Unit 1 Ancient Rope-making Rope-making is one of the oldest trades in the world.

It is known that rope was made over 5,000 years ago, because pieces of rope have been discovered in ancient Egyptian tombs. Some of these were made from camel- hair, and others were made from twisted grass. They were used for tying animals, and for obtaining water from deep wells and for pulling large stones used in building. Also, ropes made of thin copper wire have been discovered in the city of Pompeii, which was destroyed by a volcano a little under 2,000 years ago. In ancient times, rope was made by hand; nowadays, however, it is made by machine. In under-developed countries today, rope is still made as it was in ancient times. Questions 1) 2) By whom rope was first made? The rope was first made by ancient Egyptians. Name some materials that were used for making ropes? Camel-Hair Twisted grass Copper wire For what purposes were ropes used? Tying animals Obtaining water from deep wells Pulling large stones used in building How did rope-making change over time? In ancient times, rope was made by hand; nowadays, it is made by machine. However in the under-developed countries, rope is still made as it was in ancient times.

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Word Study Section A common way of making new words in English is by adding standard combinations of letters to existing words, either at the beginning (prefixes) or at the end (suffixes). By noting these carefully, you will find it easy to make large increases in your recognition vocabulary. 1- The suffix -ist A person who studies and applies, e.g. geology is a geologist, Sociology is a Sociology Chemistry is a chemist. Anthropology is an Anthropologist Psychology is a psychologist. Archaeology is an Archaeologist Ecology is an Ecologist Agronomy is an Agronomist

2- The suffix (i)ian A person who studies and applies, e.g. mathematics is a mathematician. Statistics is a statistician. Obstetrics is an obstetrician. BUT A person who applies the study of: Economics is an economist. Engineering is an engineer. Architecture is an architect. Medicine is a doctor.

3- The suffix ion This suffix converts a verb into the corresponding noun. The following are some examples: VERB To act To apply To observe NOUN Action Application Observation

Exercises
Form nouns from the following verbs:

to imagine, to attract, to direct, to construct, to connect, to relate, to fluctuate. Form verbs from the following nouns:

conversion, suggestion, production, definition, operation, reduction, population. NOTE: to join junction; to destroy- destruction; to query- question; to transmit transmission. 4- The prefix in- and unThese prefixes are used to make and adjective negative, e.g. 'incomplete' means 'not complete'; 'unconnected' means 'not connected'.

Exercises Using in-, make the following negative: accurate; capable; direct; essential; frequent. Using un-, make the following negative: able; stable; usual; critical; reliable; successful; imaginative; true.

Grammar Simple present tense This tense is used for: 123Actions in the present which happen usually, habitually or generally, e.g. 'He usually wakes up at 7 o'clock in the morning'. Stating general truths, e.g. 'science plays an important role in the societies where we live'; or for stating general scientific laws, e.g. 'water freezes at 0C'. Describing processes in a general way. e.g. a scientist observes carefully, applies, logical thought to his observation, tries to find relationships in data, etc.

Exercises a) Fill in the blanks in the following:

abcdef-

I make. They make She makes The scientist makes Scientists make We make

accurate experiments

.check .check .checks .check .check

abcde-

I think He thinks They think We think She thinks

logically

.observes .observe .observes .observe .observes

accurately

The Negative The Simple Present Tense forms the negative by the use of do not or does not before the main verb, e.g. I, you do not He, she does not We, they do not Exercise Fill in the blanks in the following: 12345I do not accept You do not accept We do not accept A scientist does not accept They do not accept incomplete evidence unreliable information inaccurate statements authority in science Know the importance of science

The interrogative The Simple Present Tense forms questions by the use of do or does before the subject of the main verb, e.g. Do I You Does he she Do we they Exercise Put the verbs in brackets into their correct form. 1234567A statistician (applies) mathematics in his work. Do You (accept) incomplete evidence? The evidence (seems to be) incomplete. Does The government official (uses) objective methods? Trained observers usually (utilize) data to the fullest. He always (trying) to look for underlying relationships in collections of data. Does the scientist always (thinks) logically?
Know the importance of science?

Unit 2:

Hard and Soft Water

Some water is said to be 'hard'. By this is meant that it does not lather readily with soap. The reason for this is that it contains traces of calcium compound from the rocks in the earth through which it has flowed. Rain-water is said to be 'soft'. Because it lathers readily with soap, and the reason is that it does not contain any calcium compound. The water from reservoirs does not generally contain much calcium compound, but well-water frequently does, and consequently it is said to be 'hard'. When a pan of hard water is boiled, a layer of a hard substance, known as 'fur', is deposited on the bottom and sides of the pan. This consists of the limestone which is formed when the water is heated, and is deposited as the water evaporates. Questions: 1) 2) Name the two types of water? Soft (rain-water), Hard (well-water) What is meant by 'hard' water and why it is given this specific name? It is meant that it does not lather readily with soap. Because it contains traces of calcium compound from the rocks in the earth through which it has flowed. What is meant by 'soft' water and why it is given this specific name? It is meant that it does lather readily with soap, because it does not contain any calcium compound. What is the main difference between water from reservoirs and well-water? The water from reservoirs can be soft or hard, where the water from wells can be only hard. Provide the meaning of `fur' in this particular context? Layer of a hard substance consisted from limestone when water is heated.

