Digital Communications ECE 6602 Fall 2012

Instructor: Dr. Adnan A. Khan Lec 2 6th Sep 2012

Grading Policy
Sessionals Homework/Matlab (Simulink) Assignments
Simulation Project (Report and Presentations) Abstract Submission by 4th week Final Exam

: :
: :

15% (each) 15%

15% 40%

Transmitter Receiver Block Diagram

Transmitter Receiver Block Diagram

Information source comes from higher networking layers. It is packetized. Source Encoding: Finding a compact digital representation for the data source. Includes sampling of continuous-time signals, and quantization of continuous-valued signals. Also includes compression of those sources (lossy, or lossless).

Transmitter Receiver Block Diagram

Channel encoding refers to redundancy added to the signal such that any bit errors can be corrected. A channel decoder, because of the redundancy, can correct some bit errors. Modulation refers to the digital-to-analog conversion which produces a continuous-time signal that can be sent on the physical channel. It is analogous to impedance matching - proper matching of a modulation to a channel allows optimal information transfer, like impedance matching ensured optimal power transfer.

Transmitter Receiver Block Diagram

Channel/Media: We can chose from a few media, but we largely cant change the properties of the medium (although there are exceptions). Here are some media:
EM Spectra: (anything above 0 Hz) Radio, Microwave, mm-wave bands, light Acoustic: ultrasound Transmission lines, waveguides, optical fiber, coaxial cable, wire pairs, ... Disk (data storage applications)

Basic Digital Communication Transformations

Formatting, Source Encoding
Transforms source info into digital symbols (digitization) Selects compatible waveforms (matching function) Introduces redundancy which facilitates accurate decoding despite errors It is essential for reliable communication

Modulation/Demodulation
Modulation is the process of modifying the info signal to facilitate transmission Demodulation reverses the process of modulation. It involves the detection and retrieval of the info signal Types
Coherent: Requires a reference info for detection Noncoherent: Does not require reference phase information

Basic Digital Communication Transformations

Coding/Decoding
Translating info bits to transmitter data symbols Techniques used to enhance info signal so that they are less vulnerable to channel impairment (e.g. noise, fading, jamming, interference) Two Categories
Waveform Coding
Produces new waveforms with better performance

Structured Sequences
Involves the use of redundant bits to determine the occurrence of error (and sometimes correct it)

Multiplexing/Multiple Access
Is synonymous with resource sharing with other users Frequency Division Multiplexing/Multiple Access (FDM/FDMA)

Basic Digital Communication Transformations

Time Division Multiplexing/Multiple Access (TDM/TDMA) Code Division Multiplexing/Multiple Access (CDM/CDMA) Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA) Polarization Division Multiple Access (PDMA)

Spread Spreading (SS) Techniques

It is usually used to protect privacy, protect against interference and allow flexible access to resources Common techniques include
Direct Sequence (DS) Spread Spectrum - DSSS Frequency Hopping (FH) Spread Spectrum - FHSS Time Hopping (TH) Spread Spectrum - THSS Hybrids Techniques
Time Division CDMA, Time Division Frequency Hopping, FDMA/CDMA, etc.,

Performance Metrics
Analog Communication Systems ^ Metric is fidelity: want m(t)m(t)
SNR typically used as performance metric

Digital Communication Systems

Metrics are data rate (R bps) and probability of bit error ^ (Pb=p(bb)) Symbols already known at the receiver Without noise/distortion/sync. problem, we will never make bit errors

Main Points
Transmitters modulate analog messages or bits in case of a DCS for transmission over a channel.

Receivers recreate signals or bits from received signal (mitigate channel effects) Performance metric for analog systems is fidelity, for digital it is the bit rate and error probability.

Channels
A channel can typically be modeled as a linear filter with the addition of noise. The noise comes from a variety of sources, but predominantly:
Thermal background noise: Modeled as Gaussian, and white; thus it is referred to as additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN). Interference from other transmitted signals. These other transmitters whose signals we cannot completely cancel, we lump into the interference category. These may result in non-Gaussian noise distribution, or non-white noise spectral density.

