Climate Change and Challenges in The Fisheries and Aquaculture Sector

FISHERIES AND MARINE ENVIRONMENT RESEARCH INSTITUTE INC (FMERI)
BACKGROUND PAPER IN PREPARATION FOR INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON FISHERIES AND GLOBALIZATION

19 21 September 2012 Iloilo, Philippines
CLIMATE CHANGE AND CHALLENGES IN THE FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE SECTOR

Introduction a) Contribution of Fisheries and Aquaculture in the Global Food Security In 2009, global meat production from fisheries was only roughly half that of agriculture. However, the aquaculture component of fisheries has been growing fast and is actually the fastest-growing animal-based food producing sector, accounting for half of world fish supplies meant for human consumption. Aquaculture production has seen a rapid increase over the last 20 years and is currently outpacing population growth. Majority of the increase is in developing countries, with China accounting for 60% and Asia 90% of total production. Aquaculture produce is mainly composed of freshwater and diadromous fish, shrimp, and shellfish. Capture fisheries on the other hand has hardly increased the past 20 years and is partly due to the decrease in capture fisheries in developed countries. Total catch is also unlikely to improve as the portion of world fishery stocks that are depleted or overexploited have increased significantly. The Pacific Ocean provides more than half of the global catch, majority of which are from marine sources (FAO, 2012c). Figure 1. Global fish production from 1990 to 2010 for capture fisheries and aquaculture (FAO, 2012a)
[CLIMATE CHANGE AND CHALLENGES IN THE FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE SECTOR] 2

Fish consumed as food has greatly increased, from less than 20 million tons in 1950 to around 130 million tons in 2011. On the other hand, the amount of fish allocated for other uses (mainly as fish meal and oil) have increased only slowly and are almost at the same levels as during the late 1960s of roughly 20 million tons. Total fish production has been increasing, mainly due to aquaculture. A significant portion of this is exported and its portion of total production has also been increasing from 25% in 1976 to 38% in 2010. Compared to other agricultural commodities produced by developing countries, net export (exports minus imports) of fish has the largest share and has been rapidly increasing from US$ 3.7 billion in 1980 to US$ 27.7 billion in 2010 (FAO, 2012b). In 2010, the world fishers totalled almost 56 million with 87% located in Asia. The percentage of Asian fisherfolk increases to 97% if you consider fish farmers in particular, which amount to almost one third (more than 16 million) of the total. From 2005-2010 the growth of the fisheries sector (2.1%) has been higher than that of the population (1.2%) and much higher than in agriculture (0.5%). However, similar to the trend in fish production, the number of fishers involved in capture fisheries has either been stagnating or declining from 2005-2010 while those in aquaculture has been steadily increasing. Despite the increase in number of fishers in aquaculture the production per fisher (tons per year) is still higher in aquaculture (3.6) compared to capture fisheries (2.3) and is possible due to the significant increases in aquaculture production. Although having most of the fishers in the world, Asia only accounted for around two thirds of the global catch and this could be reflective of the degree of industrialization of fishing as well as the relative importance of small scale fishers (SSF) in the region. The number of women involved in fisheries has also been increasing, especially in processing, but of great concern is the increasing number of child labor in fisheries. A lot of ancillary jobs also result from fisheries, and together with family members dependent on fishers, 660 820 million people (10-12% of total world population) can attribute their livelihood to fisheries (FAO, 2012b). b) Crises in the Fisheries Sector Stagnant/declining capture fisheries The global fish crisis (Kura et al., 2004) is due to the stagnation or decrease of world capture fisheries production, which began in the late 1980s (Pauly et al., 2005). Although the level of production has remained relatively unchanged since then, the quality of the worlds fishery stocks have deteriorated, with more stocks becoming depleted or overexploited and underexploited stocks continuously decreasing. The slight decrease of marine fish catch has been offset by small but continuous increase in inland catches (FAO, 2012b).
The impact of Climate change on fisheries Climate change is mostly attributed to increasing greenhouse gas (GHG) levels in the atmosphere as a result of human activities and is expected to cause warming in the atmosphere due to enhanced greenhouse effect. This will lead to not only warming of the oceans, but also changes in aquatic production, catch composition and species distribution through ecological changes brought about by modification of some fundamental features of the oceans, coasts and freshwater systems. Changes in sea level, ocean acidity, weather patterns and extreme weather events are some of the expected manifestations of climate change that will adversely affect the homes and livelihood of people, including fisheries and aquaculture assets and livelihood. The main pathways by which fisheries and aquaculture will be affected by climate change are: 1) Indirect socio-economic effects; 2) Biological and ecological responses to physical changes; and 3) Direct physical effects (FAO, 2009). The implications of climate change on fisheries are numerous and complex and the solutions are not easily discernible. On the other hand, the causes of stagnation of capture fisheries are well documented and a combination of political will, enabling institutions, and resilience of many marine species could restore the fisheries (Allison, 2001). It is therefore important to discuss the finer details of climate change, its causes and implications on people and the environment and in fisheries in particular. Capture fisheries, together with aquaculture, needs special attention since conclusions about food supply and security in terrestrial contexts are often not applicable. Capture fisheries depend on wild populations that are intimately linked to environmental conditions and processes. Changes in climate and the environment will have significant effects on food availability, habitat, and migration. Unlike terrestrial plants, ocean productivity cannot be improved by simply adding fertilizers to the sea and the effects easily observed. In contrast to most terrestrial animals, fish are poikilothermic (i.e. have body temperatures that vary with ambient temperature) and climate variability has greater effects on their growth and life cycles. The open-access nature of fishing will eventually come at odds with coping strategies that seek to manage fisheries to avoid over-exploitation of stocks. On the other hand the effects of climate change may vary from one aquatic system to another and could even play just a minor role compared to other environmental and anthropogenic stresses in some cases. Climate change may even lead to win-win situations where both adaptation and mitigation measures lead to increased economic efficiency and resilience (FAO, 2008). c) Root Causes and Impact of Climate Change Greenhouse gas emissions and climate change The first World Climate Conference held in Geneva, Switzerland in 1979 was in response to numerous climatic events that occurred in the early 1970s. Various other conferences and gatherings followed until the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was formulated and signed during the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992. Five years later, the 3 rd Conference of Parties to the UNFCCC adopted the Kyoto Protocol in Japan, which embodies the same spirit as the UNFCCC but commits signatory countries to implement specific cuts to the amount of green house gasses that they produce, particularly carbon dioxide (CO2).

