Aphids

Aphids, commonly called plant lice, are insects, whose adults have varying dimensions of about 1,5-4,0 mm in length, possess an almost transparent thin external integument, in colours that range from clear yellow to black.

Aphids with and without wings

They have a strong polymorphism between the winged forms, whose task is to reach new plant hosts up to a distance of hundreds of kilometers away, and those apteral (wingless) that, with the loss of wings and wing muscles, assemble all of their resources in the reproductive function, producing in a short time numerous colonies. Aphids possess piercing-sucking mouth-parts (rostrum) through which they pierce the most tender tissues (vegetable apexes and young leaves) from which plant sap is withdrawn. This is rich in sugar but poor in amino-acids, for which reason they seek to retain the necessary nutritional elements and to expell the surplus water and sugars in the form of sticky honeydew, through a posterior appendix of the abdomen (siphuncle).

Aphid with egg

In nature, these Homopterons have a very complex biological cycle; in greenhouses, on the other hand, they have a simpler cycle because the insect has at its continual disposal a vegetable host (Gerbera) and a mild climate. All of this allows it to have only parthenogenetic generations, with a phenomenal ability to multiply. On average a female during her life cycle produces from 50 to 100 progeny, most of

which other females that, within 8-10 days of their birth, are sufficiently mature to begin reproduction. The damage caused by these can be direct and indirect. - direct damage consist in the suction of plant sap, lesions and necrosis of the tissues subject to puncture by the insect. They also produce gall and hyperplasia, because of the effect of different substances which are injected into the plant, including Indoleacetic acid (vegetable growth hormone). - indirect damages however, consists of the excretion of honeydew that accumulates on the foliage of the plant. This honeydew supports the growth of black sooty-mould fungi, wich often renders the effected plant unsightly and their flowers unsalable (the photosynthetic activity of the plant is hindered).

Aphid eggs

Further indirect damage is causes by their capacity to transmit viruses(carriers) from healthy to sick plants (the viruses can be transmitted even from infected plants that live outside the greenhouse). From this point of view one of the most dangerous carriers is the aphid Mizus Persicae.

Control of Aphids
Aphids usually do not cause serious damages to the Gerbera, firstly because they are kept under control by other insecticidal treatments. Furthermore, their activity as carriers is also negligable because the plantlets that originate in the laboratory are unlikely to be infected by a virus (micropropagation). In cases in which it is necessary to resort to chemicals (hot environments), we can use insecticides such as: Pirimicarb 200 gr/100 l ( 17.5% c.a.).It acts via contact and asphyxia, with translaminar properties (*) Imidacloprid (Confidor) 50-75 ml/100 l ( 17.8% c.a.).See control against Aleyrodidae (*)

Methomyl 150-200 ml/100 l ( 19% c.a.). Cytotropic insecticide, it acts via contact and ingestion. It is largely used also against Thrips, Aleurodids and Lepidopters. The latter also possess an ovicidal activity, and it is used for the preparation of poisoned bait (*) (*) Product of prevalent adulticide activity One or two treatments are generally enough to control the insect.

Grey mildew

(Botrytis Cinerea)

Pathogen: Botryotinia Fuckeliana Conidial Form: Botrytis Cinerea Class: Ascomycetes Order: Helotiales This is a pathogen which affects a large number of plant species, among which the Gerbera unfortunately is one of the most susceptible, especially in periods or very damp cultivation conditions. From this point of view it is undoubtedly (together with root rot) one of the diseases that limits te cultivation of the Gerbera in many areas.

Grey mildew on a plantlet

The disease, commonly known as Grey Mildew, typically causes a soft rottenness on all the leaves that are covered (in severe cases) with large amounts of grey mildew. This grey mildew consists of the multiplication or conidial forms of the fungus. The mycelium and sclerotium are their resting structures; these live in the foliage remains on the soil, or on wild plants (Amarantus Genus). Botrytis spores (conidia) contain very little water so they depend on the dampness of the environment. They germinate extremely well even in a thin layer of free water, especially if it contains sugars. Thus, condensation on leaves is perfect. A short dry period (about 2 hours) does not harm the germinating spores, but longer periods (several hours)

