CHARACTERISTICS OF UNDERWATER NOISE

Thesis submitted to the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur For the award of the degree of

Master of Technology
in

Mechanical Systems Design

by

Srinivas Garimella (10ME63D44)

Under the guidance of

Prof. A. R. Mohanty

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, KHARAGPUR APRIL 2012

Department of Mechanical Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur-721 302

CERTIFICATE OF EXAMINATION This is to certify that I/we have examined the thesis entitled Characteristics of Underwater Noise submitted by Mr. Srinivas Garimella (10ME63D44), and hereby accord my/our approval of it as a study carried out and presented in a manner required for its acceptance in partial fulfillment of the Post Graduate Degree for which it has been submitted. This approval does not necessarily endorse or accept every statement made, opinion expressed or conclusions drawn, as resolved in the thesis, it only signifies the acceptance of thesis for the purpose for which it is submitted.

Date: April 2012 Place: Kharagpur

Additional Supervisor

Supervisor

External Examiner

Department of Mechanical Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur-721 302

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the thesis entitled Characteristics of Underwater Noise is a record of bona fide work carried out by Mr. Srinivas Garimella (10ME63D44), during the academic session 2011-12, under my supervision and guidance in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Technology in Mechanical Systems Design, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur.

Date: April 2012 Place: Kharagpur

Prof A. R. Mohanty. Department of Mechanical Engineering

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It gives me immense pleasure and satisfaction to express my heart-felt gratitude to my guide Prof. A. R. Mohanty for accepting me as his project student and providing me with excellent guidance and constant encouragement throughout my project duration. He devoted his valuable time towards discussions, and offered viewpoints and insights which went far beyond the narrow domain of work and helped me embark on new ideas. I am very much grateful to him for his invaluable suggestions, able guidance, during this one year and above all constant encouragement throughout my work. I would like to express sincere thanks to my teaching faculty for providing sound knowledge base and positive co-operation during the course of my M.Tech program. I am thankful to the Head, Mechanical Engineering Department for providing me the necessary facilities during the course of this dissertation program. I would like to thank all the Professors of Mechanical Engineering Department for their support during the entire period of my M.Tech Programme here at IT Kharagpur. I would love to dedicate this thesis to my wife, whose constant co-operation, love and well wishes have encouraged me throughout my endeavors. Finally, I am thankful to the Naval fraternity for giving me an opportunity to get invaluable exposure at the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, that has made everything possible. At last but not the least I thank one and all of those who helped me directly and indirectly in carrying out this project.

Srinivas Garim ella

Department of Mechanical Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, India

iv

List of Figures and Table

List of Figures and Tables

Fig/Table List of Figures Figure 1.1 Figure 2.1 Figure 2.2 Figure 2.3 Figure 3.1

Description

Page No.

Principle of Operation Generic Stator Design Cut-away section of stator teeth Interface model between Stator and Rotor Free vibration due to piezo forcing

2 5 6 12 18

Figure 4.1 Figure 4.2

Response of rotor speed, modal amplitude and rotor/stator overlap versus applied torque Power input and output versus applied torque

21 22

Figure 4.3 Figure 4.4 Figure 4.5 List of Tables Table 3.1

Response of rotor displacement, rotor speed and rotor/stator overlap Speed-Torque and Efficiency-Torque curves with variable Fapp

23 24 25

Speed-Torque and Efficiency-Torque with variable tooth height

Physical parameters of the motor

17

Department of Mechanical Engineering, IIT Kharagpur

Contents

TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter/ Appendix Topic/Sub topics Title Page Certificate of Examination Certificate Acknowledgements Declaration List of Figures and Tables Contents 1 2 3 4 Introduction Mathematical Modelling Simulation Results and Conclusion Appendix References Page Nos.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, IIT Kharagpur

