Biology Zoology - XI

EVOLUTION OF LIFE
Origin of Earth According to Nebular hypothesis about 10000 to 20000 millions of years ago . There was a huge mass of highly condensed cosmic material. It exploded (Big bang) to form many nebulae . From one of the nebulae our solar system evolved . Sun evolved from the dense central part and planets evolved from the less denser peripheral part. Our earth evolved about five millions years ago. In the beginning it was the spinning ball of hot gases. Its temperature was about 60000c . Gradually, it cooled down and heavy elemnt like Fe, Ni formed the central core and lightest elements like H, C, N, He etc formed the atmosphere but there was no free oxygen therefore the atmospheric condition wa s reducing.

Origin of life Different philoshophers and scientist have proposed different explanation for the origin of life . The main theorys for the origin of life are

1. Theory of spontaneous generation : According to the Nebular hypothesis, all the living organisms originated spontaneously or automatically from the non-living materials and they remain unchanged . For example : Aristotle proposed that fish, frog, insect etc were developed from the mud filth, tapeworm developed from the excreta of animals. But the theory of Abiogenesis was experimently rejected by Fransisco Ready and Lois Pasteur and they proposed theory of biogenesis (i.e. lifeoriginated from life).

2. Theory of special creation : According to this theory, all the living organisms were created by super natural power (God) in the form as they are present today either at a time or at regular interval.

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Biology Zoology - XI

3. Theory of panspermia or cosmozoic theory : According to this theory life came on the earth from other planets in the form of seeds and spores. 4. Theory of catastropism and sudden origin of life : Many violent and destructive changes occured on the earth time to time which destroyed existing life and formed inorganic materials life originated suddenly.

5. Modern theory or chemosysthetic theory : It was proposed by Oparin and supported by Haldane. It states that the primitive life originated in the water bodies on the primitive earth by chemical evolution through a series of chmical reactions. According to this theory , atom combined to form molecules which reacted to form simple organic compounds like alcohol, aldyhides, fatty acids, glycerol, simple sugar, amino acids, purines, pyrimidines, etc. These simple organic compunds reacted to form complex organic compounds like polysaccharides, proteins, fats, nucleotides, nucleic acids etc . which accumulate to form coacervates aand the coacervates finally organised to form living cells. Oparin explained his thory in his book The Origin of life on the earth published in 1936 A.D. This explanation of origin of life can be described stepwise as follows :

A. Chemogany: (chemical evolution) Conditions on the primitive earth were such which favoured the chemical evolution. When the surface temperature of the earth was 1000c , it atmosphere had nitrogen in the form of NH 3 , carbon in the form of CH4 and oxygen in the form of H2O vapour but there was no free oxygen. So, the primitive atmosphere was reducing. As the earth cooled down it developed a solid earth crust which later formed allevations and depressions.

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Biology Zoology - XI

The atmospheric water vapour condensed and finally come on the surface as rain. Rain water collected in the depressions dissolved the minerals and finally organised to form large water bodies called oceans. The minerals and simple molecules present in the water of ocean combined and recombined by various ways to form the simple organic compounds like alcohol, aldyhides, fatty acids, glycerol, simple sugar, amino acids, purines, pyrimidines, etc.The energy for the reaction was provided by the heat of the earth and the electrical energy produced during lightening. The simple organic compounds through the process of polymerization fromed complex organic coumpunds like polysaccharides, proteins, fats, nucleotides, nucleic acids etc . The complex organic compounds accumulated to form colloidal shell like aggregates called coacervates having self duplicating molecules and capable of growth and division.

B. Biogany ( Formation of Primitive lives): Some of the proteins of cacervates started acting as enzymes (bio catalyst). Nucleic acid associates with the proteins to form nucleoproteins which had unique quality bof duplication and behaving like chromosomes. The self duplicating capacity in nucleo proteins is due to the nucleic acids , which carrys hereditary information. Thus, nucleic acid had shown the first sign of life. Later , a thin walled cell like structure developed called protobionts or eobionts. Eobionts gave rise to prokaryots and eukaryots.