of dry conditions will dry out and kill them. When the leaves are wet and the temperature is 15-25C, the spores germinate and grow. They form mycelium threads that penetrate the leaves, which marks the start of infection. Once the disease is established it forms new spores, especially under humid conditions. Spores are released when the spore-bearing plant material is disturbed or when the relative humidity (R.H.) changes rapidly (in the morning and late afternoon). Under normal conditions (low R.H.), unless an abundant innoculum source is available, the fungus is incapable of attacking vital organs and in active development. These, in fact, are damaged only if they are come into contact with an organ already infected with abundant grey mildew. The pathogen develops in abundance on old organs, producing a big quantity of enzymes that damage the adjacent vegetable tissue and facilitate the invasion of the fungin mycelium. On the young Gerbera plants, the rottenness produced at the base can cause their death with notable economic repercussions.

When fungus attacks young flowers it causes their death, and thus reducing production

On the flowers, the most characteristic symptom is the appearance of brown sunken spots of various dimensions; when climatic conditions are not too negative, they are not very visible to the naked eye during the harvest. However, these spots grow bigger after the harvest, during the storage and packaging becoming so noticable as to make them unmarketable. The fungus is so virulent that it can also cause damage in high summer if at nightime the relative humidity in the greenhouse reaches values of about 95-100%. The infection is encouraged by temperatures between 4 and 32C, but occurs especially when R.H. levels in the greenhouse are higher than 85-90%. The spread of the pathogen takes place through water and air.

Typical Botrytis spots on a flower

Control of Botrytis
To fight this dangerous pathogen we should adopt all those agronomic practices which reduce the occurence of the conditions of predisposition for the disease, such as: the reduction of films of water on the plants; reduced high humidity, and the reduction of especially luxuriant and etiolate plants. To prevent Botrytis damage we must make use of: Heating with pipes of warm water placed at the base of the plants Irrigated systems that do not wet the foliage, especially during the autumn-winter period Openings at the top of the greenhouse Heating systems with pipes of warm water positioned between the plants and the openings at the top

Leaf miner
The leaf miner, a small fly belonging to the Agromyzedae family, was first introduced into Europe from America, probably through chrysanthemum plantlets towards the mid 70s. In Italy its presence was first noted in 1978. Currently in many countries it represents, together with Thrips parasites that effect the Gerbera. It is a polyphagous insect, capable of infesting numerous horto-floro plants and weeds. Amongst leaf miners the Liriomyza T. is undoubtedly most troublesome to growers, both because of its voraciousness, and its ability to become resistant to insecticides.

The adult leaf miner is a fly of small dimensions (2,0-2,5 mm), it has a yellow head, a blackish thorax, and a clear yellow abdomen with clear brown striped wings. The larva are a yellow orange colour, whilst the pupae are small firm brown-yellow pods about 2 mm, usually visible on the upper leaf surface. The male is smaller than the female, they both usually fly about during the morning, and they mate in the daytime. The virgin females cannot lay eggs if not fertilized by the male. These, by means of a small thread, pierce the leaf epidermis on the upper side, causing lacerations from which vegetable sap comes out which also acts as nourishment for the adult male unable to pierce the leaves. From the yellow-cream coloured eggs the yellow larva emerges. This feeds by digging a tunnel-serpentine mine- in the leaf mesophyll, narrow in the first few centimetres but becoming wider and wider, ending with a large circle. If you hold the leaf against the light you can see along the whole length of the tunnel a blackish line made by the larva excretions. If the larva is not present in the tunnel, the larvas exit hole can easily be seen in the shape of a half moon at the point where the tunnel opens into a large circle. From the larva comes the pupa that very often, in cases of strong infestation, is visible because it rests upright from the point where the leaf has been perforated. The cycle is completed with the transformation of the pupa into an adult.

The duration of the cycle varies according to the temperature, with optimal values, of 27 28 C the cycle can be completed from egg to adult in about 14-16 days. At temperatures higher than 30 C, larval mortality gradually increases. At optimal temperatures, the larval phase is much shorter, lasting from 4 days at 30 C to 7-8 days at about 20 C. The adult leaf miners live on average 13-30 days, depending on the temperature, the females live longer. The male/female ratio is generally balanced. According to laboratory research the following has been noted: at 13 C the insect does not reproduce, at a constant 14 C the eggs openings block, and only at about 16 C do the adults start merging from the pupa. Observation made in different greenhouses also show, that in cold environments the insect lives through at least one generation during winter, while in well-heated greenhouses numerous generations follow each other in succession.