Although many of these target reductions in green house gas emissions have not been met and several countries pulled out of their commitments, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has increasingly attributed the present warming of the Earths atmosphere to anthropogenic activities (Ibon, 2008). In its 4th and latest assessment report in 2007, one of the conclusions of the IPCC is that the Earths warming is very likely (>90%) due to observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas levels in the environment (IPCC, 2007). Projections show that global warming as well as intense precipitation events are very likely (90-99% chance) to occur while variability and intensity of extreme weather events are likely (66-90% chance) to occur based on the third assessment report (TAR) of the IPCC (IPCC, 2001). Increases in temperature and sea level as are also predicted to intensify into the future. The fourth assessment report (IPCC, 2007) strengthens the reasons for concern in TAR and increased the likelihood of the identified risks. The Northern and Southern countries contributions to climate change The North-South divide highlights the difference in the roles and risks of the wealthy and developed North and the poorer and developing South in climate change The evident inequality brought about by the North causing most of climate change (own most industries that release green house gases to the atmosphere) but the South suffering most of the effects (higher incidence of natural disasters, less developed infrastructure and less wealth) has led to various proposals by which the problem of climate change can be more equitably addressed. Addressing the inequality issue is of paramount importance since it will allow for trust to develop between the two sides, and without which no amount of negotiating will substantially progress (Parks and Roberts, 2008). A starting point could be the inclusion of adaptive capacity as an added consideration in assessment of impacts and mitigation measures (Ringius et al., 2002). A concerted effort will be needed to effectively address climate change, requiring not only developed countries to lead the way due to their greater responsibility and capacity, but developed countries also doing their part (MacCracken, 2008). The limitations of quick fixes in climate change discourse The more technical term for quick fixes is geoengineering, which is the deliberate, largescale alteration of Earths systems (oceans, soils, and atmosphere), meant to address climate change. These methods are broadly categorized under 1) solar radiation management; 2) carbon dioxide removal; and 3) weather modification. Solar radiation management include pumping of aerosols sulfates in the stratosphere, cloud whitening, space sunshades, and albedo enhancement. Carbon dioxide removal methods include ocean fertilization, upwelling or downwelling enhancement, genetic engineering of algae, carbon-sucking machines or synthetic trees, biochar, and carbon capture and storage. Technologies used for weather modification include cloud seeding and hurricane suppression or redirection (ETC group, 2010). As the name quick fix suggests, these applications can be applied readily and would also hopefully give immediate relief to global warming. However, many question the soundness of such technologies and Alan Robock (2008) listed twenty reasons why geoengineering can be harmful to the environment. Recognition of this new threat has been slow, with the UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol not addressing geoengineering concepts and governance and only briefly mentioned in the IPCCs AR3 and AR4 although it should be examined in more detail in AR5. However the United Nations Environment Program Convention on Biological Diversity (UNEP/CBD) during the tenth meeting of the Conference of Parties (COP) adopted decision

