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Structure
1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.4 Force Analysis 1.5 Velocity Relationships 1.6 Shear Strain and Shear Strain Rate 1.7 Shear Angle Relationships 1.8 Summary 1.9 Key Words 1.10 Answers to SAQs
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Manufacturing processes can be broadly divided into four categories, viz., primary (casting, forging, moulding, etc), secondary (machining, finishing, etc.), tertiary (fabricating processes like welding, brazing, riveting, etc.), and fourth level processes (painting, electroplating, etc.). Secondary manufacturing processes are as important as any other level processes. These processes involve removal of material in the form of chips or otherwise, to give the desired shape, size, surface roughness, and tolerance on the workpiece obtained from the primary manufacturing processes. The machined components can be used as it is, or one can be assembled (sometimes using fabricating processes) and if required, given an aesthetic look by electroplating, painting, etc. This block/unit will discuss the fundamentals of traditional material removal processes (nontraditional material removal processes are discussed in Block 4). This unit will discuss basic principles of metal cutting including mechanics of chip formation, velocity and force analysis, and some of the models proposed to evaluate the shear angle relationships.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to understand classification scheme for various types of material removal processes, identify various types of metal cutting processes, types of chip formed, mechanism of chip formation and geometry of chips, analyse forces and velocities in cutting process, and know various schools of thought regarding shear angle relationships.
The process of metal cutting is effected by providing relative motion between the workpiece and the hard edge of cutting tool. Such relative motion is produced by a combination of rotary and translating movements either of the workpiece or of the cutting tool or both. Depending on the nature of the relative motion, metal cutting process is called either turning or planning or boring, etc. For different types of operations, one needs to have different types of machine tools. For example, lathe for turning, planer for planning, grinder for grinding, etc. Some of these machines (say, lathe, boring m/c, and drill) generate surfaces of revolution whereas others (planer, milling m/c, and shaper) make prismatic (or flat surfaces) parts. With the help of different types of tools, a lathe can perform various kinds of operations (Figure 1.1(b)). Conventionally, the translatory displacement of the cutting edge of the tool along the work surface during a given period of time is called feed( f ), while the relative rate of traverse of work surface past the cutting edge is designated as the cutting velocity or simply speed (Vc). In case of single point turning, Vc is the peripheral velocity of the rotating workpiece in meters per minute. In case of slab milling, it is the peripheral velocity of the milling cutter in meters/minute. 6
Figure 1.1(b) : Various Operations that can be Performed on a Lathe [Kalpakjian, 1989]
Table 1.1
Operation Turning on a lathe Motion of Job Rotary motion of the work Motion of Cutting Tool Axial movement of the tool Figure of Operation
Boring on a lathe
Work rotation
Fixed
Planning
Translatory
Intermittent Translation
Milling
Translatory
Rotation
Grinding
Rotary/Translatory
Rotary
The study of the mechanism of chip formation involves deformation process of the chip ahead of the cutting tool. Theoretical study of the material deformation in metal cutting is difficult and therefore experimental techniques have been resorted to for analyzing the process of deformation in chips. The methods commonly employed for this purpose are : (i) (ii) (iii) Use of movie camera for taking pictures of chip. Observing grid deformation during cutting. Examination of frozen chip samples obtained by the use of quick-stop device.
Experimental study of chip deformation process has revealed that : (i) (ii) During machining of ductile materials, a plastic deformation zone is formed in front of the cutting edge (Figure 1.2). The distinctive zone of separation between the chip and workpiece where deformation gradually increases towards the cutting edge is called the primary deformation/shear zone. In shear zone extensive deformation occurs. The width of shear zone is very small. The plastic deformation involved in the formation of chips affects the hardness of material (strain hardening). Strain hardening increases when a layer undergoes deformation in the shear zone.