ABSTRACT The present project, Characteristics of Underwater noise, is being carried out in two parts, viz., Rainfall measurement through underwater noise and Underwater Time delay Estimation Techniques using Maximum Length Sequence signals. For rainfall measurement using underwater rain noise it has been observed from literature survey that research was done using approximate diameter of drops of 1 mm to 6 mm sizes for natural rain and artificial rain. The objective of the present work is the analysis of underwater drop impact and bubbles noise characteristics using exact size of 2 mm, 4 mm and 6 mm drops size in diameters which have been generated through experiments as described in the subsequent section. The present work emphasizes on finding characteristics of an individual drop, bubbles generation due to its impact on water surface and bubbles generation through artificial means. The natural frequencies of thus formed underwater bubbles are recorded and then compared to theoretical calculations. This research work focuses on minute observations which are based on individual drops of different sizes. These findings are aimed to enhance the understanding of characteristics of rainfall measurements on water bodies. Time delay estimation (TDE) is an important technique for identifying, localizing, and tracking radiation sources. Because of its central significance, accuracy and precision are of critical importance to the TDE algorithms. Cross correlation in time domain (CC) is a widely used tool for TDE .The most popular method is to locate the maximum peak of the CC which indicates the time delay. This research work aims to experimentally compare various TDE methods like time domain cross correlation (CC), generalized cross correlation (GCC), generalized cross correlation with phase transform (GCC PHAT), smoothed Coherence transform (SCOT), modified SCOT filter of cross power spectrum (CPS-m) and Roth auto correlation weighting function (Roth) in underwater environment using MLS signals instead of normal impulsive techniques.

1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Rainfall Measurement on Water Bodies Present scenario of rainfall around the world is changing as never before due to many uncontrollable factors such as increased pollution, uncontrolled population expansion, large scale deforestation and global warming. The unpredictable rainfall pattern has brought many new challenges to mankinds survival such as abnormal droughts in some parts and heavy rainfall in other parts of the world. The changes in rainfall pattern on land can be accurately observed from rain gauges, but not so much on water bodies which cover 70.9% of our Earth's surface. Therefore it is necessary to measure the rainfall rate accurately on the oceans to predict the pattern of rainfall. But due to the vastness of the oceans, the task of installation of rain gauges and collection of data in real time is more difficult as compared to that on land. Thus an alternative way to measure the rainfall rate on oceans accurately is critical and analysis of underwater noise spectrum can be such a tool. The present work emphasizes on finding characteristics of individual drops and artificially generated bubbles falling on water surface. This research work focuses on time domain and frequency domain analysis of impact of falling drops and underwater bubble bursting. These findings are aimed to enhance the understanding of characteristics of rainfall measurements on water bodies. Bubble formation and its noise is a natural phenomenon which occurs on the water surface as well as underwater, however one can hear only water droplet impact and bubble bursting noise. The intensity of underwater bubble noise is higher than that on water surface but is not audible, since it occurs underwater. The mechanism of generation of underwater noise is basically initiated from rain water droplets falling on the water surface. When a water droplet makes an impact on water surface, it collapses creating a noise and simultaneously takes air along with it. Once the air is entrapped into water, a cloud of bubble formation takes place. The bubble size depends on diameter, terminal velocity and incidence angle of water drops. The size of bubbles may vary from several millimeters in diameter, but majority of them are less than 0.1 mm. These bubbles rise upward due to buoyant effect. If the upper surface is turbulent, then possibly a majority of these bubbles may break up into tiny bubbles and stay afloat underwater for a considerable time. The underwater bubble noise can be recorded through an experimental study as described. This paper also describes the simple methodology of measurement of water drops sizes, which can measure up to a minimum of two millimeter drop diameter. Analysis of characteristics of underwater bubble noise includes bubbles created from individual drops falling from certain height and large number of bubbles created from a small air hose. The underwater noise was measured using hydrophones. The underwater noise signals are characterized in the time and frequency domain. 1.2 Underwater Time Delay Estimation Techniques with Maximum Length Sequence

(MLS) Signals Time delay Estimation (TDE) between replicas of signals is intrinsic to many signal processing applications. Depending on the type of signals acquired, ranging from human hearing to radars, various TDE methods have been described in literature. Sound source localization and object detection and imaging in an underwater environment is essential for various marine related applications. Impulsive techniques are used from the beginning of the Underwater Acoustic science to evaluate the distance of objects and to plot the profile of sea bottom. Although the use

of impulses has many advantages, it causes also some problem: to obtain high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), very large impulse amplitudes are needed. The calculation of time delay between a signal and its echo received at a hydrophone has been proven to be a useful parameter. Underwater object imaging, bottom profiling are few applications of underwater time delay estimation (TDE). Various methods for the estimation of underwater time delay have been compared experimentally in this paper. These are time domain cross correlation (CC), generalized cross correlation (GCC), generalized cross correlation with phase transform (GCC PHAT), smoothed Coherence transform (SCOT), modified SCOT filter of cross power spectrum (CPS-m) and Roth auto correlation weighting function (Roth). Maximum length sequence (MLS) signals were used as excitation signals. Justification for use of MLS signals against impulsive source signals is elaborated in this paper. Since the performance of the TDE methods are considerably degraded by the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) level, this factor has been taken as a prime factor in benchmarking the different methods. 1.3 Project Scope

