer, provides triggering signals in the form of a series of very brief electrical pulses at a regular interval. Each pulse fires the modulator to send a high power high voltage pulses to the transmitter. The duration of square wave pulses from the modulator is determined by certain design characteristics in the modulator. The beginning of each pulse from the modulator unit switches on the transmitter and the end of the same pulse switches it off. Thus the modulator pulses represent a kind of on/off switch for the transmitter.

Antenna Antenna movement control Tx. RF Energy Pulses

T/R SW

Transmitter

High Gain Low Noise Receiver

Switching pulses

Modulator
Trigger pulses

Signal from Receiver

Radar Display Unit

Sync signal from Trigger unit Reference Data

Trigger Unit

Time Base Unit

(FIG. 5.2 Basic primary radar block diagram)

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In primary radar, since the incoming signal has to return back from a long distance, high transmission power is desirable so as the received signal is not too weak to be detected. Therefore, the Transmitter unit is consists of a Magnetron or Klystron. For low powered systems requiring smaller coverage, solid state transmitters are also used. As seen from the block diagram, the transmitter is radiating only for a very brief duration - usually in the region of millionth of a second. The output of the transmitter is a series of pulses of radar energy. Each pulse thus produced is delivered to the aerial. Electromagnetic energy from the transmitter is radiated from the aerial at a regular interval. The radiated energy is confined within a fairly narrow beam. The receiving aerial should be sensitive within the same fairly narrow angle so that echoes from the objects illuminated by the transmitter can also be detected. Therefore, normally same aerial is employed for both transmission and reception. However, because the receiver has to be very sensitive, it must be protected each time a pulse of high power is transmitted by the transmitter. This is achieved by isolating the receiver during transmission with a Transmit/Receive Switch. If the radar system has to search an appreciable sector with a narrow beam, then the beam must be moved about in that sector. One way of achieving this movement, which is referred to as "scanning", is to rotate the whole aerial unit. Therefore, the radar antenna is being rotated at a constant speed. The signal reception block detects energy reflected from the objects within the operational range of the radar system. The received signal, being very weak, is first of all amplified and suitably treated by the high gain low noise receiver prior to sending it to the display unit. The received signal is displayed on the screen of the display unit. As range is calculated by measuring the time between transmission and reception, it is necessary to synchronize the start of the time base with the beginning of transmitted pulse. This is done in the time base unit upon information from the trigger unit. The reference data is added in order to isolate the unwanted echoes. To summarize, while the system is transmitting the reception block is inoperative and during reception the transmitter block is isolated. The aerial is connected alternatively from transmitter to receiver by the transmit/receive switch. Information from trigger unit starts the whole cycle of operation in the transmission block and is also used to synchronize the display block. Finally, the display unit gives the precise information on target.

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5.2.2

Radiation Pattern

Primary radar produces a very narrow beamwidth to the tune of 2- 3. A beamwidth is defined as the angle between the two directions that pass through the power radiation pattern at the half maximum point. A coverage diagramme is a general indication of the performance of a specific radar system and is one of the ways manufacturers summarize the anticipated performance of their radar system. The vertical coverage diagramme of a radar system takes into account the inherent design factors and general environmental factors, such as effect of ground, curvature of earth, atmospheric refraction, absorption due to gas and vapour, etc. The angle of tilt of the aerial and its height above the ground will have a considerable influence on performance of radar. In civil aviation, aircraft are unlikely to exceed a given altitude. For the tracking of an approaching aircraft less energy will be required from the ground radar as the range decreases. This knowledge to used to determine a special vertical radiation pattern for the radar aerial. Fig 1-3 indicates that as the aircraft flies towards the radar at constant altitude "h", the range is equal to "h Cosec ".