X/33, where paragraph 8 quotes that no climate-related geo-engineering activities that may affect biodiversity take place, until there is an adequate scientific basis on which to justify such activities (CBD, 2010). Climate change has been fueled by the profit-orientation of capitalist systems that causes unsustainable extraction of materials from nature. Only by addressing the root can real change and solutions be expected to surface. Currently one of the most tangible manifestations of the efforts of CSOs to address climate change is the proposal for a Peoples Protocol on Climate Change. The protocol seeks to empower the people, especially in the South since they are the most affected and vulnerable but least empowered to face the problems and challenges that come with climate change. The basic principles of the Peoples Protocol are 1) social justice and human rights; 2) sovereignty; 3) respect for the environment; and 4) responsibility. The main aim of all these is to empower people in the grassroots by informing them of the various issues behind climate change and make them take action for their interests. The Peoples Protocol also aims to be the main lobbying tool to pressure governments and international bodies to recognize the grassroots perspective in the formulation action points and policies in addressing climate the problems brought about by climate change (Ibon, 2008). d) Fisheries and Aquaculture activities contributing to Climate change Activities associated with capture fisheries do not significantly contribute to climate change. The most significant contribution of capture fisheries is in the consumption of fuel for vessels. Large-scale fishing vessels consume a significantly higher proportion of fuel than small-scale fishing vessels. The unsustainable consumption of fuel by large-scale fishering vessels is supported by large subsidies form wealthy states. Industrial agriculture has had a greater impact on the environment through habitat destruction, eutrophication and release of harmful chemicals (Choo, 2001) all of which harm existing coastal habitats and decrease not only their ability to cope with changes brought about by climate change but also their ability to maintain the balance of ecosystems. Mangroves have been targeted due to their intertidal location which makes their location ideal for aquaculture ponds. It is estimated that 25 to 35 % of the worlds mangrove forests have been destroyed with 38% of the total being cleared for shrimp aquaculture alone (EJF 2004). The increase in aquaculture has been driven by International Financial Institutions investment in the sector during the Blue Revolution of the 1980s and the continuing exhaustion of wild fish stocks. Greenhouse gass emissions have increased from the clearing of the mangrove forests with one study finding that mangrove forests store more carbon than any other species of forest (ScienceDaily 2011). Intensive aquaculture has also lead to more excess feeds and fish waste that both contribute to eutrophication of surrounding waters. This will lead to increased production of plankton which when dead exerts greater demand on the oxygen content of the water. The excess feeds and increased organic waste from intensive aquaculture also adds to the lowering of dissolved oxygen and may be detrimental to both cultured and natural organisms in the affected waters. These activities could be worsened by poor planning, inadequate site selection, inappropriate management procedures, and lack of attention to environment protection (Lucas and Southgate, 2003).
e) Impact of Climate Change on Fisheries and Aquaculture Water resources The 4th Assessment Report (IPCC, 2007) lists water resources as one of the sectors that are likely to be affected by changing weather phenomenon due to climate change. Warming over the continents will lead to melting of snow and ice and severely affect existing water supplies and lead to rising sea levels. In many low-lying countries, such as Bangladesh and Small-island nations, the impact of rising sea levels is already being felt with small-scale fisherfolk losing coastal lands and having to move further inland where they do not right of tenure and small-scale aquaculture farmers losing their ponds. While in inland regions, smallscale fisherfolk are suffering from decreased water resources and drying lakes. The effects of climate change are leading to more intense weather patterns, with drier regions experiencing more frequent and severe droughts while wetter regions experience higher levels of precipitation and floods. The intensity of the weather patterns affects small-scale fisherfolk food security as they lack safety nets to support them through the extreme changes in weather. Climate-induced shift in distribution ranges of marine species Climate change is causing warming in ocean waters which affects currents and marine species ecosystems. Previous global warming events caused a poleward expansion of warm water species and poleward contraction of cold-water species (FAO, 2008). In the North Sea most marine fishes were found to have shifted northward due to higher temperatures (Perry et al., 2005) and invasion of warmer-suited marine species is expected. Temperate areas will have both species gain (higher latitudes) and loss (lower latitudes). The worst hit will be tropical areas where a greater number of species losses are expected as a result of increasingly warmer waters (Sumaila et al., 2011). Biological functions and fish stocks In general, warming of the earth will impact warm-water species positively, cold water species negatively and cool-water species positively in their northern ranges and negatively in their southern ranges (FAO, 2008). But the changes are mostly in their distribution and there are no significant changes expected in biological functions of fish. However, fish that have changes in distribution are expected to have shorter life cycles and smaller sizes compared to nonshifting species (Perry et al., 2005). Higher water temperatures and changes in ocean currents can affect the timing and level of productivity, reduce production of target species, and alter juvenile fish abundance and these changes affect production in both marine and freshwater systems. In particular, global warming is expected to cause reduced water flow and increased droughts, which in turn can lower productivity in lakes and rivers. Increased frequency of extreme weather events (e.g. El Nino Southern Oscillation) can lead to changes in pelagic fish distribution and reduction of coral reef productivity (FAO, 2007). On average the catch potential in higher latitudes is expected to increase by 30-70% and a drop of 40% in the tropics (Cheung et al., 2010). Freshwater fish are particularly vulnerable to climatic disturbances since water levels are expected to decrease in the dry season, reducing the number of individual that spawn successfully. Variations in the climate can also disturb the