In this paper, the experimental setup for bubble size measurements and its results are discussed in section II.A. The procedure adopted for recording the underwater noise of resonating bubbles and rainfalls is described in section II.B. Description of results of bubble size measurement, resonating frequencies of bubbles, frequency and time domain analysis of rain are described in section in section III. Further section III is subdivided into five sub-sectionsIII.A describes the analysis of bubbles, III.B the theoretical analysis of resonating frequency of bubbles using Minnaert equation, III.C covers the comparison of theoretical & experimental natural frequencies of bubbles, III.D illustrates the methods of generation of artificial rain, recorded time history signal and underwater noise spectrum of various types of rainfall and section IV.E gives the details of time domain analysis of natural and artificial rainfall. The conclusions drawn from the various experiments conducted are given in section IV, which is followed by acknowledgments and references. This research is based on the fact that the rain water spectrum of underwater noise depends on underwater bubble and rain drop sizes. Various other factors such as air velocity, angle of inclination and velocity of falling drops also affect the rainfall pattern but are not taken into consideration here.

2. LITERATURE SURVEY 2.1 Rainfall Measurement on Water Bodies Underwater bubbles are generated from natural processes as well as from artificial techniques. There are basically three natural processes as described by Woolf [1] in his research work. (1) Air-sea interaction or atmospheric is the major source of bubbles in the upper ocean as well as underwater through the entrapment of air within the flow associated with breaking of waves. (2) Benthic zone, the ecological region at the lowest level of a water body, is a source of underwater bubbles escaping from the sea floor and the common gases released from these organisms are CH4 and CO2. (3) Natural rain is a versatile natural source of underwater bubbles, but the size of bubbles depends on many parameters such as diameter of drops size, impact velocity and angle of incidence of falling drops. The artificial processes of underwater bubble generation are cavitation, artificial rain and by keeping a small air hose underwater. Cavitation is a phenomenon which may be defined as a localized boiling, where water pressure falls below the local vapour pressure and generally occurs in pump impeller and ship propellers. An artificial rain can be created for experimental purpose by using a shower head or by making perforation of various diameters in a water box which may vary from 1mm to 6 mm randomly and by keeping it at some suitable height above the water surface. Several decades ago, researchers have studied about the sound produced by impact of drops on the water surface. The first detailed investigation of noise produced by drop impacts was done by Franz in 1959. He observed that pulsations of bubbles of air in water and the noise of drop impact were a sharp pulse, while the bubbles noise a decaying sinusoid wave. In addition to this he also observed that bubbles were not produced by all drops and their occurrence was more or less random. The underwater noise spectra of rainfall were first published by Bjerne [2] who found that, during the heaviest rainfall, the soundpressure spectrum level was approximately constant at 77 dB (ref: 1Pa from 1 kHz to 10 kHz). A detailed research on spectral characteristics of underwater noise generated by rain falling onto the surface of lake was done by Scrimger et al. [3]. The study on underwater spectrum of rainfall sound was produced by four acoustically distinctive ranges of drop diameters (D), done by Medwin et al. [4, 5].These are defined in Medwin terminology, based on the acoustical output, as minuscule drops (D 0.8 mm), small drops (0.8 D 1.1 mm), mid-size drops (1.1 D 2.2 mm) and large drops (D 2.2 mm). A detailed dynamics associated with bubble bursting was presented by Hirt [6] in his research publication. A brief history on drops impact on liquid surface and the underwater noise of rain was presented by Prosperetti et al. [7]. Pumphrey at el [9] has provided in theory that during the measurement of natural rain, a 14 to 16 kHz spectral peak is caused by the ringing of bubbles entrained in the water by the drop impact process. Minnaert [10] has published his research findings on the sound radiated by an oscillating bubble that was released into a water tank. He also derived a formula for the resonance frequency of a gas bubble in a liquid. Franz [11] stated in his findings that the initial impact sound produced by a drop was a sharp pulse, while the bubble sound was a decaying sinusoid. He also found that the sound pressure radiated by the droplet increases with droplets size, impact velocity and the spectra of the impact sound in water shows a broad range of frequencies between 1 kHz to 10 kHz. Heindsman et al[12] have first attempted to describe the underwater noise spectra produced by natural rainfall and found that during the heaviest rainfall, the soundpressure spectrum level was approximately constant at 77dB (reference1Pa) from below 1 kHz to above 10 kHz. Woolf [13] observed that bubble formation by rain is sensitive to