Line of flight h Cosec Radar

(Fig.5-3)

To maintain this relationship the radiation pattern should be such that the signal strength is caused to vary as "Cosec " and power as "Cosec2 " since (P E2 ). Figure 1-4 illustrates a typical vertical coverage diagramme of radar.
40 20 10 9 8 7 6 5

4
3 2

1 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 NM

(Fig 5-4 Vertical coverage diagram of radar)

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The actual coverage diagramme of a radar system will not be quite the same as above due to modifications by hills, valleys, etc. It is therefore, necessary to assess the actual coverage using an aircraft by flying a series of predetermined tracks at various heights and plotting the actual coverage map. From the flight check an actual coverage diagramme is prepared and this information determines the extent to which a particular radar system can be used. The operational requirements of a radar system may require a narrow beam for accurate tracking of aircraft, or they may require a broad beam for search purposes. Therefore, for a given beamwidth the longer the wavelength the larger must be the aerial system. The problem of mechanical design and the question of cost tend to favour smaller aerial systems and, hence, shorter operational wave lengths desirable.

5.2.3

Antenna System

An aerial is that part of radar system which is designed to radiate and/or receive electromagnetic energy. If a narrow beam is required the aerial dimensions must be large in relation to the wavelength. A narrow beam in azimuth is combined with a wide beam in elevation is the usual requirement in air traffic control. Such a combination is obtained by use of one or both of the following: Linear arrays Shaped reflector

A linear array consists of a number of sources of electromagnetic radiation equally spaced along a straight line. These sources maybe either the "Dipoles" or "Slots in a waveguide". At any point in space the electromagnetic radiation from these sources have phase differences causing additions and subtractions of field strengths. This property is being used to design an aerial with specific field pattern and strength. In radar antenna use of reflector is mandatory which improves the pattern in the forward direction by reducing wastage in the backward direction. The basic shape of the reflector used in radar system is normally a parabola. Parabola is one of the curves most used in science because it posses useful geometric properties. A parabola reflector is illustrated in Fig 1-5.
A C B D

Axis
F

(Fig. 5-5 Properties of Parabola)

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Out of many properties of parabola, the two most useful for antenna design are the following: All the rays generated from the focal point or focus "F" will strike the parabola and reflect back as the parallel rays. Thus AB will be parallel to CD and so on. Another property of parabola is that all rays, which strike the reflector, have equal path length from a perpendicular to the axis of parabola to its focus. . For example, path length BAF= path length DCF.

Therefore, echo signals at focus will arrive in phase and add together producing large signal strength. Many radar reflectors are based on parabolic section.

5. 2.4

Choice of wavelength and factors affecting radiation

For a variety of reasons much of the electromagnetic spectrum is not suitable in air traffic control radar. On a cloudy day the use of any part of the visible spectrum would be very restricted due to absorption factor, whilst the use of X-ray band is dangerous to life and limb. The long wavelength in "wireless region" could be used but would require enormous aerial system if any kind of directivity is required. Therefore, choice of wavelength from =1mm to = 100cm is being of interest and is considered for radar operation. For better performance, it is preferable that the number of cycles of radio energy transmitted during the time of pulse length should be as high as possible. A 1 s wavelength at 3GHz contains 3000 cycles, whereas at 300 MHz would contain only 300 cycles. When a radar system has to be designed for a specific role the relative importance of the factors which affect the choice of the wavelength must be carefully examined. A factor, which may be important in one type of radar system, may be of relatively less importance in another. Compromises have to be therefore made. While choosing a wavelength for a particular radar installation, the following factors should be taken into consideration:

5.2.4.1 Range From the radar equation, explained in detail in paragraph 2.5 and shown hereunder, it is evident that there is no simple dependence of maximum radar range upon wavelength . However, the maximum range seems to be possible to increase by increasing Rmax = 4 P t G2 2 s 64 3 Pr

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On the other hand, if the aerial gain G, in the above equation is substituted, the Maximum range can be written as: G = Ar 4 2 Rmax = 4 or Pt Ar2 s 4 2 Pr

From above it is seen that maximum range can be obtained by making the wavelength as small as possible. The above two equations are contradictory to each other. This is because the maximum range is not only dependent on itself. Therefore, maximum range is not usually the prime consideration while determining the frequency for a particular radar installation. 5.2.4.2 Effect of frequency on vertical coverage The free space vertical radiation pattern of an aerial system is considerably modified when the aerial system is used near the ground. The shape of vertical radiation pattern is partly dependent upon the wavelength of the transmitted energy in that: The pattern has more lobes with the shorter wavelength. The ground coverage is better with the shorter wavelength.