C. Nature of primitive life and its evolution : The first formed cells were anaerobic, prokaryotic and chemoheterotropic. These started taking organic compounds from sea water as the source of energy and to make protoplasm. They started mitosis and increased their numbers . Now to face with the decreasing supply of organic compounds. Some of those evolved into chemoautotrophs and started synthesizing www.readforlearning.hpage.com www.readforlearning.blogspot.com www.facebook.com/Readforlearning

Biology Zoology - XI

own organic food from simple inorganic compounds in presence of chemical energy and enzymes. For example : Nitrifying bacteria, sulphate reducing bacteria etc. Again now , to face the problem of decreasing inorganic compounds , some of those developed chlorophyll and started photosysthesis whcih lead to the evolution of photo autotrophs and in the process of photosynthesis O2 gas was evolved as a byproduct so aerobic autotrophs like cyanobacteria were developed. Due to the photosynthesis and evolution of oxygen the atmosphere of the earth become oxidizing . For long period the only forms of life on the earth were bacteria, moulds , cyanobacteria, etc. Gradually eukaryots like algae , fungi, protozoans were developed.

Miller and Urey Experiment : Miller and Urey experimentally proved the formation of simple organic compounds from simpler molecules under reducing condition. They subjected mixture of CH4, NH3, H2O,H2 for about 1 week over an electric spark between two tungsten electrodes in a gas chamber placed under the reducing condition . CH 4, NH3 and H2 were taken in the ratio of 2:1:2. They passed hot products through a condenser then chemically analyzed the products by chromatographic method. They found that many organic compounds like amino acids, purines, pyrimidines which are essential for the formation of nucleoproteins were present in the product. This experiment supports the Oparin theory of Origin of life.

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Biology Zoology - XI Evolution:

Evolution is the gradual continuous, irreversible process of change and development of simple and primitive things to complex and organized things. Charles Darwin proposed the term organic evolution which states that present complex organisms have evolved from simple and primitive form of life through modifications also called Descent with modification. The earliest view for the evolution was based on mythology. According to Hindu Mythology, God Brahma created all living organism from his own body and all living things are made up of five basic elements air, water, fire, earth and sky. Aristotle put forward his taxonomic views . He explained that higher organisms were evolved from lower organisms . He arranged the organisms in a graded series from lower to higher. Evidences for organic evolution : 1. Morphological and Anatomical evidences : Taxonomy based upon similarities and dissimilarities among the various groups of organisms was made. In all the vertebrates dorsotubular nerve chord, notochord, gill slits are present at least in embryonic stage. In fish heart is two chambered and only internal ear, in amphibians heart is three chambered and car has both middle and internal parts in reptile heart is incompletely four chambered , in mammals external ear pinnae also present . This shows that all the vertebrates are interrelated and they have evolved from some common ancestors.

2. Homologous organs : The organs having similar structure and development origin but appear differently and performance or function is also different are called homologous organs. For example: Forelimbs of vertebrates like seal , bat , horse , man etc. appear different and perform different functions but they have similar structure and arrangement of bones, muscles, nerves, blood vessels etc. This relationship between the structures having similar structure is called homology or divergent evolution.

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Biology Zoology - XI

3. Analogous organs : The organs having similar functions but different structures are called analogous organs. For example : Wings of birds and insects. This relationship between the different groups due to their similar funtions is called analogy or convergent evolution.

4. Connection link : The organisms having the character of two different groups. They proved that one group had evolved from another through gradual modifications are called connecting link. For example : Peripatus is the connection link between annelida and arthopoda. The arthopoda charaters are compound eyes, antennae, semi-jointed legs. The annelida characters are wormlike body, segmental nephridial (excretory organ). Protopterus is the connecting link between fish and amphibians. Ornithorychus and echidna are egg laying mammals. They are similar to mammals having mammary glands and are similar to reptiles because they give hard shelled eggs, abdominal testes , cloaca, etc.