size, impact velocity and incidence angle of the rain drops. He also noted that bubbles up to 1.8 mm in radius are entrained by large drops, but smaller drops (0.8-1.1 mm in diameter) generate bubbles of only 0.2 mm in radius. S.S Murugan et al [14] have published their findings and noted that underwater sound produced by rainfall has unique characteristics. The measurement of such a sound signal can be used for the prediction and measurement of rainfall. The simulation results showed that small raindrops which are present in most types of rain are responsible for a unique 15 kHz sound in the spectra. They observed that formation of peaks is comparatively dominant around 6-8 kHz and 15-16 kHz during natural rainfall and explained that large drops in the rain create observable low frequency energy as compared to that of smaller drops. Small raindrops radiate measurable broad-band impact sound and a much higher energy sound of a damped micro bubble oscillation at peak frequencies around 15 kHz. Nystuen [15] has mentioned his observation that different sized rain drops splashing on a water surface produce sound underwater that is distinctive and can be used to measure the drop size distribution in the rain. They have also carried out a laboratory experiments on individual rain drops and observed that when the rain contains small raindrops (0.8-1.2 mm diameter), an acoustic signal is present from 13 to 25 kHz. This feature is most apparent when the rain does not have larger raindrops present (2.0- 3.5 mm diameter), the sound level below 10 kHz is loud and here is often a relative peak in the sound spectrum at a frequency between 2 and 5 kHz. If very large raindrops (greater than 3.5 mm) are present, the signal is very loud and extends from 1 to 50 kHz. In all cases, the signal from the rain is very loud, sometimes as much as 50 dB above the background noise level. Chandravanshi et al [16] have experimentally observed the underwater noise impact of individual drops for various sizes and found that the frequency of drop impact decreases as the drop size increases (for 2 mm drop impact 8389 Hz, for 4 mm drop 7733 Hz and for 6 mm drop 5898 Hz). 2.2 Underwater Time Delay Estimation Techniques with Maximum Length Sequence (MLS) Signals Chu[17] has shown the advantages of Maximum length sequence (MLS) signals for underwater acoustic measurements. The MLS technique is a clever method for obtaining a very large processing gain, therefore accurate measurements can be made with moderate sound levels. Farina[18] has shown that MLS measurement techniques produces underwater object images with higher SNR and better spatial resolution than those obtainable with impulsive techniques. Thus MLS signals are chosen as excitation signals in this paper. Cross correlation in time domain (CC) is a widely used tool for TDE [19-28]. The most popular method is to locate the maximum peak of the CC which indicates the time delay. Dhull et al[29] has proven that generalized cross correlation with Phase transform (GCC PHAT) provides a sharper cross correlation peak at the correct time delay as compared to CC.

3. THEORY 3.1 Underwater Bubble Formation

There are two components to the sound generated by a raindrop splash. These are the splat (impact) of the drop onto the water surface and then the subsequent formation of a bubble under water during the splash. The relative importance of these two components of sound depends on the raindrop size. Surprisingly, for most raindrops, the bubble is by far the loudest source of sound. Bubbles are one of the most important components of underwater sound (Clay and Medwin, 1977). They have two stages during their lifetimes: screaming infant bubbles and quiet adult bubbles. When a bubble is created, the pressure inside it is not at equilibrium with the pressure of the surrounding water. The water pushes against the bubble, compressing it. As the bubble shrinks, the air trapped inside increases in pressure. This occurs so rapidly that the pressure inside the bubble becomes higher than that of the water, so it expands to equalize, again overshooting. The bubble oscillates between high and low pressure at a high frequency, creating a distinctive and well-quantified sound. The sound radiates energy, so the bubble eventually reaches equilibrium with its surroundings. The frequency of the sound is well defined (Minnaert, 1993) and is given by: (1) Where, f is resonance frequency of the bubbles =1.4 is ratio of specific heats for air P0 is atmospheric pressure 0 is the density of water a is the radius of the bubble The important observation is that the size of the bubble is inversely proportional to its resonance (ringing) frequency. Larger bubbles ring at lower frequencies and smaller bubbles ring at higher frequencies. The sound radiated is often loud and narrowly tuned in frequency (a pure tone). 3.2 Maximum Length Sequence (MLS) Signals

