Chapter two -1- Unit one

Sound as a wave motion

.Vibrating bodies produce sounds•

Sound transfers in all direction in straight lines from the source to•
.the ear of the listener

:Sound Ray

It is a straight line indicating the direction of propagation of•

.sound wave

:Reflection of sound
.)Sound reflects when it meets a reflector (high wall or mountain•

The repeated sound is similar the original one, and it seems to be•
.produced from a point behind the reflector surface

:Echo
.It is repetition of sound due to reflection

:Laws of reflection

Sound wave propagate in form of sphere waves, when that sphere

meets reflected surface it reflect in form of

another sphere where the sound appear as

if its source is a point behind the reflected

.surface

:Laws of reflection

Angle of incident = angle of reflection•

The incident sound ray, the reflected sound ray and the normal to •

the reflector; all lie in the same plane perpendicular to the

.reflector surface

2008/2009 Summary
Chapter two -2- Unit one

:Application of reflection

Bats emit ultrasonic sound to be reflected from the any object,•

.then the bat can indicates the position of that object

The reflection of ultrasonic waves used to produce imaging of the•

.embryo

2008/2009 Summary
 Chapter two -3- Unit one

:Refraction of sound
θ
φ

2008/2009 Summary
Chapter two -4- Unit one

When sound falls on a separating surface between two media, a

portion of the sound reflects and the other portion transfers to the
.second medium

.1
sinφ V1
=
sinθ V2

:Where

.φ is the angle of incident•

.θ is the angle of refraction•

The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the .2

.separating surface all are lying at the same plane

:.N.B

The velocity of sound is inversely proportional to the square root•

.of the density of the gas

At night time, the density of air close to earth surface is higher•

than that upward therefore the velocity of sound close to earth is

.slower, and sound ray refract toward the audience

At day time, the density of air close to earth surface is lower than•

that upward therefore the velocity of sound close to earth is

.faster, and sound ray refract upward away form the audience

:Interference of sound

It is the combination of two waves or more of the same frequency,

.amplitude, and direction of propagation

2008/2009 Summary
 Chapter two -5- Unit one

:Experiment
Vibration
generator

By using two coherent sources (two loudspeakers are connected

.with generator), the sound will be loud at some positions

:Constructive interference

It is interference which two compressions or two rarefaction are

.superposition

:Path difference is
∆X = mλ

:Where

).… m is integral number. ( 0,1,2,3

2008/2009 Summary
Chapter two -6- Unit one

:Destructive interference

It is the interference when compression and rarefaction are

.superposition

∆X = (m + 12 )λ

:Diffraction of sound

It is the change of the wave path when passing through a slit small

enough compared to the wavelength or when it pass by sharp edges

.in the same medium

:Sound as wave motion

:Sound considered as wave motion for the following reasons

.It propagates in a medium in straight lines in all directions.1

.It reflects when falling on a surface.2

It refracts upon traveling from one medium to another, due to the.3

.difference in velocity

It interferes when there are two waves equal in frequency,.4

.wavelength and direction

.It diffracts when passing through a small hole or sharp edge.5

Superposition of waves

It is the combination of two waves or more, where the intensity of•

the resultant wave is the sum of intensities of the individual

.waves

If the frequencies of the two superposed waves are slightly •

.different, beats which are high sound are formed

2008/2009 Summary
Chapter two -7- Unit one

Superposition of waves may•

produce as a result of incident and

.reflected wave in a string

If the end of the string is free, the•

crest reflects as a crest too, and

.that case increase in intensity

If the end of the string is fixed, the•

crest reflects as trough and that

.cause decrease in intensity

:Stationary "standing" waves

Standing waves arise from the superposition of two identical •

waves having the same amplitude and frequency traveling with

the same speed but in opposite directions (incident and reflected

.)waves

.It consists of nodes and antinodes •

:Node

.It is the position at which the amplitude equals to zero

:Antinode

.It is the position at which the amplitude maximum

:)Wave length (λ

It is twice the distance between two successive nodes or two

.successive antinodes

:Melde’s experiment
The apparatus is consists of a vibrating source, connected to a.1

.soft string whose length ranges from 2 to 3 meters

2008/2009 Summary
Chapter two -8- Unit one

The other end of the string.2

passes over a smooth

pulley and is connected at

its free end to appropriate

.weights

When the source vibrates,.3

a wave train is produced in

.the string, which reflects upon reaching the pulley

The reflected and incident waves are combined to form standing.4

.waves

:Vibration of strings

When a string of length (L) is fixed at both ends and plucked near

the center, it vibrates forming its "fundamental tone". This wave has
.a smallest possible frequency

2008/2009 Summary
Chapter two -9- Unit one

:Vibration of strings

Fundament First Second

al overtone overtone

Name of tone First Second Third

harmonic harmonic harmonic

tone tone tone

:Shape

Number of
One Two Three
segments

n 1 2 3
λ λ λ
1 2 3
L 2 2 2

Ratio of ν 1 2 3

:As general

nλ
L =
2
2L
λ=
n

2008/2009 Summary
Chapter two -10- Unit one

:Ratio of ν

V = λν

V
ν=
λ

nV
ν=
2L

ν1 n 1
=
ν2 n2

ν1 : ν 2 : ν 3 = n 1 : n 2 : n 3

ν1 : ν 2 : ν 3 = 1 : 2 : 3

:Equation of strings

The velocity of propagation of the transverse waves in a stretched

:string can be calculated from the following formulas

V =νλ T
V=
m
2L
V=ν
n

2L T
ν =
n m

n T
ν=
2L m

:Where

T: is the tension in Newton

)m: is the mass per unit length in kg/m (longitudinal density

2008/2009 Summary
Chapter two -11- Unit one

:Factors affecting the frequency

:)The length of the string (L-1

1
ν∝
L

ν1 L 2
=
ν 2 L1

The frequency is inversely proportional to the length, when the rest

.of variables are constant

:)The tension of the string (T-2

ν∝ T

ν1 T1
=
ν2 T2

The frequency is directly proportional to the square root of the

.tension, when the rest of variables are constant

:)The mass per unit length (m-3

1
ν∝
m

ν1 m2
=
ν2 m1

The frequency is inversely proportional to the square root of mass

.per unit length, when the rest of variables are constant

:.N.B
.Number of segments = twice number of waves *

2008/2009 Summary
Chapter two -12- Unit one

Number of antinodes = number of segments = twice number of *

.waves

Number of nodes = number of segments + 1 *

2008/2009 Summary