(iii)
Type 2 : Continuous chip, and Type 3 : Continuous with built-up edge. When ductile materials at high cutting speed are cut by a single point cutting tool, ribbon like continuous chip (Figure 1.3(a) and 1.3 (b)) is obtained. The conditions that promote formation of continuous chips in metal cutting are sharp cutting edge, low feed rate (or small chip thickness), large rake angle, ductile work material, high cutting speed, and low friction at chip-tool interface. As shown in Figure 1.2, major deformation takes place in primary shear deformation zone (PSDZ) resulting in the formation of chip. Due to ductile nature of work material and reasonably high temperature in the PSDZ, the deforming material flows on the rake face of the tool as continuous mass rather than the one fractured/ruptured at small distances at the underneath of the chip as in discontinuous chip. Continuous chip results in good surface finish, high tool-life, and low power consumption. But disposal of large coiled chips is a serious problem, for many industries where tons of chips are produced every week. To get rid of this problem various types of chip breakers are used which are in the form of step or groove on the rake face of the tool (Figure 1.4). The chip strikes with this step/groove and gets broken in the form of small segments. Disposal of such small chips is not a problem. If the friction between tool and chip while machining ductile materials is high, some part of the chip gets welded to the rake face of the tool near its cutting edge. The welded material is extremely hard and its size keeps on increasing with time. Because of the hardness of the adhered materials onto the cutting edge, it participates in cutting to a certain extent. That is why it is named as built up edge (Figure 1.5). As the size of the BUE grows larger, it becomes unstable and it breaks. Some part from the broken BUE is carried away by the chip as well as on the machined surface (Figure 1.3).
Figure 1.3 : Different Kinds of Chips : (a) Continuous; (b) Photograph of Continuous Chip; (c) Continuous Chip with Built Up Edge; and (d) Discontinuous Chip
The chip with the adhered parts of the BUE is known as continuous chip with BUE. The adhered parts of the BUE on the machined surface make the machined surface rough, but the BUE protects the actual cutting edge of the tool from wear. Thus, cutting with BUE enhances the tool life (or tool cuts longer before regrind). 9
Discontinuous or segmented chips are produced while machining brittle materials or ductile materials at low speeds and high friction conditions. The basic difference between the mechanism of formation of discontinuous chip and continuous chip is that, instead of continuous shearing of the material ahead of the cutting tool, rupture occurs intermittently producing segments of chip (Figures 1.3 and 1.6). These chips are smaller in length hence easy to dispose off, and give good surface finish on the workpiece. Discontinuous chips are formed when cutting brittle materials, or cutting ductile materials at low speed, or cutting with tools of small rake angle.
Orthogonal Cutting Orthogonal cutting operation is the simplest type of cutting operation, in which the cutting edge is straight, parallel to the original plane surface of the workpiece and perpendicular to the direction of cutting, and in which the length of the cutting edge is greater than the width of the chip removed (Figures 1.7(a) and (b)). This orthogonal cutting is also known as Two Dimensional (2-D) Cutting. A few of the cutting tools perform orthogonally, such as lathe cut-off tools (Figure 1.7(a)), straight (not helical) milling cutters, broaches, etc. In actual machining, majority of the cutting operations (turning, milling, etc.) are three dimensional (3-D) in nature and are called as oblique cutting. In oblique cutting, the cutting edge of the tool is inclined to the line normal to the cutting direction, and this angle is known as angle of obliquity. This is also called the inclination angle, i (Figure 1.7(c)). Oblique cutting can be defined as the cutting
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operation in which the cutting edge is straight and parallel to the original surface of the workpiece, but is not perpendicular to the cutting direction, being inclined to it. An angle of interest in this case is the chip flow angle, c which is defined as the angle measured in the plane of cutting face between the chip flow direction and the normal to the cutting edge (Figure 1.7(c)). Both i and c are zero in case of orthogonal cutting. The certain practical limitations to orthogonal cutting are mitigated by three dimensional tooling.
Figure 1.7 : (a); (b) Orthogonal Cutting System; and (c) Oblique Cutting System
Generally for the mathematical analysis of the mechanics of metal cutting, orthogonal cutting is considered because it is simpler than the oblique cutting. The results so obtained can be used for oblique cutting operations.
(Figures 1.8 (b) and (c)). This deformation is known as secondary shear deformation zone (SSDZ).