Maximum Length Sequence (MLS) was first used to measure the impulse response of a linear time invariant (LTI) system as far back as 1966. This technique is based on cross-correlation and the excellent number theory properties of MLS so that it has been widely used in the field of acoustics, consequently the transformation algorithms of MLS have been developed and reported by several authors. MLS is a pseudo-random binary sequence (PRBS), composed of 1s and 0s, and generated recursively using a series of digital shift registers with feedback. MLS possess highly similar random properties as random noise, but they are periodically deterministic and have a strict time structure within its period. Therefore, they are known as pseudorandom noise in the relevant literature. The length of one MLS is L=2n-1 with L denoting the length of the sequence and n denoting the order of the sequence and the number of the digital shift registers as well. In a practical transfer-function measurement, the 1 and 0 state is often mapped into a 1 level and +1 level to produce a sequence which is symmetrical about zero. From the signal and systems theory, the impulse response of a system is identical to the transferfunction of the system. For MLS measurements, the impulse response is obtained by calculating

the cross-correlation function between the MLS excitation signal and the output response of the system. The cross-correlation function is given by convolution with the auto-correlation of the input MLS signal and the impulse response of the system:
Rxy (k ) = Rxx (k ) * h (k )

(1)

R (k ) Where xy is the cross-correlation function and Rxx ( k ) is the auto-correlation function of the input signal. One of the important properties of MLS is that its auto-correlation function is an impulse, the Dirac delta function ( (k)), with a small dc component: 1 Rxx (k ) = (k ) L +1 (2) The second term on the right side of equation (2) is the dc component and can be ignored in practical symmetrical MLS measurement, since the MLS system is AC coupled. Combining equation (1) and (2) and ignoring the dc component gives:

(3) Thus, the impulse response is obtained by calculating the cross-correlation function of the input MLS signal and the output response of the system. The autocorrelation of a MLS for length = M, is M for zero-lag, and -1 for all other lags (Fig. 1). In other words the autocorrelation of the MLS approaches to an impulse as M goes to infinity.

Rxy (k ) = Rxx (k ) * h (k ) = (k ) * h (k )= h (k )

Fig. 1. (a) MLS signal of order 10(length 1023) (b) Auto correlation showing impulse at 1023 samples. MLS signals have much higher energy than impulses, resulting in a very high signal-to-noise ratio. An MLS provides L +1 times the signal power of an impulse, given the same peak amplitude, where L is the length of the MLS in samples. MLS measurements have high distortion immunity, given a sufficiently long MLS period. Therefore, using an MLS of appropriate length can minimize non-linear distortions produced by a transducer. The high noise and distortion immunity characteristics of MLS allow the collection of high-quality data in noisy acoustic environments.

3.3

Time Delay Estimation (TDE) methods

The physical problem of TDE in two dimensions is shown in figure2:

Fig. 2. Estimation of Time delay between two hydrophones The received signal at the two hydrophones can be modeled by: r1 (t ) = s (t ) + n1(t ),
r2 (t ) = s ( t D ) + n 2 ( t ) ,

0 t T

(4)

Where r1(t) and r2(t) are the outputs of the two hydrophones, s(t) is the source signal, n1(t) and n2(t) are the additive noises, T denotes the observation interval and D is the time delay between the received signals at the two hydrophones. The signal and noise are assumed to be uncorrelated. (a) Cross Correlation (CC) Method

The first method for TDE is to compute the time domain cross correlation (CC) between the received MLS signals of the two hydrophones. Fig 3. Shows the block diagram for TDE by CC:

Fig. 3. Cross-correlation processor

Rr1r2 ( ) = E r1 ( t ) r2 ( t ) DCC = ar g max Rr1r2 ( )

(5)

(b)

Generalized Cross Correlation (GCC)

A way to sharpen the cross correlation peak is to weighten the input signals by using weighting functions, which leads to the so called generalized cross-correlation technique (GCC). Since FFT saves much computation time, GCC is implemented in frequency domain. The block diagram of a GCC processor is shown in Fig.4:

Fig. 4.Generalized Cross-correlation processor

xi (t ) = hi (t ) * s (t ) + ni (t ), i = 0,1

(6) Where G(f) is the frequency domain cross correlation of the two signals. (c) Phase Transform (PHAT)