Larva Liriomyza Trifolii

Pupa Liriomyza Trifolii

The principal damage is caused by the larvae that dig tunnels in the leaf mesophyll, also considerably reducing the plants photosynthesis and thus the growth and production. In cases of stong infestation the leaf miner is also able to lay eggs inside the ligulate flowers.

We must remember, however, that the leaf miners Phytomiza Horticola and Phytomiza Syngenesiae, known to the floriculturists as Old miners", today have been completely supplanted by Liriomyza Trifolii. The old miners, grey-black coloured, have pale yellow larvae. The pupa are found like the LiriomyzaTrifolii at the end of the broadening tunnel dug in the leaves. However, unlike the LiriomyzaTrifolii, the4 pupae are located inside the leafrather than above its surface. This, and the winding tunnel which they produce, distinguishes the old miners from the Liriomyza Trifolii.

Eggs

Leaf miner with larva inside

White powdery mildew

White powdery mildew, a fungus, manifests itself initially on the leaves, petioles and the flower heads, with the appearance of a characteristic whitish efflorescent, floury, constituted by the abundant formation of mycelium and conidial multiplications of the fungus.

Following such infection the leaves become smaller, curled up and of leathery consistency. In a short period the white efflorescence turns into a purplish brown colour. Following this the affected organs dry up and die. The flowers often do open and necrotic spots appear on the stems. Even if the pathogen does not cause the death of the plant and chemical control is not carried out in time, the total deterioration of the flowers will be the result. The mildew flourishes in warm-damp conditions, but the ability to germinate and to spread, even when the relative humidity is low, and a broad range of temperature min 3-4 C, opt 20-25 C and max 35-36 C makes this pathogen dangerous in any period of the year. The fungi resting structures during winter are the cleistothecia that in spring first release the ascospores and from these the conidia. These are transported by wind and reach the leaf surface of the Gerbera on which they will germinate and produce the disease. Not all Gerbera varieties are affected in the same way. This depends on the susceptibility of individual varieties. White powdery mildew generally appears in small amounts and then usually spreads quickly and widely on the same vulnerable variety. It is always essential to act quickly at the first signs of the infection.

White fly
The white fly (T. Vaporariorum) and more recently the Bemisia Tabaci have become amongst the most dangerous phytophagous in greenhouses both for the great polyphagia and for their high reproductive capacity, finding in the warm-moderate areas and in greenhouse environments, optimal conditions for their development.

The insect improperly defined together with the B. Tabaci is considered to be of Central American origin. The adult measures about 1 mm. It has a wax-like body similar to white powder, which gives the insect its characteristic white-yellow appearance. The female is bigger than the male, and it lays the eggs in short stalks, on the undersides of leaves in groups from 20 to 40. Initially the eggs have a clear yellow colour, but after a couple of days purplish. The whole biological cycle occurs on the underside of the leaf, and is divided into 7 stages; the cycle includes 4 nymphs stages, an intermediate stage called pupa, during which ocular red spots are visible, and finaly the adult. The stage 1 nymph is of a clear-green colour and initially mobile, subsequently it is able to insert its piercing sucking mouth parts into the leaf and it becomes sessile. They are flat, appressed closely to the leaf, oval in shape, resembling pale green scales and have white, waxy threads, radiating from their bodies. All other stages, excluding the adult, live attached to the leaf. By making an opening on the back of the pupa the adult white fly is able to emerge, and immediately begins to feed. The virgin females lay only haploid eggs from which give birth to males only. With the mating process. On the other hand, both males and females are produced, with the females dominating in numbers.

Mating occurs 10-12 hours after leaving the pupa, and it continues for the whole duration of the adult life, for an average of 60 days. During their reproductive cycle the females can lay from 150 to 500 eggs. The number of generations is directly related to the temperature, below 10 C the white fly does not reproduce, it has its optimum temperature of around 29 C to 30 C, and above 34 C the cycle is unlikely to be completed.