timing of flood events that are critical as a trigger of spawning in fish since the waters transport eggs and larvae to nursery areas on floodplains (FAO, 2008). Forecast of effects of climate change decrease in confidence with increasing time scales and affect both fish abundance and distribution in marine and freshwater environments. In the short-term (several years), increasing temperatures could cause limited oxygen transport and availability and have negative impact on fish physiology. In addition to physiological stresses, medium term effects (a few years to a decade) could also affect timing of life cycles and impact recruitment success. Long-term (multi-decadal) predictions are more uncertain and impacts depend on changes in net primary production and its transfer to higher trophic levels (FAO, 2008). f) Small Scale Fisheries and communities struggles with climate change induced changes Small-scale and artisanal marine fisheries derive many fish from coral reefs so any detrimental effect on this ecosystem will also adversely affect small fishers. Other coastal habitats like wetlands, mangroves and sea-grass beds are vulnerable to sea level rise, especially when landward expansion of these ecosystems is restricted. Although some target fish species may decline in numbers due to changes in marine ecosystems, other high commercial value species may see an increase in numbers. Brackishwater fish species may become more abundant due to additional freshwater input from precipitation or runoff. The limited mobility and resources of small fishers makes them less able to adapt to changes brought about by climate change. In addition, they are particularly exposed to direct climate change impacts due to location in the most seaward communities, making them highly at risk to exposure to sea level rise and increased storm intensity and frequency. Changing weather patterns may also disrupt traditional fishing practices based on traditional knowledge of local weather and current systems. Disruption of other sectors (agriculture, manufacturing, tourism, etc.) could lead to increased numbers and therefore competition in small-scale fisheries. Inland fisheries can be highly affected by changes in precipitation and runoff, due to climate change. Fish production might increase due to increased runoff and discharge rate, but could be offset by lower productivity brought about by weaker dry season flows. Changes in hydrology and the risk of droughts may lead to construction of large-scale infrastructure projects (dams, irrigation systems, etc.) that have complex and often negative interactions with fisheries (Daw, 2009). Poor communities (including Small-scale fisherfolk) are expected to be some of the most highly impacted by climate change. And among the poor, women and children are the most vulnerable (Ibon, 2008). Higher vulnerability is mainly due to lower adaptive capacity, although wealth may not always be the decisive factor in determining adaptive capacity (Daw, 2009). Water stress and competition for water resources could affect aquaculture operations and inland fisheries production, and are likely to increase conflicts among water-dependent activities. Gender could be a factor in terms of competition for resource access, risk from extreme events, and occupational changes in areas where women currently play a significant role (FAO, 2008). Changes in stock distribution may force fishers to go farther and make longer trips, and this could decrease the quality of their catch especially in cases where refrigeration is rare or expensive (FAO, 2005-2012). Forced adaptation due to sea level rise might make fishing less