Longer wavelength

Shorter wavelength

(Fig. 5-6 Radiation characteristics of radio waves)

The relationship between wavelength and coverage is given in the equation: = /H Where the radiation angle is in radian, is the wavelength and H is the height of the antenna above ground. From above it is evident that the shorter the wavelength smaller the angle of radiation and better the coverage. 5.2.4.3 Atmospheric effects When electromagnetic energy is propagated through the atmosphere some loss of energy may occur due to absorption by molecules, gases and vapour present in the atmosphere. Some energy may also be absorbed and/or scattered by 'particles' such as raindrops, snow, etc. Because of this not only is a radar signal attenuated but unwanted 'masking' effects may also appear on the display screen due to scattered energy. All these effects are dependent upon the wavelength and explained below.

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a) Attenuation by Gases and vapour. The process of absorption is very much dependent on the molecular structure of the gas or vapour. For a given gas or vapour the absorption has peaks at certain values of . Oxygen can heavily attenuate electromagnetic energy at wavelengths between 0.25 cm to 0.5cm. At wavelengths longer than 0.5cm the attenuation due to oxygen is very small. Similarly, for water vapour there is considerable absorption of electromagnetic energy at wavelengths shorter than about 0.5 cm. However, at wavelengths longer than 2 cm (15GHz) the attenuation due to water vapour is very small. Therefore, attenuation by gases and vapour is not a threat in radar. b) Attenuation by Raindrops When electromagnetic energy encounters a raindrop, part of the energy may be absorbed and part may be scattered. The incident energy thus suffers attenuation, which is dependent upon the wavelength of the radiation and the drop size. Since the drop size distribution varies in a known manner with the intensity of precipitation (i.e. with 'how hard it is raining'), theoretically it is possible to calculate signal attenuation in terms of the precipitation rate. For wavelengths longer than 10 cm (<3 GHz) the attenuation due to raindrops is negligible. For wavelengths from 10cm to 4cm (7.5 GHz to 3 GHz) attenuation is significant only during heavy rains. The wavelengths shorter than 4-cm attenuation becomes significant in temperate climates whereas, in wavelengths shorter than 1 cm (30 GHz) attenuation by raindrops is a serious problem even in quite light rain. One conclusion which could be drawn from the above is that wavelengths shorter than 3 cm (10 GHz)should not be used for long range radar systems due to heavy absorption by gas and water vapour or drops. c)Attenuation by Cloud and Fog In cloud and fog the 'drop' sizes are very small compared to rain. Calculations show that the attenuation due to cloud or fog is proportional to the mass of water present in per unit volume. Therefore, more dense the fog (or cloud) more signal attenuation. It has been found that the attenuation due to cloud and fog becomes a serious problem only when wavelength used is shorter than 1cm (30 GHz). d) Attenuation by Hail For wavelengths shorter than 1-cm, attenuation by hailstones is small compared with that caused by rain of equivalent water content. For wavelengths longer than 1 cm the attenuation by hail is comparable with that caused by rain of equivalent water content. e)Echoes from Rain Some electromagnetic energy may be scattered by raindrops. Part of the scattered energy may be received in the radar receiver and may show up on the display. If the radar system has been designed to provide information on storms. etc., this is desirable, but if the radar system has been designed to give information on aircraft movements, the masking effect of the rain echoes could be very serious.