 The linear filtering of the channel result from the physics and EM of the medium. For example, attenuation in telephone wires varies by frequency. Narrowband wireless channels experience fading that varies quickly as a function of frequency. Wideband wireless channels display multipath, due to multiple time-delayed reflections, diffractions, and scattering of the signal off of the objects in the environment. All of these can be modeled as linear filters.

 The filter may be constant, or time-invariant, if the medium, the TX and RX do not move or change. However, for mobile radio, the channel may change very quickly over time. Even for stationary TX and RX, in real wireless channels, movement of cars, people, trees, etc. in the environment may change the channel slowly over time.

System Model

Digital Signal Nomenclature

Information Source
Discrete output values e.g. Keyboard Analog signal source e.g. output of a microphone

Character
Member of an alphanumeric/symbol (A to Z, 0 to 9) Characters can be mapped into a sequence of binary digits using one of the standardized codes such as
ASCII: American Standard Code for Information Interchange EBCDIC: Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code

Digital Signal Nomenclature

Bits and Byte
Binary Digit: Fundamental unit of information made up of 2 symbols (0 and 1) A group of 8 bits

Binary Stream
A sequence of binary digits, e.g., 10011100101010

Symbol
A digital message made up of groups of k-bits considered as a unit

Digital Signal Nomenclature

Digital Message
Messages constructed from a finite number of symbols; e.g., printed language consists of 26 letters, 10 numbers, space and several punctuation marks. Hence a text is a digital message constructed from about 50 symbols Morse-coded telegraph message is a digital message constructed from two symbols Mark and Space

M - ary
A digital message constructed with M symbols

Digital Waveform
Current or voltage waveform that represents a digital symbol

Bit Rate
Actual rate at which information is transmitted per second

Digital Signal Nomenclature

Baud Rate Refers to the rate at which the signaling elements are transmitted, i.e. number of signaling elements per second.

Bit Error Rate The probability that one of the bits is in error or simply the probability of error

Classification Of Signals
Deterministic and Random Signals
A signal is deterministic means that there is no uncertainty with respect to its value at any time.

Deterministic waveforms are modeled by explicit mathematical expressions, example: x(t) = 5 Cos 10t A signal is random means that there is some degree of uncertainty before the signal actually occurs.
Random waveforms/ Random processes when examined over a long period may exhibit certain regularities that can be described in terms of probabilities and statistical averages.

Periodic and Non-periodic Signals

A signal x(t) is called periodic in time if there exists a constant T0 > 0 such that x(t) = x(t + T0) for t denotes time T0 is the period of x(t). - < t <

Analog and Discrete Signals

An analog signal x(t) is a continuous function of time; that is, x(t) is uniquely defined for all t

A discrete signal x(kT) is one that exists only at discrete times; it is characterized by a sequence of numbers defined for each time, kT, where k is an integer T is a fixed time interval.

Energy and Power Signals

The performance of a communication system depends on the received signal energy; higher energy signals are detected more reliably (with fewer errors) than are lower energy signals x(t) is classified as an energy signal if, and only if, it has nonzero but finite energy (0 < Ex < ) for all time, where:
T/2

Ex = lim x2(t) dt
T -T/2

= x2(t) dt
-

An energy signal has finite energy but zero average power.

Signals that are both deterministic and non-periodic are classified as energy signals

Example
Classify the following as power as energy signal: x (t) = A cos 2f0t for T0/2 t T0/2 & 0 elsewhere

Solution:
Energy signals have finite energy

Energy signals are both deterministic and non-periodic

If we integrate x (t) over this range, then it will have a finite result. So it has finite energy. Look at the range of x (t). It is defined over a specific range (T0/2 t T0/2), after which the signal vanishes. So it is Non-Periodic. Hence it is an Energy Signal
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Energy and Power Signals

Power is the rate at which energy is delivered. A signal is defined as a power signal if, and only if, it has finite but nonzero power (0 < Px < ) for all time, where Px = lim 1/T x2(t) dt
-T/2
T T/2

Power signal has finite average power but infinite energy.