Figure 1.8 : (a) Shear Plane; (b) Primary and Secondary Shear Deformation Zone in Chip Formation; and (c) Frozen Chip Obtained by a Quick Stop Device
From right angle triangles, ABC and ABD (BD is perpendicular to AD drawn from B),
AB = tu /
sin
Also,
AB
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tu sin = tc cos ( )
tu is called chip thickness ratio or chip thickness coefficient (rc) which can be written tc
as
or, or,
. . . (1.1)
To determine the shear plane angle () for a given cutting condition the chip thickness
inaccurate. Hence, an indirect approach to this problem is to assume that the density of metal during the cutting process does not change. Hence, the volume of uncut chip is equal to the volume of metal removed (or deformed chip). Since the width of chip (b) is equal to the width of metal being cut (in orthogonal cutting), therefore :
bLc tc = Lu tu b (volume constancy condition)
or,
Lc tc = Lu tu
tu Lc = tc Lu t rc = u = tc Lc Lu
. . . (1.2)
where, Lc is length of chip, and Lu is corresponding length of material removed from the workpiece (or uncut chip length). Lc can be easily measured, and it (Lc / Lu) will give more accurate results than (tu / tc) because of the difficulties and inaccuracies involved in the measurement of thickness of the deformed chip (tc).
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Figure 1.10 : (a) Force Components Acting on a Chip; and (b) Free Body Diagram of a Chip
Figure 1.11 shows a composite diagram in which the two force triangles of Figure 1.10, have been superimposed by placing the two equal forces R and R' together. Since the angle between Fs and Fn is a right angle, the intersection of these forces lies on the circle with diameter R as shown. Also, F and N may be replaced by R to form the circle diagram (Figure 1.11).
The horizontal cutting force Fc and vertical force Ft can be measured in a machining operation by the use of a force dynamometer. The electric strain gauge type of transducer is used in the dynamometer. After Fc and Ft are determined, they can be laid off as in Figure 1.11 and their resultant is the diameter of the circle. The rake angle can be laid off, and the forces F and N can then be determined. The shear plane angle can be measured approximately from a photomicrograph or by measuring tc and tu, or length of chip and corresponding length of unmachined chip (discussed elsewhere). From Figure 1.11, the following vector Eqs. can be written
R' = F + N R = Fs + Fn = Fc + Ft = R'
Merchant represented various forces in a force circle diagram in which tool and reaction forces have been assumed to be acting as concentrated at the tool point instead of their actual points of application along the tool face and the shear plane. The circle has the diameter equal to R (or R') passing through tool point. After Fc, Ft, and are known, all the component forces on the chip may be determined from the geometry. For instance, the average stress on the shear plane can be determined by using force Fs and the area of the shear plane. Another useful quantity is the coefficient of friction () between the tool and chip. Using force circle diagram, it can be shown that 14
F = Ft cos + Fc sin
. . . (1.3) . . . (1.4)
and,
N = Fc cos Ft sin
= tan =
where, is the friction angle.
. . . (1.5)
or,
We can also write :
F + Fc tan = t Fc Ft tan
. . . (1.6)
. . . (1.7)
. . . (1.8)
. . . (1.9)
or,
Fc = Fs
cos ( ) cos ( + )
. . . (1.9(a))
. . . (1.10)
. . . (1.11)
. . . (1.12)
hence,
R=
tu b sin cos( + )
. . . (1.12(a))
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From Figure 1.11, Ft = R sin( ) = (From Eq. 1.12(a)) t u b sin ( ) sin cos ( + ) . . . (1.13)
Ft = tan ( ) Fc
. . . (1.14)
From the above analysis, unknown forces in the force circle diagram and the value of coefficient of friction can be calculated provided Fc, Ft, , tu and tc are known measured. During machining operations, chips are formed as a result of plastic deformation. Hence, chips experience stresses and strains. At shear plane, two normal forces simultaneously act, i.e., Fs and Fn. Shear stress () can be found as Mean shear stress
. . . (1.15)
= ( Ft cos + Fc sin )
. . . (1.16)
. . . (1.17)
or,
The chip flow velocity along the tool rake face is given by
Vf =
. . . (1.18)
Vs =
Vc cos cos ( )
. . . (1.19)
Merchant developed an analysis based on the thin shear plane model. He made the following assumptions : The tool tip is sharp and no rubbing or ploughing occurs between the tool and the workpiece. The deformation is two dimensional, i.e., no side spread. The stress on the shear plane is uniformly distributed. The resultant force R on the chip applied at the shear plane is equal, opposite and collinear to the force R' applied to the chip at the tool-chip interface.