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As a general rule the shorter the wavelength the greater will be the reflection from rain drops and more masking effect. The masking effect of echoes from rain may be greatly reduced by the use of circularly polarized radar energy. f) Supper refraction The earth is surrounded by an atmosphere which, even ignoring phenomena such as cloud and fog, is not uniform in all its properties. One of these non-uniform properties is the refractive index. The decrease in refractive index with increasing altitude causes the path of a beam of radar energy to bend. Usually the change in refractive index is small and the bending of the radar beam is slight enabling the radar system to see a little beyond the geometric horizon. Under certain circumstances the refractive index of the atmosphere decreases with height more rapidly than is usual and a more marked downward bending of the radar beam occurs. For the shorterwavelength radar this can lead to strikingly improved low coverage at long range.
Line of horizon
Refraction of waves Earth's curvature extended coverage

Radar (Fig. 5-7 Extension of radar range due to refraction)

In exceptional circumstances the radar energy may be so concentrated in paths following the earth's curvature that echoes may be received from objects at ranges far in excess of those allowed for in the radar design. Under these atmospheric circumstances the radar energy is trapped in atmospheric ducts and its behaviour is similar to what it would be in a waveguide. For a particular height of atmospheric duct. Super refraction can occur at particular wavelengths of transmission. The most common duct heights seldom exceed 10 metres and the centimetric wavelengths are the ones most affected. Super-refraction is rarely experienced when using greater than 10 meters. Super-refraction helps production of echoes from low-lying ground or low-flying aircraft, which would not usually be detected by the radar. It also helps in reception of echoes from ranges in excess of those allowed for in the radar design.

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5.2.5 Radar equation and radar range 5.2.5.1 Free space Radar equation The ground radar systems being used in civil aviation have been designed for various specific purposes. Some of them are used for short distances whereas others for great distances. One of the important factors is to establish the maximum range. Maximum range is dependent on the characteristics of the aerial, transmitter, receiver and the size of the target. Ignoring for the time being the effect of ground on the radiation pattern from the aerial, let's examine the relationship between maximum range and the following parameters: R Pt G S Ar Pr - Range of the aircraft in meters - Transmitted power in Watts - Gain of the aerial - Equivalent echoing area of the aircraft - Effective absorbing area of the aerial while receiving - Received power in Watts

The transmitted power is the power that is transmitted for the duration of the pulse. In radar terminology this is known as the "peak power". During the period between pulses the transmitter is not generating any power. The "effective mean power" will be somewhat much smaller than the peak power and can be expressed as follows: Mean power = Pt X Pulse length = Pt x Pulse Length x PRF PRI Therefore, for example, if the peak power Pt is 1MW, Pulse length is 1 s and pulse repetition frequency (PRF) is 500/sec then the mean power will be: Mean power = 1x106 x1x10-6 x500 = 500W

If we first of all assume that the transmitted power is radiated equally in all directions, it will be spread out progressively over great areas as it travels further away from the transmitter. As the received power density is inversely proportional to the distance from the transmitter, the power density intercepted at a distance R at the target will be: Pt W/m2
4 R2

Now if the aerial is designed to concentrate its power in one direction only, the power density will be increased by an amount G, the gain of the antenna. Therefore the density intercepted at R will be: Pt x G
4 R
2

W/m2

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(Fig. 5-8 Power density at interception) In Fig. 1-8 an aircraft at range R meters intercepts the transmitted power. Some of its energy is reflected back to the radar on the ground. The amount of reflection will depend upon the particular echoing characteristics of the aircraft and a factor equivalent to echoing area; s. Therefore, the power Pd radiated from the aircraft is given by the formula: Pd = Pt x GxS Watts 4R2 As the power travels towards the radar site it is further attenuated according to the inverse square law. Therefore power density intercepted by the radar aerial Pa will be: Pa = Pt xGxS W/m2 16R4 The power actually fed into the receiver, Pr will be dependent upon the effective absorbing area, Ar of the aerial. Therefore: Pr = Pt xGxSx Ar 16 2 R4 5.2.5.2 Radar Range Transposing the above we could get the equation for the radar range as follows: W/m2

R= 4

PtxGxSx Ar 16 2 Pr

meters

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From the above equation it is evident that the maximum range of a primary radar is dependent on several factors, such as transmitted power, gain of the antenna, area of the reflecting object, effective absorbing area of the radar antenna and received power. However, one factor that will affect more than others is the capability of the radar receiver to receive the smallest possible signal Pr that can be identified and accepted by its threshold. If the other parameters are considered to be constant then the formula can be written as Rmax = k. 4 Pt