As a general rule, periodic signals and random signals are classified as power signals

Example
Classify the following as power as energy signal: x (t) = A cos 2f0t Solution: Energy signals have infinite energy Energy signals are both Random and periodic. This signal is extended over the entire space, so it has infinite energy. We know that cosine function is periodic with period 2. Hence it is a Power Signal
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for - < t <

The Unit Impulse Function

Dirac delta function (t) or impulse function is an abstractionan infinitely large amplitude pulse, with zero pulse width, and unity weight (area under the pulse), concentrated at the point where its argument is zero.
-

(t) dt = 1 (t) = 0 for t 0 (t) is bounded at t =0

Sifting or Sampling Property

x(t) (t t0) dt = x(t0)

Spectral Density
The spectral density of a signal characterizes the distribution of the signals energy or power in the frequency domain.

This concept is particularly important when considering filtering in communication systems while evaluating the signal and noise at the filter output.
The energy spectral density (ESD) or the power spectral density (PSD) is used in the evaluation.

Energy Spectral Density (ESD)

Energy spectral density describes the signal energy per unit bandwidth measured in joules/hertz. Represented as x(f), the squared magnitude spectrum x(f) = |X(f)|2 According to Parsevals theorem, the energy of x(t):

Ex

= x2(t) dt
-

= |X(f)|2 df
-

Therefore:

Ex

= x (f) df
-

The Energy spectral density is symmetrical in frequency about origin and total energy of the signal x(t) can be expressed as:

Ex

= 2 x (f) df
0

Power Spectral Density (PSD)

The power spectral density (PSD) function Gx(f ) of the periodic signal x(t) is a real, even, and nonnegative function of frequency that gives the distribution of the power of x(t) in the frequency domain. PSD is represented as: Gx(f ) = |Cn|2 (f nf0) n=- Whereas the average power of a periodic signal x(t) is represented as: Px = 1/T dt = |Cn|2 n=- -T0/2 Using PSD, the average normalized power of a real-valued signal is represented as: x2(t)
T0/2

Px = - Gx(f ) df = 2 0 Gx(f ) df

Example
Determine the energy spectral density of a square pulse x (t) = rect (t/T), where rect (t/T) equals 1 for T/2 < t < T/2, and equals 0 elsewhere. Solution:

ESD = |X (f)|2
Where X (f) is the Fourier Transform of x (t) X (f) = T sinc (fT) |X (f)|2 = T2 sinc2 (fT) So ESD = T2 sinc2 (fT)

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Example
Find the average normalized power of: x (t) = A cos 2f0t Solution:
T0/2

for - < t <

Px = 1/T0 x2(t) dt
-T0/2 T0/2

Px = 1/T0 A2cos2 (2f0t) dt

-T0/2

Px = A2/2
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Example
Find the average normalized energy of: x (t) = A cos 2f0t Solution:
T0/2

for T0/2 t T0/2 & 0 elsewhere

Ex = x2(t) dt
-T0/2 T0/2

Ex = A2cos2 (2f0t) dt
-T0/2

Ex = A2T0/2
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Autocorrelation
Autocorrelation of an Energy Signal
Correlation is a matching process; autocorrelation refers to the matching of a signal with a delayed version of itself. Autocorrelation function of a real-valued energy signal x(t) is defined as:

Rx() = x(t) x (t + ) dt for

-

- <<

The autocorrelation function Rx() provides a measure of how closely the signal matches a copy of itself as the copy is shifted units in time. Rx() is not a function of time; it is only a function of the time difference between the waveform and its shifted copy.