profitable, where risk of storm damage increases cost of insurance and/or rebuilding and vulnerability of coastal communities is increased. Increased frequency of storms increases the risk of both fishing and coastal fish farming, making them less viable to the poor (FAO, 2007). A recent global analysis of fishery sector vulnerability to climate change revealed that many African countries are most vulnerable despite majority of fishers being in South and Southeast Asia and fish catches being greater in Latin America and Asia. The vulnerability of Africa mainly stems from its semi-arid climate and fishery having significant inland and coastal fisheries that can be adversely affected by temperature increase and its associated effects. This is further exacerbated by Africas high dependence in fish protein and low capacity to adapt due to small or poor economies and low human development indices (FAO, 2007).
g) Neo-liberal policies compounding the impact of CC on Fisheries and Aquaculture Neoliberalism espouses economic liberalization, free trade, and open markets. It seeks to take away industries and related institutions from government regulation and place it in the hands of the private sector, the net effect of which is to shift their interest from well-being of the many to profit of the few. The Kyoto Protocol of the UNFCCC is aimed at combatting global warming primarily through reduction of GHG emissions of signatory countries to 1990 levels based on a countrys level of emission, wealth, and ability to make reductions (Grubb, 2004). However, one important feature of the protocol is the flexibility it gives to signatory countries in case they cannot meet their emission targets mainly by paying for it. These flexible mechanisms have become a cop out means of industrialised nations to not meet commitments in GHG emissions reductions since they are very much capable of paying their way out. This neoliberal influence has led to Gupta et al. (2007) calling first-round commitments as merely modest. The World Bank (2010) commented that the protocol only had a slight effect in curbing global emissions growth and that energy-related emissions actually increased from the time the protocol was negotiated (1997) up to 2006. What initially started as environmentally-motivated discussions in addressing climate change is now largely controlled by corporate interests through the global free trade in GHG (Ibon, 2008). The watering-down of the Kyoto Protocol is but just one example of neoliberal influence hampering rather than helping efforts towards addressing climate change and Fieldman (2011) states that neoliberalism actually increases vulnerabilities of nations to climate change and place systemic barriers to climate adaptation.
h) Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies of Small-scale fisherfolk Fisheries Small-scale fisherfolk are struggling to adapt to the changes in the sector which requires high levels of resources and support beyond their current means.
Table 1. Possible adaptations to various climate change impacts of capture fisheries (FAO, 2008). Impact Reduced yield Potential adaptation measures Access higher value markets/shifting targeted species; increase effort or fishing power; reduce costs to increase efficiency; diversify livelihoods; exit the fishery Diversify livelihood portfolio; insurance schemes Migration of fishing effort/strategies and
Increased variability of yield Change in distribution of fisheries

processing/distribution facilities Exit the fishery New or improved physical defences; managed retreat/accommodation; rehabilitation and disaster response; integrated coastal management; early warning systems and education Weather warning system; investment in improved vessel stability/safety/communications Support for existing local management institutions; diversify livelihoods
Reduced profitability Vulnerability of infrastructure and communities to flooding, sea level and surges
Increased dangers of fishing
Influx of new fishers
National- and international-level stakeholders can conduct climate-change risk assessments, encourage reduction of fishing effort in overexploited areas, set-up institutions to respond to climate change threats, establish bi- and multi-lateral agreements to allow fishing interests to move within and across national boundaries, coordinate with disaster risk reduction planning concerning coastal or flood defences, enhance SSF resilience by supporting their adaptation strategies, address vulnerability-related issues of SSF, and engage in long-term planning adaptation planning (FAO, 2007). Mitigation measures that can be practiced in fisheries are associated with reduction of carbon footprint. This concerns the emission of GHGs during fishing activities and is more significant for large-scale than small-scale capture fisheries. Fuels are used not only for transport, but for storage and lodging services as well. Fuel consumption will increase if changes in fish migration and water circulation patterns demand longer and farther fishing trips. Mitigation would therefore mainly involve reduction of fossil fuel use through increased efficiency in equipment (e.g. vessels, fishing gear) as well as fisheries management (e.g. reduction in waste production and post-harvest losses, waste recycling). Improved fishing strategies could also help, like shifting towards static fishing technologies (FAO, 2008). Aquaculture Due to its relatively immobile nature compared to capture fisheries, aquaculture may need additional adaptation and mitigation measures. Bangladesh has formulated a national adaptation programme of action that focuses on aquaculture (FAO, 2007).
Table 2. Possible adaptations to various climate change impacts of aquaculture (FAO, 2008) Climate change element Warming Impacts Adaptive measures
Raise above optimal range of tolerance of farmed species
Better feeds; more care in handling; selective breeding and genetic improvements for higher temperature