Strain and strain rate are determined as follows : To derive an expression for shear strain, the deformation can be idealized as a process of block slip (or preferred slip planes), as shown in (Figure 1.13). Shear strain () is defined as the deformation per unit length.
s AB AD DB = = + y CD CD CD
. . . (1.20)
= tan ( ) + cot
= =
sin ( ) cos + cos ( ) sin sin ( ) sin + cos cos ( ) sin cos ( )
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or,
Strain may also be expressed in terms of the shear velocity (Vs) and the chip velocity (Vf)
Vs Vc sin
(from Eq.(1.19))
cutting is orthogonal, the shear strength of the metal along the shear plane is independent of the magnitude of compressive (normal) stress acting on that plane, the chip is continuous type with no built up edge, and the energy of separation of chip elements is neglected and the minimum energy criterion establishes the plane on which shearing deformation occurs.
As the cutting progresses in the beginning, the cutting force (Fc) increases gradually, the shear stress on various planes ahead of the tool also increases. However, the shear stress will not be same on all the planes ahead of the tool because the shearing components of the forces on the planes are not the same, nor is the extent of areas the same. On one of the planes, however, the shear stress will be greater than on any other plane, and as Fc is further increased, the shear stress will reach the yield strength in shear of the material being cut and plastic deformation will occur along that plane, thus forming the chip. The cutting force required to cause shear deformation along that plane will then be the lowest cutting force. Once the shear deformation begins along one plane, the cutting force cannot exceed that minimum value. To determine shear-plane angle , express the cutting force Fc in terms of , differentiate it with respect to , equate the derivative to zero, and solve it for the angle as follows :
Fc = Fs tu b cos ( ) cos ( ) = cos { + ( )} sin cos ( + )
(Eq.1.12)
Here, except all other parameters can be taken as constant during machining (assuming that no strain hardening takes place). It would give the condition for the minimum energy if the derivative of Fc with respect to is equated to zero.
cos cos ( + ) sin ( + ) d Fc = tu b cos ( ) = 0 d sin 2 cos 2 ( + )
Therefore,
or, or,
Hence,
(2 + ) =
2
. . . (1.23)
1 ( ) 4 2
where, , and are shear angle, friction angle and rake angle, respectively. Eq. (1.23) indicates that the shear angle is a unique function of the tool rake angle and the angle of friction in metal cutting. Merchant further introduced a modification to this theory and assumed that the shear strength of a polycrystalline metal is affected by temperature, rate of shear, shear strain (plastic) and the stress acting normal to the shear plane. While it is known that the normal compression stress on a plane does not affect the shear strength of a single crystal however, the shear strength of polycrystalline material is affected. The modified Eq. is
C 1 ( ) 2 2
. . . (1.24)
where, C depends on the slope of the shear strength vs. compressive stress curve for the given material. 'C' is also known as machining constant. In 1949, another approach to the analytical solution of the shear plane angle was made by Lee and Shaffer. They assumed that the material being cut behaves as an ideal plastic which does not strain harden. It was assumed that the shear plane coincides with the direction of the maximum shear stress (Figure 1.14). Based on these assumptions, they applied slip line field theory and derived the relationship given by Eq. (1.25).
+ ( ) 4
. . . (1.25) 19
As a modification, later on Lee and Shaffer considered the effect of a small built up edge or nose, and its effect on the stress field referred to above and arrived at an expression for
the shear angle () which included an additional angle , which depends on the size of the built up edge,
+ ( ) + 4 In 1952, Shaw, Cook and Finnie extended the Lee and Schaffer theory by further analytical and experimental investigations, and arrived at the following relationship : = + ( ) + 4 While deriving the above relation, they assumed that the shear plane is not a plane of maximum shear. Here, is established by the analytical method and it is not constant. is the angle between the shear plane and the direction of the maximum shear stress. To determine the value and sign of the , it is necessary to draw the Mohrs circle diagram. =
Based on the experimental study of the mechanics of chip formation and the flow of grains in the material during cutting, Palmer and Oxley observed that the deformation does not take place along a plane, rather it takes place in a narrow wedge shaped zone. But for analytical simplicity, it was considered as a parallel sided shear zone (Figure 1.15).