These Aleyrodidae, live together in high numbers in a very sociable way on the under-sides of leaves. They are damaged by the sucking of plant sap, the production of abundant honeydew with the formation of sooty-mould, and as virus carriers. In cases of serous infestation, the plant loses vigor and a general yellowing of leaves is noticed, due to the dry cell content.

Thrips
Thrips are insects of tiny dimensions, whose females have a morphological thread by which they depose the eggs inside vegetable tissues. The Frankliniella Occidentalis or California Thr., found in Europe in Italy for the first time in 1987 on carnations, has become in a few years, for all European Greenhouses and in the moderate climates of other countries worldwide, one of the most dangerous phytophagouses of the Gerbera and many other floral cultivation.

Adult Frankliniella Occidentalis

Present in many parts of the world, similar to a midge of a pale yellow colour, it is also unfortunately famous for the ability to transmit the dangerous virus of the Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus (TSWV), able to infest more than 300 species of vegetables. The male is on average 0,9-1,0 mm long, while the female is slightly bigger (1,2mm). The eggs are invisible to the naked eye and the life cycle is divided into six phases of development: Egg 1.larval stage 2. larval stage Prenymph Nymph-Adult. The egg is laid in the parenchymal cells of the flowers and of the leaves, and after a few days these open and a larvae immediately beginning to feed on the parenchymal cells and on the flower pollen. During the nymph 2 phase, they grow and their mobility increases. The Prenymph and the Nymph complete the cycle. They spend the whole winter in shallow soil or residual vegetation. The adults live on average 30-40 days and the females-male ratio is generally 3:1 or 4:1. The Thrips, few days after the eggs open become very active managing even to make jumps of3 cm. Because of their small dimensions, they can also be spread by the wind. The females begins to lay eggs within the first 3 days of her life, the unfertilized eggs produce males, the fertilized eggs produce mainly females. Generally 1-2 eggs are laid per day, reaching a total of about 40-50 eggs during the whole life cycle.

In good conditions, like heated greenhouses or the right natural climate an insect can have up to 1214 generations in a single year.

Nymphs of I + II stage

LNymph of II stage

The damage to the plants is caused by the I and II age Nymphs, and by the adult Thrips. These have rasping mouth parts that abrade the surface of flower petals and leaves that release plant sap, which is then sucked up. This rasping injures the plant tissue, leaving brownish streaks an light coloured flower petals, or whitish or silvery streaks on foliage or dark coloured flower petals. To this damage the action of the terebra can also be added, which causes great damage especially to the small buds. In case of large outbreaks, the younger damaged leaves are deformed and of silvery colour. The silvery colour appears due of the emptying of the epidermal cells by the sucking action of the parasite. As well as such directly caused plant damage, the insect is also able to transmit and spread dangerous viruses from a single infected Gerbers plant, and also from wild plants situated near the Gerbera plants. Thrips Tabaci, on the other hand is native to the Mediterranean areas, and often found on the Gerbera together with the Frankliniella O. Compared to the latter, the Thrips T. Lives more on the plant surface, thus is more vulnerable. An other common species, which affects the Gerbera is the Heliothrips Haemorrhoidalis. If present in great quantities, it can be recognized because it lays its eggs on the underside of the leaf, close to the main vein. In addition, this egg laying is unusual to this insect, since females cover the eggs with blackish drops of excrement.

Thrips attack on flowers

Different degrees of Thrips attack

Leaf spots
Leaf spots, a fungus, can, in some countries, also cause severe damage to the leaves whereto begin with circular shaped spots with irregular borders appear, subsequently they become bigger and inside they have a series on concentric circles diminishing in size, and with prominent borders. Generally of a purple-brown colour, leafspots in more serious cases have the tendency to gather together, forming large necrotic areas that subsequently cause the leaves to whither. These pathogens spread by means of the conidia and spores, and flourish in hot and highly humid conditions. Outbreaks of Cercospora can be distinguished from those of Alternaria by the holes found near the centre of the necrotic areas. The controls of these diseases are primarily of an agronomic nature. These controls seek to avoid high levels of humidity, and to encourage good physiological and sanitary conditions for the plants.

Leaf spots on gerbera

Necrotic leaf area probably caused by Alternaria