tolerance (and other related conditions) Increase feed input, adjust harvest and market schedules Better planning; sitting, conform to climate change predictions, regular monitoring, emergency procedures Better management to reduce stress; biosecurity measures; monitoring to reduce health risks; improved treatments and management strategies; genetic improvements for higher resistance. Fishmeal and fish oil replacement; new forms of feed management; genetic improvement for alternative feeds; shift to non-carnivorous species; culture of bivalves and seaweeds wherever possible Shift stenohaline species upstream; introduce marine or euryhaline species in old facilities Provide alternative livelihoods through aquaculture: capacity building and infrastructure Greater use of hatchery seed, protection of nursery habitats, develop/use formulated pellet feeds (higher cost but environmentally less degrading), alternative livelihoods for suppliers Improve monitoring and early warning systems, change water abstraction points where feasible Adapt production and handling techniques, move production zones, Improve efficacy of water usage; encourage nonconsumptive water use in aquaculture, e.g. culture based fisheries; encourage development of mariculture where possible Use different/faster growing fish species; increase efficacy of water sharing with primary users, e.g. irrigation of rice paddy, change species in lagoons Shift to artificially propagated seed (extra cost), improve seed quality and production efficiency, close the life cycle of more farmed species
Increase in growth; higher production Eutrophication and upwelling; mortality of farmed stock Increase virulence of dormant pathogens and expansion of new diseases
Limitations on fish meal & fish oil supplies/ price
Sea level rise and other circulation changes
Salt water intrusion
Loss of agricultural land
Reduced catches from coastal fisheries, seedstock disruptions, reduced options for aquaculture feeds; income loss to fishers Increase of harmful algal blooms- HABs Acidification Water stress and drought conditions Impact on calcareous shell formation/ deposition Limitations for freshwater abstraction
Water retention period changed (reduced in inland systems, increased in coastal lagoons) Availability of wild seed stocks reduced/ period changed