A further contribution towards the solution of this problem was made by R Hill in 1954, who analyzed the state of stress at the shear zone, using a new principle On the limits set by plastic yielding to the intensity of singularities of stress. But in 1959, Eggleston, Herzog and Thomsen tried to show by their test results that none of the three Eqs. (by Ernst and Merchant, Lee and Shaffer, and Hill) was correct which implies that metal in the shear zone under the existing conditions of stress, high rates of strain and elevated temperature does not behave as ideal plastic solid. Since no single criterion is applicable to the shear angle relationship in metal cutting, and since a satisfactory theory has not been advanced at present to explain the experimental observations adequately, the challenge exists for a closer solution to the problem of angle relationship. This problem is so tedious because the complexity is created by the simultaneous presence of so many variables at a time, for example : (i) 20 (ii) plastic deformation, work hardening,
Show that in case of ideal orthogonal cutting operation the shear strain undergone by the chip during its removal from the workpiece would be minimum if the chip thickness ratio is 1.
Solution
In Figure 1.13 the shear strain in general and shear strain in cutting are shown. Here, s is in the direction of force, y is in the direction to the force. Shear strain in another term of interest is associated with the cutting process. The shear strain is defined as
s AB AD DB = = + = tan ( ) + cot y CD CD CD
We want the condition when should be minimum. Hence, differentiate with respect to and equate the derivative equal to zero.
d d = {tan ( ) + cot } = 0 d d
sec 2 ( ) + ( cos ec 2 ) = 0
sec 2 ( ) = cos ec 2
or,
sin 2 = cos 2 ( ) .
Take the under root to both sides, sin = cos ( ) or, sin = cos ( ) = cos cos + sin sin 1 = cos cot + sin . . . (B) . . . (A)
Question is that at the condition (A) whether the chip thickness ratio is 1 or not. We know that chip thickness ratio is given by
t sin c = u = tc cos( )
If, then = 1,
1=
sin cos ( )
. . . (C)
sin = cos ( )
By comparing Eqs. (A) and (C), we find that both are the same. Hence, it is proved that shear strain will be minimum only when the chip thickness ratio is unity.
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Example 1.2
In orthogonal turning operation with +10 back rake angle tool, the following observations were made: cutting speed =160 m/min, width of cut = 2.5 mm, Fc = 180 kgf, Ft = 50 kgf, deformed chip thickness = 0.27 mm, tool chip contact length = 0.63 mm and feed rate = 0.20 mm/rev. Determine the following : chip thickness ratio, shear angle, friction angle, resultant force, shear force and shear strain.
Solution
(i)
(ii)
= 39.94o
(iv) R = =
R = 186.81 kg
(v)
(vi)
Shear strain = tan ( ) + cot = tan 29.9 + cot 39.9 = 0.575 +1.196
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= 1.771
Example 1.3
A cylindrical bar has a blind hole of 15 mm diameter. Its face is being turned (facing operation) from inner diameter to the outer periphery (Figure given below) at a speed of 600 RPM, feed = 0.20 mm/rev., and depth of cut =1.0 mm. Calculate the cutting speed (m/s) and total volume removed at the end of 15s.
Solution
Arrow in the figure shows the tool movement. Revolution/second (Ns) = 600/60 = 10 To find, (i) (ii) (i) V15 = cutting speed at the end of 15 seconds of facing operation.
D s t 1000
where, Ns t = 15 10=150 rev.(# of revolutions made by the the work at the end of 15s) Vt = cutting speed at time 't' D = d + 2f Ns t (Figure above) D = Diameter of the workpiece at which the tool tip will be after the time of machining =15s. In one revolution of the workpiece, the diameter at which the tool will be cutting, will increase by 2f. (or in one revolution the diameter to which the tool tip reaches is increased by 2f). where, f feed rate
D15 = 15 + (2 0.20 10 15)
= 75 mm
V15 =
75 10 1000
(ii)
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During orthogonal turning of a pipe of 100 mm diameter, the rake angle of the tool was 20o. The ratio of the cutting force to feed force was 3.0.The feed rate, depth of cut and chip thickness ratio were 0.275, 0.687 and 0.4 respectively. With the help of a dynamometer, feed force was measured as 460 N. Workpiece was rotating at 450 revolution per minute. Determine chip velocity, shear strain, shear strain rate and mean width of PSDZ.