5. Vestigial organs : The organs which are reduced and non-functional but were functional in the ancestors and also functional in the related animals are called vestigial organs. Example: The vestigial organs in Man are as follows: Nictitating membrane Verniform appendix Coccyx Ear muschles

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Biology Zoology - XI

6. Palaeotological evidences : It includes the study of fossils. Fossils are the remains of past organisms found in the sedimentary rocks. Fossil provides direct and most convincing evidences in support of organic evolution. Fossil includes hard structure like teeth, bone, foot print, shell etc. Fossils are found in different layers of rock. So, it is essential to estimate the age of the rocks in which fossils are found. To estimate the age of the fossils radioactive dating method is used. The most important finding from fossils record which help to explain evolutionary line are as follows: Most primitive forms of life are recorded in the oldest rocks. There was existence of diverse group of organisms which are not exactly similar to the organisms that exist today. Different fossils are formed at different time periods. There is succession of high and more complex form of fossils from older to recent layer of rocks. Large groups of organisms have become extinct but some species are persisting in the same or modified form. Some organisms which remained scarce in one period of era become dominant in next period of era due to adoptive radiation. 7. Missing link : These are those extinct organisms which had the characters of two different groups. It shows the evolution of one group from another group. For example: Archaeopteryx Fossil of Archaeopteryx was discovered by Wagnar in Germany. It was about the size of crow and had characters of both reptiles and aves. The reptile charaters are teeth in jaw , claws in the fingers, a long tail etc. and aves characters are feathers, wings, etc.

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Biology Zoology - XI

These structures suggest that birds are evolved from reptiles like forms which become extinct. These fact explains the statement Birds are glorified reptiles .

8. Phylogany : It is the evolutionary history of animals. Now, the scientists have collected the complete series of fossils of many animals. For example: Elephant, camel, horse etc. On the basis of these fossils we are able to construct the phylogeny of many animals.

Phylogany of horse: The evolution of horse was started in North America about 60 millions years ago. The ancestor of modern horse was Eohippus. It was about the size of a fox with short limb , four toes in the fore limbs and three toes in the hind limbs . The probable of descent passes form Eohippus through Mesohippus, Miohippus, Merychippus, Pliohippus to the modern horse, Eqqus. The changes took place during this evolution are as follows: Enlargement in size. Reduction in the number of side toes. Enlargement of third digit, elongation in the limbs, fore head and neck also. Development of premolar and molar teeths.

9. Embryological evidences : It is based on the comparative study of various animals. It shows that The early development of all triploblastic and diploblastic animals is similar. The embryo of all the vertebrates consists of gillslits, notchord, simple two chambered heart later on these organs developed into different forms. This shows that all vertebrates have evolved from some common ancestors.

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Biology Zoology - XI 10. Recapitulation theory or Biogenetic law :

It states that Ontogeny repeats Philogany which means that an individual during its own develpment passes through their evolutionary history. For example: Fish like characters like fins , gills, tale with tale fins are present on the larva of a frog (i.e. Tadpole). This shows that amphibians have evolved from fish like ancestors.

11.

Physiological and Biological evidences : Study of protoplasm in different organisms shows that it is made up of similar molecules like carbohydrates, nucleic acids, fats etc. The similar enzymes of different animals are similar in structure and mode of fraction. The chromosomes of all the organisms are basically made up of nucleic acid and proteins. Blood groups A, B , AB and O are found in the human beings , blood groups A and B also found in Apes. This shows that men are very much similar to Apes.

Theories of Organic Evolution :

Lamarckism
1. 2. 3. Direct effect of environment: Use and disuse of organs: Inheritance of required characters:

Lamarck was the great biologist and taxonomist. He was the first scientist to put forward the theory of organic evolution, this theory was published in a book philosophic zoolgique. His theory is also called inheritance of acquired characters. Lamarckism can be described as follows: 1. Direct effect of environment:

According to Lamarck, environment has direct effect on the habit and Habitat of living organisms. The change in the environment leads to the origin of

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Biology Zoology - XI 10 new needs in the living organisms to fulfill the new needs they had to change their habits or behavior. 2. Use and disuse of organs:

To fulfill the new needs some of the organisms use some of its organs very much and some organs very less the organs which were used very much developed very much and the organs which are used less disappear or become vestigial. So, the organisms acquire certain new characters during its life time called acquired characters. 3. Inheritance of acquired characters:

Lamarck believed that acquired character passes generation after generation and after many generations, these characters accumulated to form new species. Evidences in support of Lamarkism: The modern long necked giraffe had evolved from short necked ancestors. Their ancestors lived in the forest and grazed on the grasses .Due to the change in the environment, the ground became barren which forced the Giraffe to feed on leaves of large trees. TO get the leaves they started to use their neck and forelimbs very much, in due period these organs became taller and modern giraffe was evolved. In the snake, due to the disuse of limbs and girdles, these organs disappeared. Criticism of Lamarckism 1. Strong muscles of wrestler is not found in their offspring.