From the above it is seen that if it is required to double the maximum range by increasing the transmitted power, the increase has to be 16 fold, which is not an ideal solution. Conversely, the effect of doubling the transmitted power would be to increase the maximum range by just 42..times. i.e.1.19 times, which is an increase of only 19%. Further, the absorbing area of the antenna can be written as: Therefore the radar equation can be now written as: Rmax = 4 Pt G2 2s 643 Pr Ar = G 2/ 4

The above equation shows that for the fixed wavelength , the maximum range varies as the square root of the antenna gain, G. Therefore, if it is required to increase the range of the radar it is more practical to increase the antenna gain than to increase the transmitter power. Antenna gain can be easily increased by using special techniques available in modern-day antenna engineering.

5.2.6 Aircraft echoing area An aircraft provides a complete reflecting surface, which intercepts a small part of the radar beam cross section. Echoes from the same type of aircraft may differ from each other depending upon the position of the aircraft during the strike of the incoming signal. An aircraft in flight produces fluctuating echoes of a random nature. The average of these is the "equivalent echoing area". In other terms, the equivalent echoing area of an aircraft is defined as the cross section area of the transmitted power beam which must be intercepted to re-radiate the power which when received by the antenna is equivalent to the actual energy reflected from the aircraft. It is a convenient way of providing a figure for calculating various quantities, such as the maximum range of a radar installation. The ICAO standard target is 15 m2, but the equivalent echoing area can be as small as 1 m2 for medium size jet aircraft head on or as large as 1000 m2 for a wide bodied aircraft for full length. Most aircraft are of a complex shape presenting reflecting surfaces, which can reflect differently with different aircraft attitudes. It has been shown, as a result of experiments, that for different wavelengths the same aircraft can give widely varying echoes.

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2.6 Pulse length and pulse recurrent frequency As described earlier, the modulator unit produces square wave pulses Fig.1-9B, which when modulates the transmitter it produces the pulses of radio energy Fig.1-9A with the same length and at the same pulse recurrent frequency.

(A)

Pulse Length

Pulse Recurrence Interval (PRI)

(B)
(Fig. 5-9 Tx pulse characteristics)

The time interval between pulses is known as the Pulse Recurrence Interval (PRI). The rate at which the pulses occur is known as Pulse Recurrence Frequency (PRF) Thus, PRF = 1 PRI

For example, a PRF of 500 pulses per second would result a PRI of 2000 s. The duration of pulses is usually known as Pulse Length, although the term Pulse Width is also used. The actual duration depends upon the specifications and design of the radar system and for Air Traffic Radar it is fixed somewhere between 0.05s and 10s. Generally an increase in pulse length improves the chances of detecting an aircraft, but by increasing the pulse length the range may decrease. 5.2.7 Minimum and Maximum Range Minimum Range The radar energy received by the radar aerial has had to travel a distance equal to twice the range, i.e. 2R. Since Time T = 2R Where V being the velocity of light, 300,000 Km/Sec. V Then, R = TV, Hence, for pulse width of T= 1s, R = 150 meters. 2 The minimum range of a radar installation is determined by the period between the beginning of the transmission of the pulse and the earliest time that its return can be registered. Two factors affect this time:

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1. The pulse width - It is not possible to start measuring the time until the whole pulse has been transmitted. Hence width of a pulse determines the minimum range. For example, for a pulse width of 1s the minimum range is 150m. 2. Receiver restoration time - The time the receiver takes to recover to normal after transmission has taken place, which in turn, depends upon the design of a particular equipment.