Solution
Vf = Vc Vs = Vc
. . . (A) . . . (B)
But, we do not know the values of and Vc. They can be evaluated as follows : tan =
. . . (C)
Vc =141.37 m/min
. . . (D)
Vf =
Vf = 56.56 m/min
Vs =
Vs = 133.11 m/min
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We also know,
= tan ( ) + cot
= tan (23.54 20) + cot (23.54)
= 2.357
=
. . . (E)
Here, we do not know the value of ds. Using Lee and Shaffers theory, ds can be derived as [Jain and Pandey, 1980]
ds = =
f sin (90 + ) 2 2 sin sin (45 + ) 1 0.275 sin (90 + 20 25.54) 2 2 sin (25.54) sin (45 20 + 25.54) 1 .
= 6830 s-1
Note that the shear strain rate in metal cutting is very high as compared to the one obtained in classical deformation test.
Example 1.5
Prove that the specific cutting pressure in an ideal orthogonal cutting is given by cot , provided 2 + = /2 holds good ( shear stress).
Solution
. . . (A)
. . . (B)
. . . (C)
btu
=
Sp. cutting press
Example 1.6
= 2 cot
proved 25
Following data were recorded during orthogonal machining : Bar diameter = 40 mm, depth of cut = 0.125 mm, length of chip obtained = 62.5 mm/rev, horizontal cutting force = 220 kgf, vertical cutting force = 85 kgf, = 7, spindle speed = 500 RPM. Find out friction angle, chip thickness ratio, shear angle, chip velocity and shear velocity.
Solution
. . . (A)
Ft + Fc tan Fc Ft tan
85 + 220 tan 7 o 220 85 tan 7
(Eq. 1.7)
40 500 1000
Vc = 62.83 m/min
Vf = Vc
= 62.83
Vf = 31.22 m/min.
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Vs = Vc
= 62.83
Vs = 66.66 m/min.
SAQ 1
Write the most appropriate option from the given ones (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) In actual practice, chip thickness ratio is (a) > 1, (b) < 1, (c) = 1. In oblique cutting, the number of forces that act on the tool are (a) one, (b) two, (c) three, (d) none of these. Which of the following is the chip removal process? (a) rolling, (b) extruding, (c) die casting, (d) broaching, (e) none of these. Time taken to drill a hole through a 2.5 cm thick plate at 3000 RPM at a feed rate 0.025 mm/rev. will be (a) 20 s, (b) 10 s, (c) 40 s, (d) 50 s. (v) Shear plane angle is the angle between (a) shear plane and the cutting velocity vector, (b) shear plane and tool face, (c) shear plane and horizontal plane, (d) rake face and vertical plane. (vi) In orthogonal cutting, the cutting edge should be (a) straight, (b) parallel to the original plane surface of the workpiece, (c) normal to the direction of cutting, (d) all of these, (e) none of these. (vii) Continuous chip with BUE (a) yields good surface finish, (b) yields poor surface finish, (c) has no effect on surface roughness. (viii) The ratio of cutting velocity to chip velocity is usually (a) >1, (b) <1, (c) = 1.
1.8 SUMMARY
Various types of metal cutting processes can be classified in two types: orthogonal and oblique cutting. During cutting, depending upon the type of workpiece material and machining conditions, one of the three types of the chips will be obtained (continuous, continuous with BUE, or discontinuous). Chip formation takes place due to the shearing action. In the process of chip formation, various types of forces act simultaneously. Magnitude of force decides the power requirement. Chip velocity can be theoretically evaluated using the analysis presented in this unit. One of the important parameters is shear angle, which can be determined theoretically or experimentally. Two schools of thought prevail regarding PSDZ thin zone model and thick zone model other than shear plane.