G( f ) = X 0 ( f ) X1 ( f )

To reduce the noise and reverberation in the environment, a weighting function is usually applied. The PHAT is a GCC procedure which has received considerable attention due to its ability to sharpen the peak of the correlation function. This can be mathematically expressed as:
Rr1r2 ( ) = p ( f )G r r2 ( f ) e j 2df 1

p( f ) =

1 Gr1r2 ( f

)
(7)

D p = ar g max Rr1r2 ( )

G ( f) ( f) where r1r2 is the cross-spectrum of the received signal, p is the PHAT weighting function. Here only the phase information is preserved after the cross-spectrum is divided by its magnitude. Ideally, this processor approaches a delta function centered at the correct delay. The GCC PHAT processor is shown in Fig 5:

Fig. 5.Generalized Cross-correlation PHAT processor (d) Other Weighting Functions

Some of the other weighting functions that are applied to GCC to sharpen the time delay peak are Roth auto-correlation, Smoothed Coherence Transform (SCOT) filter, modified SCOT filter of CPS (CPS-m). The mathematical expressions for these weighting functions are as follows: i. Roth auto correlation 1 ( f ) = Si ( f ) conj ( S j ( f ) ) (8) ii. SCOT filter 1 ( f ) = Si ( f ) conj ( Si ( f ) ) S j ( f ) conj ( S j ( f ) ) (9) iii. CPS-m 1 ( f ) = n S ( f ) conj S ( f ) S ( f ) conj S ( f ) ( i ) j ( j ) i (10) where n= 0.5 to 0.75.

4. EXPERIMENTS 4.1 4.1.1 Rainfall Measurement Drop size measurement

In this experiment, a water flow regulator was used for controlling the drop rate. An 18 cm scale was placed vertically 3 mm away from the drops generating nozzle in order to avoid collision between the scale and water drops, which fall due to gravitational force. It is observed that if the position of the scale is too far from the nozzle, the probability of errors in drops size measurement increases as the scale looks smaller than actual size from distance.

Fig. 6.Experimental set-up for drop size measurement For this experiment, the water drops photographs were captured by Sony - HDR-CX550 (12MP) camera. The pictures of falling water drop as captured by the high speed camera are shown in figure7. These results indicate that water drops of 2 mm diameter are almost spherical due to their small size and high surface tension, but the same is not the case for drops of 4 mm and 6 mm diameters. Water drop of 6 mm size shown in figure 7(c) appears as egg shaped, due to their large size and low surface tension. This deflection in size further increases with increase in drop velocity and reaches a maximum at its terminal velocity. In this experiment, all drops are in the accelerating modes as the height of stand was only 1.2 meters.

Fig. 7.Captured images of the water drops of 2 mm, 4 mm and 6 mm diameter

4.1.2

Drop impact measurement

Hydrophone-B&K 8104 was placed horizontally at 40 mm underwater from surface in the bucket and was connected to a charge amplifier B&K 2635. The output of the charge amplifier was connected to the B&K Pulse analyzer for display, analysis, post processing and storing the experimental data. A total of nine experiments were performed for 2 mm, 4 mm and 6 mm water drops. For each experiment, time history signal data were collected for 0.250 seconds. The obtained data were then further processed for the time domain analysis for RMS (root mean square) and Kurtosis. From the same time history data, spectrum analysis was done for obtaining the frequency contents of drop impacts for each drop size and for the artificial bubbles bursting underwater and on the surface.

2635 Power Amplifier B&K Pulse analyzer Receiver Hydrophone

Fig. 8.Experimental set-up for drop impact measurement 4.1.3 Artificial Rain Generation

Three methods for generating artificial rain viz., by hose, by perforated tray and by shower head, were used for this experiment. In the first method a perforated plastic hose was coiled around a support. A wire mesh was further placed underneath the hose to ensure generation of artificial rain of even drops. The second method of artificial rain generation included a plastic tray with uniformly distributed perforations. The size of water drops thus produced was measured as approximately 5mm. The third method of artificial rain generation was through the usage of a small shower head. The size of water drops thus produced was measured as approximately 1-2 mm. The above methods of artificial rain generation are illustrated in figure 9(a), (b) and (c) respectively.