Maximum range In Radar the next energy pulse is only transmitted after the first one has traveled to its maximum range and had time to travel back. Therefore, the time interval between two pulses will limit the theoretical maximum range of radar. Since R = TV 2 and T=1 PRF Hence, R = V 2PRF Hence R 1/PRF

1. From the above it is seen that the maximum range attainable by a radar is inversely proportional to the pulse repetition frequency. More the pulse repetition frequency lesser the maximum attainable range by a radar installation. 2. For a particular radar system design, Pt, G and Ar will remain constant. Therefore, from the radar range equation shown hereunder it is evident that the maximum range of a radar installation will depend upon received reflected power Pr by the radar antenna. Pr is the smallest power that can be identified as a signal after passing through the receiver to the display.

R= 4

PtxGxSx Ar 16 2 Pr

meters

Identification of a signal maybe hampered by the presence of noise. At low frequencies the noise may arrive at the aerial mixed with the signal. However, it is the internal receiver noise that matters most. As the receiver itself generates the receiver internal noise, Pr will depend upon the quality of the receiver and will be responsible for maximum range of a particular radar for its transmitted power and aerial system. To combat the problem of receiver noise "parametric amplifiers" are commonly used in radar receivers. Research on low noise receivers continues in an attempt to achieve further improvements.

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5.2.8

Display

The information made available by the radar system must be visually displayed in a way which makes interpretation as easy as possible. Displaying the echoes using cathode ray tube (CRT) is fairly common and most used in air traffic control radar systems. An echo is displayed by the radar system appears as a bright spot on the screen of the CRT. This information will not mean much to an air traffic controller if the rest of the screen is blank. Therefore, useful reference data, such as range marks, bearing marks, video map, etc. are available on the screen to find out the position of a target.

0 315

Range in NM

45

270

90

225 180

135

(Fig. 5-10 Display CRT Graticules)

5.2.9

Summary

The accuracy of a radar system is gauged by its ability to indicate the true position (range and bearing) of the target on the display. The overall accuracy depends upon the design of equipment with better synchronization and calibration. It should be noted that accuracy is not only related to good resolution of the display. A display with good resolution may be incorrect, whereas an accurate display may have poor resolution. Similarly, the range of the radar is dependent on several factors. The following Fig.1- 11 summarizes what has been stated in the previous paragraphs. RADAR RANGE

Rx.Efficiency

Antenna Gain

No. of Strikes

Tx. Power

Pulse Width

PRF

Beamwidth RADAR DISPLAY

Scanner Rate

Beam Width

PRF

Spot Size

Scanner Rate

Pulse Width

(FIG. 5-11 Summary of radar range & display)

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5.3 SECONDARY SURVEILLANCE RADAR (SSR) 5.3.1 General Introduction Secondary radar is described in civil aviation as the Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR). It consists of a ground-based transmitter/Receiver, which works in conjunction with airborne Transmitter/Receiver. The ground-based unit triggers the airborne transponder into operation when particular conditions are satisfied. SSR is used all over the world by civil aviation in only two frequencies. The ground-based transmitter, known as the "interrogator", transmits on 1030 MHz to the aircraft transceiver, known as "transponder". The transponder, having received the ground transmission on 1030 MHz, transmits back its information on 1090 MHz. The ground receiver then accepts information on 1090MHz providing air traffic controllers with vital statistics about the flight of the aircraft.

Rx/Tx 1030/1090 MHz

Antenna Tx/Rx 1030/1090 MHz

(Fig. 5-12 Basic SSR Principal)

5.3.2 Comparison with Primary Radar Primary Radar depends on the reflection of radar signal and operates on one frequency. As a consequence reflections from ground, buildings, precipitations, etc., will be fed to the display along with aircraft echoes. This can cause the display to be cluttered with unwanted signals. Also, the power output of a primary radar must be sufficiently high to allow for the two-way path and for the losses on reflection. Nevertheless, primary radar is self-contained and does not require equipment to be installed in the aircraft.