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Word Building: 1) The suffix ion (-ation , -ition) This suffix forms nouns from verbs with the meaning of: process or result of doing something. Thus operation means process or result of operating. Other nouns formed in this way are: 'addition' (process or result of adding) form (to add), 'subtraction' from subtract, 'division' from divide, 'multiplication' from multiply. Exercise: Using ation make nouns from the following verbs: apply application adapt adaptation specialize specialization compute computation calculate calculation isolate isolation combine combination explain explanation investigate investigation 2) The suffix ment

This suffix forms nouns from the corresponding verbs, e.g. 'measurement' from the verb (to) measure. Exercise: By adding ment form nouns from the following verbs: Equip equipment move movement adjust adjustment establish establishment attach attachment improve improvement state statement 3) The suffix ity

This suffix forms nouns from the corresponding adjectives, e.g. 'activity' from the adjective active; 'probability' from probable, and 'simplicity' from simple.

Exercise: Form nouns from the following Alkaline Alkalinity relative relativity potential potentiality complex complexity equal equality reliable reliability acid acidity NOTE: the adjective "able" becomes "ability". Exercise: Applying the principle given in the NOTE above, make adjectives corresponding to the following nouns: availability available adaptability adaptable stability stable responsibility responsible 4) The prefix- suffix -en This is used either as a prefix to adjective (or occasionally nouns) to form a verb (e.g. 'enable, enlarge, etc.)

Exercise: By adding en, form verbs from the following: Length enlarge strength strengthen loose loosen short shorten deep deepen height heighten

Grammar: Passive Voice We use Passive when we have little interest in or knowledge of the, doer of the action but are more interested in what happens to, or is done to, the person or thing thus affected. You probably remember that the Passive is formed by the appropriate tense of the verbs to be plus the Past Participle, e.g. The active statistics mathematics Imagination People use decimals computers chemical Becomes in the Passive Statistics Statistics Mathematics Imagination Decimals Computers Chemicals are is used

c.f. 'other branches of mathematics are used in many sciences'. The passive is used here because we are not at the moment concerned with who uses these branches.

Exercise: 1) People apply mathematics in many different activities. (begin: mathematics has been applied in many different activities) 2) People use the binary scale in electronic computers. (Binary scale is used in electronic computers) 3) People form square of a number by multiplying the number by itself. (Begin: the square of a number is formed by multiplying the number by itself) 4) In the binary scale, people express numbers by combinations of 0 and 1. (In binary scale, the numbers are expressed by combinations of 0 and 1) 5) People usually use decimals rather than fractions for scientific purposes. (Begin: Decimals, rather than fractions are used in scientific purposes) 6) People develop new products every day. (New products are being developed every day) 7) People call mathematics 'the language of science'. (the mathematics are called the language of science) 8) People use the decimal system even in countries with non-decimalized systems of weights and measurements. (The decimal system is used even in countries with nondecimalized systems of weights and measurements) 9) It is easier to perform mathematical operations with computers if we use the binary system instead of the decimal system. (It is easier to perform mathematical operations if we use binary system, instead of the decimal system) 10) People use electronic computers for many different purposes. (Electronic computers are used for many different purposes) 11) People often find relationships in incomplete data. (Relationships are often found in incomplete data) 12) People make attempts to deceive the ordinary citizen. (Attempts are made to deceive ordinary citizen) Note: If the doer of the action has some importance (though less than the object), or is needed to complete the sense of the sentence, it is given, e.g. A knowledge of statistics is required by every type of scientist'.

The word order "including the doer of the action" is: Objectverb in the passivesubject rest of sentence. b) Make the following sentences Passive, mentioning the doer of the action but shifting the emphasis to the object: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) A combination of the digits 0-9 forms integers. Engineers require an advanced knowledge of algebra and geometry. (Begin: An advanced knowledge of ) Scientists, especially physicists and engineers, often use electronic computers. Journalists, who seldom have a knowledge of statistics, frequently mislead the ordinary citizen. Every day, applied scientists and technologists produce new drugs, fibers, chemicals and equipment. (Begin: Every day new) A combination of two elements forms a chemical compound. The ordinary citizen often requires an elementary knowledge of statistics. Economists also use mathematics. Every type of scientist requires a knowledge of statistics. Scientists use accurate systems of measurements. Philosophers employ specialized extensions of mathematics. Physicists also use probability theory.