Autocorrelation of an Energy Signal

The autocorrelation function of a real-valued energy signal has the following properties: Rx() = Rx(-) symmetrical in about zero

Rx() Rx(0) for all

Rx() x (f)

maximum value occurs at the origin

autocorrelation and ESD form a Fourier transform pair, as designated by the double-headed arrows value at the origin is equal to the energy of the signal

Rx(0) = x2(t) dt

Autocorrelation of a Power Signal

Autocorrelation function of a real-valued power signal x(t) is defined as:
Rx() = lim 1/T
T
T/2

x(t) x (t + ) dt

for - < <

-T/2

When the power signal x(t) is periodic with period T0, the autocorrelation function can be expressed as Rx() = lim 1/T0
T0/2
-T0/2

x(t) x (t + ) dt

for - < <

Autocorrelation of a Power Signal

The autocorrelative function of a real-valued periodic signal has the following properties similar to those of an energy signal:

Rx() = Rx(-)
Rx() Rx(0) for all Rx() Gx (f) Rx(0) = 1/T0
T0/2

symmetrical in about zero

maximum value occurs at the origin autocorrelation and PSD form a Fourier transform pair value at the origin is equal to the average power of the signal

x2(t) dt

-T0/2

Example
Find the autocorrelation function of x (t) = A cos (2f0t + ) in terms of its period T0 = 1/f0. Solution:
T0/2

Rx() = 1/T0 x(t) x (t + ) dt

-T0/2 T0/2

for - < <

Rx() = 1/T0 A2 cos (2f0t + ) cos (2f0t + + ) dt

-T0/2

Now use some trigonometric identities

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Example
Expand the last term using cos (a + b) = cos (a) cos (b) sin (a) sin (b) Take a = 2f0t + & b = Then use: o cos (x) cos (y) = [cos (x + y) + cos (x - y)] o cos (x) sin (y) = [sin (x + y) + sin (x - y)]

After applying these identities we will get:

Rx () = A2 cos (2f0) / 2

Note that autocorrelation is independent of time.

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Example
Now find the average normalized power of given signal x (t) using autocorrelation function: Rx () = A2 cos (2f0) / 2 Using Px = Rx (0) Px = Rx (0) = A2 cos (2f0(0)) / 2 Px = Rx (0) = A2 cos (0) / 2 Px = Rx (0) = A2/2

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Random Signals
Random Variables
All useful message signals appear random; that is, the receiver does not know, a priori, which of the possible waveform have been sent.

Let a random variable X(A) represent the functional relationship between a random event A and a real number.
The (cumulative) distribution function FX(x) of the random variable X is given by Fx(x) = P(X x) Another useful function relating to the random variable X is the probability density function (pdf) Px(x) = d Fx(x) / dx

Ensemble Averages
mX = E{X} = x Px(x) dx
-

The first moment of a probability distribution of a random variable X is called mean value mX, or expected value of a random variable X The second moment of a probability distribution is the mean-square value of X Central moments are the moments of the difference between X and mX and the second central moment is the variance of X Variance is equal to the difference between the mean-square value and the square of the mean

E{X2}

= x2 Px(x) dx
-

Var(X) = E{(X mX)2 } = (x mX)2 Px(x) dx

-

Var(X) =E{X2} E{X}2

Random Processes
A random process X(A, t) can be viewed as a function of two variables: an event A and time.

Statistical Averages of a Random Process

A random process whose distribution functions are continuous can be described statistically with a probability density function (pdf). A partial description consisting of the mean and autocorrelation function are often adequate for the needs of communication systems.

Mean of the random process X(t) : E{X(tk)} = x Px(x) dx = mx(tk)

-

Autocorrelation function of the random process X(t) Rx(t1,t2) = E{X(t1) X(t2)} = xt1xt2Px(xt1,xt2) dxt1dxt2

Stationary
A random process X(t) is said to be stationary in the strict sense if none of its statistics are affected by a shift in the time origin.

A random process is said to be wide-sense stationary (WSS) if two of its statistics, its mean and autocorrelation function, do not vary with a shift in the time origin.
E{X(t)} = mx= a constant Rx(t1,t2) = Rx (t1 t2)

Autocorrelation of a Wide-Sense Stationary Random Process

For a wide-sense stationary process, the autocorrelation function is only a function of the time difference = t1 t2; Rx() = E{X(t) X(t + )} for - < < Properties of the autocorrelation function of a real-valued widesense stationary process are

Time Averaging and Ergodicity

When a random process belongs to a special class, known as an ergodic process, its time averages equal its ensemble averages.

