RF/MICROWAVE BASICS

by Hakan P. Partal

RF BASICS
OUTLINE
Electromagnetic Wave Properties High Frequency Voltage, Current, and Power Forward and backward travelling waves Impedance Network parameters -- S parameters; Reflection, Insertion Loss, Isolation, Phase Microwave circuit measurements.

RF BASICS
Electrical energy Flows as current along a conductor, when a voltage is applied A bunch of electrons (negative charges) move through a conductor toward region of positive potential in response to an electric field.
(For an electric current of 1 ampere, 1Coulomb of electric charge (which consists of about 6.242 1018 electrons) drifts every second through any imaginary plane, through which the conductor passes. )

If the applied voltage is sinusoidal the direction of electron flow changes back and forth alternating current (AC) Travels in the air as invisible waves. In a typical wireless system, the electrical energy starts out as current flowing along a conductor, gets changed into waves traveling in the air, and then gets changed back into current flowing along a conductor again. +1V 0V -1V

I I time

RF BASICS
Moving electrons can be treated as electromagnetic waves An electromagnetic wave has frequency (f), wavelength (), velocity (v) A medium has permitivity or dielectric constant (r or Dk) characteristic impedance (Z)

EM WAVE PROPERTIES
Frequency :cycles per second (Hz). (F=1/Time) 900 MHz exhibits 900 million ups and downs in a single second. Wow! 2 Hz +1V 0 -1V 1 sec time

Distance = Velocity x Time In air, EM waves travel at the speed of light, C (3x108 m/sec). Wavelength () = C x Time = C x 1/F = C/F (in air)

EM WAVE PROPERTIES
Wavelength is a function of velocity, frequency, and medium: Wavelength () = velocity / Frequency = ( C / Dk ) / F (m) general definition Dk=1 in air When Dk is high, Wavelength is shorter and more cycles of waves in the same physical distance . EM wave velocity gets slower. When Frequency is high, wavelength is shorter
CATS: Higher Frequency ( more movement cycles)

Small in size physically BUT, large electrically !

ELEPHANTS: Lower Frequency (less movement cycles)

Large in size physically But, small electrically :(

EM WAVE PROPERTIES
1 wavelength : 1=360 800MHz signal in a Rogers 3003 (r=3) board,
=8.52 24 mils = 1o

2GHz signal in a Rogers 3003 (r=3) board,

=3.41 10 mils = 1o which is electrically more significant

Higher the frequency, smaller the wavelength, can leak thru small gaps ! Wavelength = c / (F r ) +1V
180o, 90o, /2

0o
360o

0 -1V

/4 /2 90o 180o

360o

270o

MICROWAVE CIRCUIT EXAMPLES

Couplers are designed based on wavelength (/4). Can be smaller in size if used higher Dk materials, Smaller in length at higher frequencies

Also, other resonant circuits such as filters, power combiners, dividers, antennas, etc. Delay lines apply electrical delay for wave propagation. They can be smaller with higher Dk materials.

FREQUENCY SPECTRUM

MICROWAVE MEASUREMENTS S-PARAMETERS

Common way to represent network parameters using complex coefficients: magnitude & phase Real & imaginary dB & phase S11=RL @ port 1 S21=IL from port 1 to 2 S12=IL from port 2 to 1 S22=RL @ port 2

Matrix notation: Sij

Port measured Port excited

S21 a1 Port 1 b1 S12 S11 2 Port Network S22 b2 a2 Port 2

SCATTERING PARAMETERS

Two-port network
Z02

Z02

FWD wave

BWD wave

SCATTERING PARAMETERS

S PARAMETERS

SCATTERING PARAMETERS
MULTIPLE REFLECTION EFFECTS

b1

RF POWER MEASUREMENTS

dB

At low frequencies, voltage and current are measured. These parameters are difficult to measure at higher frequencies so power is measured. In microwave world the dB scale is used commonly. This scale compresses the data range.
" C o m p re s s io n " U s in g L o g a rith m ic S c a le 30

25

dB

20

10*Log(x)

15

10

Power Out/In
0 0 100 200 300 400 500 X 600 700 800 900 1000

dB
dB is a relative quantity based on the ratio of two numbers (powers in microwave analysis).