Extreme weather events Destruction of facilities; loss of stock; loss of business; mass scale escape with the potential to impacts on biodiversity Encourage uptake of individual/cluster insurance; improve siting and design to minimize damage, loss and mass escapes; encourage use of indigenous species to minimize impacts on biodiversity, use non reproducing stock in farming systems
The carbon footprint from aquaculture activities may not be as significant compared to terrestrial counterparts (less need for fertilizers and feeds, fish do not secrete as much GHGs) but is still significant especially in intensive aquaculture production. Mitigation strategies require the development of policies addressing resource access and use, production options and market related measures like certification, transparency of mitigation standards, comparison with other food production activities, and social protection and inclusion. Areas to be focused on include fishmeal, fishoil, and other feed inputs, water and energy efficiency, genetic modification, and access to the latest technologies and management approaches, especially to Small-scale fisheries (FAO, 2008). The mentioned adaptation and mitigation measures will be constrained by several factors. There is a great degree of unpredictability of short- and medium-term effects on the ecosystem and the reaction of impacted communities. Lack of data may hamper reliability and thoroughness of suggested measures. Short-term gains may be rendered inappropriate by eventual long-term problems. And policy changes should balance between climate change and equity concerns while addressing poverty alleviation and food security. It is apparent that these efforts need clear and committed focus to handle properly (FAO, 2008) Adaptation and mitigations strategies represent, at best, stop gap measures in combating the impact of climate change and environmental destruction on small-scale fisherfolk. It is unsustainable modes of production, consumption and distribution, which perpetuate climate change and environmental destruction. As such, a systemic change away from such unsustainable practices represents a long-term solution for safe guarding the livelihoods of small-scale fisherfolk. h) Policy development One way by which adaptation and mitigation schemes can be assured to be beneficial is by assessing its long and short-term benefits not only to climate change, but to other drivers and sectors as well. The minimum requirement for the framework in Figure 2 is long-term benefit (win). Obviously the ideal scenario is both short-term and long-term benefit (win-win) while the no-benefit (lose-lose) scenario is the least ideal. Adaptations and mitigations that result to shortterm loss but long-term gain (lose-win) is still acceptable since they are cases when the economic and social costs exceed the benefits in the near-future but are in a position to receive benefits long-term. The win-lose scenario often happens when there is maladaptation to climate change and should be avoided. However there are cases when it can be allowed, especially if human survival is at stake (Bell et al., 2011).
Figure 2. Decision framework for identifying adaptations to climate change and other drivers (Grafton, 2010). Adaptations and mitigations to climate change may apply differently to various sectors in society and what is beneficial to one may be harmful to another (FAO, 2008). One way of doing this is by analyzing interactions between adaptations, variables in fisheries, and different drivers as illustrated by Figure 3.
Figure 3. Sample interaction of adaptations, features in coastal fisheries, and various drivers in coastal communities in Pacific Island countries (Bell et al., 2011)
Governance, transparency and accountability This paper has shown that efforts aimed at climate change mitigation have been so far lacking and could be attributed to corporate interests continuing to exert strong influence on adopted policies and strategies. These entities have been benefitting from current frameworks and systems and are therefore unlikely to sincerely seek systemic changes. For any strategy mitigating climate change, the interests of the poor should be primarily addressed and one good way of doing this is by pushing for the Peoples Protocol on Climate Change and its principles of human rights, sovereignty, respect for the environment and responsibility. Social justice addresses the fact that developing countries are the least responsible but most vulnerable to climate change by making industrialized countries accountable since they are the main producers of GHGs. Sovereignty asserts that people should be empowered because they are key to any effective change that aims to address climate change. Respecting the environment recognizes the importance of maintaining the ecological balance of the environment by considering not only the interests of human beings, but of all creatures great and small. Responsibility varies for different people but developed countries should be held accountable and must bear the greatest responsibility for climate change. Governance based on transparency and accountability will go a long way towards the formulation of sensitive and effective mechanisms policies towards systemic changes aimed at addressing climate change. Conclusion
The fisheries sector is an important provider of food and its well-being is well related to human food security. Its relevance is greater for small-scale fisherfolk, a large number of whom live and/or work in places that are highly susceptible to impacts brought about by climate change. It is therefore imperative that we give sufficient attention and provide adequate

resources and services towards adaptation and mitigation of the effects of climate change to small-scale fisherfolk and formulation of policy and frameworks in support of these. The promotion of the Peoples Protocol on Climate Change would go a long way toward a realistic assessment of the current social and physical environment that would lead to formulation and enforcement of appropriate and just mechanisms aimed at addressing climate change. In particular, the following recommendations are formulated: All people involved in small-scale fisheries and aquaculture will be hardest hit by climate change, but more attention should be given to those situated in tropical areas since the physical and ecological impacts towards aquatic ecosystems are greatest there. Although all people involved in fisheries and aquaculture are affected by climate change, focus should be in the poorer sectors since they are the most vulnerable to and least capable of addressing climate change. Although big companies and industries should not be excluded, their inputs should be thoroughly examined since they are less likely to push for real, and therefore substantial, changes. Any and every fishing and aquaculture activity should aim to be sustainable since these mechanisms are more likely to be sensitive towards climate change. Any climate change adaptation adopted should at least have long-term benefits, no matter the short-term effects. Short-term losses should be sufferable as long as long-term solutions are expected. Good governance, transparency and accountability should be the guiding principles in the formulation of adaptive and mitigating measures in response to climate change.
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Climate Change and Challenges in The Fisheries and Aquaculture Sector

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FISHERIES AND MARINE ENVIRONMENT RESEARCH INSTITUTE INC (FMERI)

BACKGROUND PAPER IN PREPARATION FOR INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON FISHERIES AND GLOBALIZATION