2. Weishmann was a German biologist he pot forward a theory continuity of germ plasma. According to this theory, two types of cells found in the body i.e. somatic and germinal cells .Somatic cells determine particular organ which germinal cells determine hereditary characters. It was concluded that use and disuse of organs and change in the environment effects only somatic cell, acquired characters must be lost with the death of organism and they have no roll in evolution. He cut the tail of mice for many generations, he found that there was equally long tail in the last generation as in the first. In 1859, Darwin published his book the origin of species: Darwinism can be described as follows: 1. Over production of offspring: According to Darwinism population tend to multiply geometrically and living organisms have more reproductive power than required to maintain their number. www.readforlearning.hpage.com www.readforlearning.blogspot.com www.facebook.com/Readforlearning

Biology Zoology - XI 11 2. struggle for existence : The organisms reproduced at very rapid rate but the food and space on the earth is limited. As a result, start competition between the organisms having similar requirements .This competition between the organisms for basic needs of life like food, space, etc. is known as struggle for existence, It may be: Intra-specific (Between the members of same species) Inter-specific (Between the members of different species) The struggle against unfavourable environmental condition like earthquake, volcano, flood etc. (environmental ) In this struggle many individuals died before reaching the sexual maturity and only few individuals survive. So, struggle for existence maintains the number of organisms remains constant. 3. Variation: It is the difference between the individuals. It is common in nature, Variation may be continuous or discontinuous continuous variation means small indistinct changes while discontinuous variations are large scale changes, the variations may be useful, harmful or neutral. Darwin proposed that living organisms adapt to the changing environment due to useful continuous variations. 4. Natural selection or survival of the fittest: Nature select only those organisms which are with useful continuous variations and best adopted to the environment, while others are eliminated. In other words, we can say that nature select those individuals which are fit to survive. 5. Origin of Species : According to Darwinism, variations appear in every generation and are inherited from one generation to another. So, these variations go on accumulating and after a number of generations variation become so prominent that the individual turns into a new species. Demerits of Darwinism: 1. He didnt explain the causes of variation He said that continuous variation are mainly responsible for the evolution which is not true. 2. Darwinism explains that useless or harmful characters are not selected by the nature while many vestigial organs are found in different organisms. 3. Darwinism is not able to explain the inheritance of over specialized organs like tusk of elephant, etc. 4. Natural selection doesnt explain the development of new characters while only the modification in the pre existing ones.

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Biology Zoology - XI 12 Neo Darwinism: There have been modern changes in the theory of natural selection. These changes were made necessary by the discovery of Mendels law of heredity in 1900 and development in psytology. Mendel by his experience said that genes present in the chromosomes are responsible for the characters in the organisms and these are hereditary units. Variation in the living organisms due to genes recombination or crossing over during gamete formation. Heugo Devris coined the term mutation for certain inheritable change and proposed mutation theory of evolution. He proposed that new species rises from pre existing species in a single generation be certain appearances of marked inheritance differences called mutation. The modern synthetic theory is mainly based on the Darwins theory of natural selection and mutation theory of Heugo Devris . This theory is a combined effort of a number scientist like Marley, Haldane, Haldex, Stabbian etc . According to the Stabbin, this theory is based on five basic factors: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Gene Mutation Chromosomal Mutation Genetic Recombination Natural selection Reproductive Isolation

Gene mutation: Change in the structure and sequence of genes in chromosomes. Chromosomal mutation: Change in the structure and number of chromosome. Genetic recombination: Change in the genes and chromosomes due to crossing over during gamete formation. These three factors are responsible for the variation and variation is the basic need of evolution.