dB = 10Log10(Pout/Pin)
Log10(AxB) = Log10 (A)+Log10 (B) Ex. A coupler has 1W applied to input (port 1) and 1/2W measured at Output Ports (Ports 2&3). What is the output power in dB? P(dB) = 10Log10(0.5W / 1W) = 10Log10(0.5) = -3dB

Ratio 1/1000 1/100 1/10 1 2 10 100 1000

dB Value -30 -20 -10 -3 0 3 10 20 30

1mW

100x
20dB

100mW

2x
3dB

200mW = 23dB

dBm
dBm = 10Log10(Pout/1mW) where Pin is defined as 0.001W=1mW This allows us to represent an actual power using the dB scale as opposed to relative powers. When a system has 1mW at the input, the output power is described in dBm.

1mW

Pout
= 10Log10(Pout/1mW)

Power(mW) 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

dBm -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30

Pout is represented in dBm. Ex. Convert 200mW to dBm: 10Log10(200mW/1mW) = 23dBm

SYSTEM IMPEDANCE
System impedance in microwave circuits is generally 50ohm. Components and cables that connect them have characteristic impedance of 50ohm. Equipment is generally designed with 50ohm interfaces. If all components of the system are NOT 50ohm, the system will not operate optimally.

Test Equipment.
50ohm cable 50ohm ports

Microwave Device

50ohm ports

CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE
Electric field is generated by charges E-field (V/m) Magnetic field is generated by current (moving charges)H-field (A/m) (Right hand rule) Characteristic Impedance of a medium Z is defined as E / H Free Space intrinsic impedance, Zair = = 377ohm. In transmission lines, Z is determined by geometry and materials used.

Top GND plane 1

TL

2 Bottom GND plane

TRANSMISSION LINES (TL)

A TL carries a microwave signal in a guided medium EM waves can travel in the air (antenna radiation) Some TL examples are Coaxial cables, Striplines, Microstrip lines, waveguides, etc. TL parameters: Frequency range, Bandwidth, power handling, loss, size, manufacturing process, etc.

Stripline
Top GND plane 1
TL

Microstrip line
air
TL

Coaxial cable

IC

Dielectric substrate 2 GND plane

Outer cond. E-lines H-lines

Bottom GND plane

MICROWAVE MEASUREMENT PARAMETERS

Return Loss Insertion Loss Isolation Phase

MICROWAVE MEASUREMENT PARAMETERS

Network Analyzer: -Applies a signal to port#1 -Measures reflected power at port#1 -Measures transmitted power at port#2 Incident Port 1 Reflected

Two Port Device

Port 2 Transmitted

RETURN LOSS
It is a relative measure of reflected power If characteristic impedance of a transmitted medium different, reflection occurs! RL (dB) = |10Log10(Preflected/Pincident)| = -20 log10|S11| The larger (Negative) number means better RL (less reflection) 20dB of Return Loss means 1% of incident power reflected back. 10Log10(1/100)= -20dB Incident Reflected
Wave
Air Sea

r=1 r=85 Transmitted

INSERTION LOSS
Loss caused by Reflection TLs get hot when power pass through them, some power is lost converted to heat energy Losses in the dielectric and copper, Losses due to radiation (leakages) Some power is intentionally lost due to design needs (e.g attenuators) IL (dB) = |10Log10(Ptransmitted/Pincident)|

ISOLATION

When EM wave travels in a poorly confined medium, some power could sneak out. If wavelength is small (higher frequency or higher Dk), this leakage is more pronounced. Must shield and use GND vias to eliminate leakages. Consider a 4 port coupler, some power from Input 1 will show up at Input 2
Isolation (dB) = 10Log10(P2 / Pincident)

When there is a Good Isolation, P2=0 and ISO= -Infinity The larger (Negative) number represents the better isolation
Input 1 Input 2 OUT Load

4 Port Coupler

PHASE
Corresponds to the time or distance travelled Gives information about the length of a transmission line Can measure the time difference between two signals at the same frequency. Phase = 360 x(t / t(1cycle) ) (degrees) 1 wavelength = 360o = 2 +1V Phase 0V -1V
180o 2 360o

+1V 0V time -1V t