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Secondary radar is independent of aircraft echoeing area. In fact, because the airborne equipment has its own transmitter, much less power is needed than in primary radar for the same operational range. Also, as the airborne responses of the secondary radar is on a different frequency to the ground transmission, ground clutter and other unwanted echoes are not accepted for presentation. With suitable coding, secondary radar can provide aircraft indentification without aircraft maneuvres and thus with much less use of other communication system. The coding system may also be used to send printed information from aircraft to air-traffic controllers on ground. Unfortunately, the coding system relies on pulses being either present or not present and therefore weak signals cannot be tolerated as they may generate false information. Secondary radar also suffers from the disadvantage that it requires each aircraft to carry a transponder. 5.3.3 The Coding System The method used in SSR for communicating information consists of the transmission and reception of pulses. The ground interrogator first transmits a pair of pulses with definite width and spacing to the aircraft. Depending upon various modes used in radar for various purposes, the pulse spacing could vary from each other. In secondary radar it is necessary to design the system to reduce the chances of transponder operation as a result of receiving spurious pulses. For this reason, two pulses with a known spacing are transmitted from the interrogator. The ground based interrogation pulses are produced differently depending upon mode of operation of the secondary radar. 0.8 0.1s

Mode-A 8 0.2s

Mode-B 17 0.2s

Mode-C 21 0.2s

Mode-D 25 0.2s

(Fig. 5.13 Various modes of SR and their pulse spacing)

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After receiving the interrogation pair of pulses from the ground interrogator, the aircraft transponder transmits back a reply to ground. In the process of replying, the aircraft transponder does not reply to any other signals at least for the duration of the reply pulses train. It is known as receiver dead time of radar transponder. This dead time does not last more than 125 microseconds after transmission of the last reply pulses. The aircraft transponder recognizes the interrogation mode by the time spacing between two pulses. The transponder reply, as illustrated below, consists of a train of pulses each of which is 0.45 s wide and 1s apart. .

F1

0.45s 6 or 12 information pulses

F2

Ident

1.45s

20.3s

4.35s

(Fig. 5.14 Reply Pulse Train from transponder) The train of pulses is built up as follows: Two framing pulses 20.3s apart (F1 and F2). The first frame pulse is always the first pulse in the train. The information pulses lie between two frame pulses and composed of either 6 or 12 pulses. The information signal is formed in binary codes, which means either presence or absence of pulses. If six pulse positions are used then the number of codes available is 26 = 64. For 12 positions the number of codes available is 212 = 4096. The identity pulse is transmitted only when the switch is activated in the aircraft at the request of the air trafic controller. The identity pulses are then transmitted automatically for a period of twenty seconds.

5.3.4

Unwanted Responses

5.3.4.1 Fruit The transponder radiates in all directions and as a result the transmission will be received by all ground equipment within operational range. The radiation of the transponder is determined by its aerial radiation pattern which itself may be altered by the masking effect of the aircraft. At each ground station, therefore, many signals will

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be received, which are not in synchronization with its own interrogations. These unsynchronized signals are termed as Fruit. This unwanted fruit is rejected by a detection unit known as a defruiter which is installed in the ground equipment.

5.3.4.2 Garbling If the aircrafts are too close with each other (less than half a pulse length apart) then the echoes may merge while received by the ground interrogator. Consequently, false codes may be displayed due to overlapping of their signals. In this case replies are said to be garbled. The effect is minimised by introducing a degarbler into the system.

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TRAFFIC ALERT & COLLISION AVOIDANCE SYSTEM (TCAS)