Natural selection: It operates through differential reproduction. It states that the organisms having beneficial variation and best adopted to the environment are selected by the nature and they reproduce at a higher rate and produce more offspring than those which are less adopted. If the differential reproduction continues for a number of generation, then the genes of those individuals which produce more offsprings with become pre dominant in the gene pool of the population. The genetic variations are transmitted from one generation to another and after many generations. These variations accumulate to form new species. Reproductive isolation:

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Biology Zoology - XI 13 Reproductive isolation the organisms evolved from natural selection posses beneficial variation. So, it is necessary that these organisms separate from unchanged population so that, they do not reproduce with unchanged organisms. It helps to keep their identity. If they interbreed mixing of their genotype occurs which results in the disappearance of differences between them. Example: Evidence in favour of natural selection (Darwinism) When Darwin went in his visit to Galapagos Island in South America. He found many species of finches, they had beak which varied in structure from one species to another. Darwin found that a species with a particular type of beak ate seeds while others fruit, insects, leaves, etc. according to their beak. They have had a common ancestor, most probably seed eating finches because of the competition for seeds , they had flown to the different parts of the Island . In due course of time, their feeding habit and their beak structure gradually changed to suit the type of food they fed on. This shows how nature modified the birds habit and ultimately brought a change in this structure over long period of time, these may turn all together into different species. Evolution of Man : It is assumed that the modern man might have been evolved from some primitive Eutherian mammals. The first prosinion primates evolved from these ancestors in Cenozoic era. These primates were somewhat like the present day Lemur and Tarsius. Most of the Tarsius extinct in Eocine epoch and their descendants diverged in different directions and were the ancestors of modern anthropoids. The ancestors of modern anthropoids had reduced nose, grasping hands and feet with nails in fingers and toes. The divergent line of their evolution gave rise to the ancestors of modern old world monkeys new world monkeys, apes and man. The fossil record suggests that Man and modern apes had a common ancestor known as homonids. It is presumed that homonids existed 24 millions years ago. Apes and modern man diverged out from the main line of homonids evolution at different periods. The main changes in the evolution of humans were the development of an upright posture, increase in intelligence and the increase in brain size.

Ancient human fossils

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Biology Zoology - XI 14 It is the earliest known direct ancestor of man. It existed about 14 million years ago. Its fossils were recovered from shivalik hills in India and from Africa. 1. They were partially upright and leaved in the savannah. They resembled man in having erect posture and small canians. Australopithecus It is the first human like form which existed about 5 million years ago in the dry land of Africa . It provides a lot of information about the evolution of man. Australopithecus was the connecting link between apes and man. The characters were: 1. 2. 3. 4. Brain capacity was 600cc. They walked erect and had long sized canians and incisor. They were about 4 feet tall. They lived in caves and uses weapons of bones.

Modern human ancestors. 1. Homohabilis: It existed about 2 million years ago, its fossils were recovered from east Africa. 1. It was about 4.5 feet tall, walked erect and weighted about 40 to 50 kg. 2. They were omnivorous. 3. The cranial capacity was about 700 cc. 4. They used tools for hunting and defense. 2. Homoerectus:

1. They existed about 1.7 million years ago. 2. Two similar fossils were recoverd from Java and Peking and are supposed to belo9ng the same species homoerectus. The fossils recovered from Java was named as Javamen and those recovered from Pecking was named and Peckingman. Javamen 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Its fossils were recovered by Dubois in 1891 from Java. It had the cranial capacity of about 900cc. IT was more than 5 feet tall. Prominent chin was absent but eyebrow ridges were present over the eyes. They might have used tools and also learned to light fire.

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Biology Zoology - XI 15

Pekingman 1. It had under developed chin but developed eyebrow ridges. 2. Its cranial capacity was about 1075 cc. Neanderthal man Its fossils was found in the Neanderthal valley of Germany. It had the following characters. 1. They lived about 40000 years ago and flourished in Europe, Asia and North America. 2. It resembled modern man but was relatively short. 3. Its cranial capacity was 1450 cc. 4. Its brain was almost as larges as modern man. 5. They were capable of communicating with each other and had primitive type of social life, division of labor, religion and culture. 6. They made tools for hunting and used animal skin for clothing. 7. They made use of fire and buried his dead.

Cromagnon Man Its fossils were recovered from cromagnon rocks of France. It had the following characters. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. They resembled to the modern man in size and appearance. The cranial capacity was 1600 cc. They were about 4 feet tall. The forehead was broad and had raised narrow nose and prominent chin. They were expert in making weapons and tools. They lived in the caves of Europe and left some beautiful pictures of animals.

Modern Man (Homo sapiens) About 10000 years ago the modern man homo sapien sapien emerged from damp dark caves, built huts of animal skins into the open place and began sedentary communal life in fixed places. They spread all over the world and become a dominating species. They domesticated animals, learned to plant crops, store food and brought about Cultural Revolution.

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