The statistical properties of such processes can be determined by time averaging over a single sample function of the process.
A random process is ergodic in the mean if
T/2

mx = lim 1/T -T/2 x(t) dt

T

It is ergodic in the autocorrelation function if Rx() = lim 1/T

T T/2 -T/2

x(t) x (t + ) dt

Power Spectral Density and Autocorrelation

A random process X(t) can generally be classified as a power signal having a power spectral density (PSD) GX(f )

Principal features of PSD functions

Noise in Communication Systems

The term noise refers to unwanted electrical signals that are always present in electrical systems; e.g spark-plug ignition noise, switching transients, and other radiating electromagnetic signals or atmosphere, the sun, and other galactic sources. Can describe thermal noise as a zero-mean Gaussian random process. A Gaussian process n(t) is a random function whose amplitude at any arbitrary time t is statistically characterized by the Gaussian probability density function (1.40)

Noise in Communication Systems

The normalized or standardized Gaussian density function of a zeromean process is obtained by assuming unit variance.

White Noise
The primary spectral characteristic of thermal noise is that its power spectral density is the same for all frequencies of interest in most communication systems Power spectral density Gn(f )

Autocorrelation function of white noise is

The average power Pn of white noise is infinite

 The effect on the detection process of a channel with additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) is that the noise affects each transmitted symbol independently.

Such a channel is called a memoryless channel.

The term additive means that the noise is simply superimposed or added to the signal

Ideal Filters
For the ideal low-pass filter transfer function with bandwidth Wf = fu hertz can be written as:

H(f) = | H(f) | e-j (f)

Where

| H(f) | = { 1 for |f| < fu 0 for |f| fu }

e-j (f) = e-j2 f t0

Ideal low-pass filter

Ideal Filters
The impulse response of the ideal low-pass filter:

h(t) = F-1 {H(f)} = H(f) e-j2 f t df

- f

(1.61)

= ue-j2 f t0 e-j2 f t df
- fu

= fue-j2 f (t - t0) df = 2fu * sin 2fu(t t0)/ 2fu(t t0) = 2fu * sinc 2fu(t t0)
(1.62)
- fu

Bandwidth Of Digital Data

Baseband versus Bandpass
An easy way to translate the spectrum of a low-pass or baseband signal x(t) to a higher frequency is to multiply or heterodyne the baseband signal with a carrier wave cos 2fct xc(t) is called a double-sideband (DSB) modulated signal xc(t) = x(t) cos 2fct (1.70) From the frequency shifting theorem Xc(f) = 1/2 [X(f-fc) + X(f+fc) ] (1.71) Generally the carrier wave frequency is much higher than the bandwidth of the baseband signal fc >> fm and therefore WDSB = 2fm

Bandwidth
Theorems of communication and information theory are based on the assumption of strictly bandlimited channels The mathematical description of a real signal does not permit the signal to be strictly duration limited and strictly bandlimited.

Bandwidth
All bandwidth criteria have in common the attempt to specify a measure of the width, W, of a nonnegative real-valued spectral density defined for all frequencies f < The single-sided power spectral density for a pulse xc(t) takes the analytical form:

Different Bandwidth Criteria

(a) Half-power bandwidth. (b) Equivalent rectangular or noise equivalent bandwidth. (c) Null-to-null bandwidth. (d) Fractional power containment bandwidth. (e) Bounded power spectral density. (f) Absolute bandwidth.

Feedback Quiz
1) Differentiate between a discrete signal and digital signal. 2) What do you understand by Sampling and Quantization in digital communications? 3) What do you understand by Modulation and Demodulation in digital communications? 4) What is the difference between Baseband and Passband Modulation? 5) What is the Nyquist Criteria for perfect reconstruction of sampled signal? 6) Why we cannot send ideal square pulses on channel 7) What is a random variable? 8) What is a basis function ?