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Oblique Cutting
1.10
SAQ 1
(i) (ii)
ANSWERS TO SAQs
(b) (c) (d) (a) (a) (d)
EXERCISES
Q 1. (i)
Derive a relationship to calculate shear angle in terms of measurable/known parameters. Draw force circle diagram proposed by Merchant for orthogonal cutting conditions showing different forces acting on tool, chip, and work system. From the diagram, derive the expression for (a) (b) shearing force on the shear plane, friction force on the tool face in terms of cutting force, thrust force, rake angle, and shear angle.
(ii)
(iii) (iv)
Define orthogonal cutting. Draw Merchant's force circle diagram for the orthogonal cutting. Using the Figure in Q.1 (ii) (a), derive the expression for friction force. What are the factors which affect the formation of different types of chip obtained in cutting.
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(v)
(rc)
where, is the shear angle and rc is the chip thickness ratio. (Hint : in the original Eq., Substitute tan = rc) (Ans. = 0) (vi) Determine the condition for which chip flow velocity is equal to the cutting velocity, assuming = 0. (Ans. = 45o)
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Armarego, E. J. A. and Brown, R. H. (1969), The Machining of Metals, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Jain, V. K. and Pandey, P. C. (1980), An Analytical Approach to the Determination of Mean Width of Primary Shear Deformation Zone (PSDZ) in Orthogonal Machining, Proc. 4th International Conference on Production Engineering, Tokyo, pp 434-438. Kalpakjian, S. (1989), Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., New York. Pandey, P. C. and Sing, C. K. (1998), Production Engineering Science, Standard Publishers Distributors, Delhi. Rao, P. N. (2000), Manufacturing Technology : Metal Cutting and Machine Tools, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi. Shaw, M. C. (1984), Metal Cutting Principles, Oxford, Clarendon Press.
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MACHINING TECHNOLOGY
Manufacturing Technology course provides learners with the sound knowledge of conventional as well as non-conventional (advanced) manufacturing techniques. In Manufacturing Technology, you have already studied the principles of metal casting, metal forming, principles of metal cutting and welding technology. In Machining Technology, you are going to be introduced with other manufacturing processes. The main aim while manufacturing a component is to achieve the desired component with the required quality in the most economical manner. This objective can be achieved only when the manufacturer has acquired sufficient knowledge of manufacturing concepts like principles of metal cutting, machining operations, abrasive machining processes and nonconventional material removal processes. This course on Machining Technology comprises four blocks. Block 1 (Theory of Metal Cutting) comprises 3 units. In this block, fundamentals of traditional material removal processes have been introduced. In Unit 1, concepts like material removal processes, chip formation and force analysis have been discussed. Unit 2 elaborates the thermal aspects of metal cutting processes. It gives a complete understanding of thermal phenomenon in machining. It deals with theoretical and experimental methods to evaluate temperature distribution in the tool, work and tool-work interface. In Unit 3, tool wear, tool life, machinability and tool materials have been discussed. The emphasis in Block 2 is on abrasive machining processes. Surface integrity in general, and surface finish in particular of a finished component is very important. Abrasive finishing and its working principles are well explained in Unit 4. This unit also deals with the specifications of grinding wheels and its selection for the given workpiece requirements. Various kinds of grinding operations (face grinding, surface grinding, cut-off grinding and others) and the mechanics of grinding are elaborated in Unit 5. Apart from grinding there are various other finishing processes like lapping, honing, and superfinishing. The characteristics and working principles of these processes are dealt with in Unit 6. Block 3 has three units which discusses various surface finishing processes. Unit 7 deals with the surface characteristics and product performance. In this unit, surface finish parameters, their importance and different types of surfaces produced by machining have been discussed. Unit 8 describes the conventional surface finishing processes like honing, lapping, deburring etc. in detail. Last unit, i.e. Unit 9, discusses the micro-machining processes like ion-beam machining, electron beam machining etc. in detail. Block 4 deals with non-conventional (or advanced) material removal processes. It comprises four units. In the first unit of this block, these processes have been introduced and classified in three major categories. Unit 11 of this block deals with mechanical advanced machining processes, e.g. abrasive jet machining (AJM), ultrasonic machining (USM) and abrasive flow machining (AFM). Unit 12 introduces thermal processes like laser beam machining (LBM), electric discharge machining (EDM) and allied processes. In the last unit of this block, i.e. Unit 13, electrochemical machining (ECM) method has been elaborated.
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