Commercial air transport is one of the fastest growing industries in the world. Statistics show that in the year 1997 alone, more than 12000 commercial jet aircraft operated some 15 million flights all over the world. Those 15 million flights carried a record 1.5 billion passenger on schedule services and transported one third of the world's manufactured goods by value. By the turn of the century, 2 billion passengers are expected to fly. Due to this increased traffic volume, the airspace is very congested and in some parts of the world mid-air collision is a big threat. Statistics show that in the United States alone there were 131 "near miss" posing risk of mid-air collision. On November 12, 1997 the mid-air collision of B-747 and IL-76 at 14,000' west of Delhi airport was disastrous. Aircraft manufacturers, Government regulatory bodies and Aircraft operators are aiming to reduce the present accident and risk rates. To avoid the mid-air collision risk, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) has recommended the use of Airborne Collision Avoidance System (ACAS), which in the USA named as Traffic Alert & Collision Avoidance System (TCAS). Both are the same except for difference in terminology. TCAS was made compulsory in the United States since 1991. In the Year 1989 when the near miss was 131, the number was reduced to 23 in 1996 after introduction of TCAS. To avoid collision risk, many countries in the world have started making this equipment mandatory in their airspace. Due to serious mid-air collision, which had killed over 500 people and near miss every now and then, the Indian Government has made TCAS (ACAS) mandatory in their airspace since 31 December 1998. Now no aircraft carrying more than 30 passengers or maximum payload capacity of 3 tons can fly the Indian airspace without TCAS fitted on board. How Does it work? TCAS is a self-contained airborne collision avoidance system. Its function is to enhance awareness of nearby aircraft to the pilot, which may pose danger, and a risk of collision. The system only works if the other aircraft is within the radius of 40 nautical miles and it should be fitted with the Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) transponder with Mode-S. There are three different modes on SSR transponder signal. Mode-A shows position only. Mode-c shows position plus height on ATC radarscope. The third one is Mode-S, which has selective address capability and is used for data communication. The airborne equipment must have Mode-S transponder to get full benefit of TCAS. It is very expensive equipment and may cost over 100,000 US$. The TCAS system interrogates the nearby aircraft up to 40-nm radius having the similar TCAS transponder and analyzes the series of replies received from it. The computer then calculates the distance, height and position of the other aircraft and informs the pilot if it is dangerous from the collision point of view.

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Depending upon the level of collision threat and software being used, TCAS provides the following two classes of advisories to the pilot: (a) Traffic Advisory (TA) If the approaching aircraft is not of significant collision threat, Traffic Advisory (TA) is issued 30-40 seconds prior to the collision point of Approach (CPA). Pilot has to search for the aircraft visually and change the direction of his aircraft only if the visual contact confirms that the separation is not adequate. Collision Point of Approach (CPA) is a point where two aircraft cross each other.

1000'

Collision Point of Approach

(b) Resolution Advisory (RA) Resolution Advisory is issued if the TCAS computer determines that the separation from the approaching traffic is not sufficient to avoid possible collision. Depending upon aircraft's own altitude, RA warning is issued 20=30 seconds prior to the calculated collision point of approach.

Climb - Climb 1000' min.

Descend - Descend

The position of the intruder aircraft is displayed on the cockpit of the aircraft either on the weather Radar screen or on some other screen. In all types of indicator, intruder aircraft are indicated by four different symbols: 1. An open while Diamond. For the non-threat aircraft. i.e. the aircraft above or below 2700' clearance from each other.

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2. A filled white Diamond. If the aircraft are 1200' above or below each other and the horizontal radius is within 6-nm. 3. Yellow Circle. For potentially hazardous traffic with voice announcement "Traffic-Traffic". 4. Solid Red Square. When there is collision threat. A voice announcement is made "ClimbClimb" or "Descend-Descend" or "Maintain Present Vertical Climb" if the aircraft is climbing. When the risk is cleared the symbol will change and voice message will come " Clear of Conflict- Clear of Conflict". Thus after visualizing the display a pilot can determine the risk factor and avoid collision. TCAS transponder in the aircraft can exchange data with up to 30 aircraft simultaneously and can continuously monitor up to three aircraft on collision threat. Most of the International airlines are now equipped with TCAS. Similarly, most of the countries in the world are going to make it mandatory in the near future. USA has already implemented in the year 1991. India has introduced it from 31 December 1998. From 1 January 2000 it is going to be mandatory in the European countries and from 4-th of January 2001 in Japan. In Nepal most of the aircraft in domestic service do not carry TCAS except for Buddha Air, which is equipped with all the modern facilities. All Royal Nepal Airlines aircraft flying overseas are now equipped with TCAS. With the mandatory carriage of ACAS/TCAS, both the pilots and the passengers can forget about the mid-air collision and can relax and enjoy smooth and safer air tr

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