Fig.9 (a). Artificial Rain by hose

Fig.9 (b). Artificial Rain by Tray (approx. 5mm)

Fig.9 (c).Artificial Rain by shower head 4.1.4 Underwater bubble size measurement

An 18 cm long scale, having slightly lower density than water, is placed in floating condition in a water tank(1m x 1m x 1m) making a perfect alignment with the water surface. The minimum size of bubble considered for the experiment is 1.0 mm in diameter as the least count for measurement was 1mm. Though formation of underwater bubbles of diameter less than 1mm has been observed, shorter life span of such bubbles makes it difficult for accurate recording and size measurement. During this experiment, nozzles of various sizes (0.1 mm to 3.0 mm in diameter) are used to generate bubbles of different sizes. The nozzle is connected to an air compressor through an air regulator for controlling the airflow rate precisely. For this experiment, the floating bubbles photographs are captured by a Sony - HDR-CX550 (12MP) camera. 4.1.5 Recording Underwater Bubble Oscillation Noise

A B&K 8104 Hydrophone is placed horizontally at 40 mm depth from surface in a water tank (1m X 1m X 1m) and is connected to a B&K 2635 charge amplifier. The output of the charge amplifier is connected to the B&K Pulse analyzer for display, analysis, post processing and storing of the experimental data. A total of ten experiments have been performed for bubbles of various sizes. For each experiment, time history signal and FFT spectrum are recorded for 0.36 seconds. Similarly for the experiments of natural and artificial rain (rain by hose of drop size 1.0 to 5.0 mm, rain by tray of uniform drop size 5.0 mm and rain by showerhead of drop size 1.0 to 2.0 mm) time history data was recorded for 16 second. The data, thus obtained, are further analyzed in the time domain for estimation of various parameters such as pressure range, RMS

(root mean square), Kurtosis, RMS* Kurtosis. From the same time history data, spectrum analysis is done for obtaining the frequency contents in each of type rainfall using Matlab. 4.2 Time Delay Estimation using MLS signals

The experimental set up consists of the B&K Pulse type 3110 for generation of MLS signals, B&K Power Amplifier type 2713 for amplification of generated signal, two B&K Hydrophones type 8104 as transmitter and receiver, a B&K charge amplifier type 2635 for amplification of received signal and an oscilloscope for display of received signal. A B&K pulse data recorder was used to record the data. An MLS signal of length 32,767(order m=15) and sampling frequency of 44100 Hz for a duration of 0.75 sec was used for the experiment. The experimental set up is shown in Figure 2.

Fig.10.Experimental set-up for TDE using MLS signals

5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 5.1 Drop Impact Noise Analysis The results of time domain of water drop impact are shown in figure 11 (a), 12 (a) and 13 (a) for drop sizes of 2mm, 4mm and 6mm respectively. These graphs show the variation in pressure range of drop impact with time. The results of frequency domain analysis for the same drop sizes are shown as a spectrum in figure 11 (b), 12 (b) and 13 (b) and as a spectrogram in figure 11 (c), 12 (c) and 13 (c). It is observed that pressure range is linearly increasing with drop size and depends on the bubbles formations (i.e. bubbles formations increases the pressure range in particular impact of drop). From this experiment it can be concluded that the pressure range will be highest in a drop impact if the bubbles formation takes place. This experiment shows that the probability of bubbles formation goes on increasing with the increase in drops size. From spectrum analysis results as obtained in spectrogram, it can be observed that the frequency of drop impact decreases as the drop size increases (for 2 mm drop 8389 Hz, for 4 mm drop 7733 Hz and for 6 mm drop 5898 Hz).
1 5 0

1 8 0 0 0 1 6 0 0 0
1 0 0

8 0 6 0 4 0 2 0 0 -2 0 -4 0 0 .0 5 0 .1 0 .1 5 0 .2 T im e ( s )

1 4 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 F re q u e n c y (H z )
2 0 0 04 0 0 06 0 0 08 0 0 1 0 0 01 02 0 01 04 0 01 06 0 01 08 0 0 0 0 F re q u e n c y o f 2 m m d ro p (H z )

P re s s u re (p a )

1 0 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 2 0 0 0

5 0

Fig.11 (a). Time signal graph of 2 mm drop

1500 1000 Pressure (pa) 500

Fig.11 (b).Spectrum of 2 mm drop

1 8 0 0 1 6 0 0 1 4 0 0 1 2 0 0 P re s su re (p a ) 1 0 0 0 8 0 0 6 0 0 4 0 0

Fig.11(c). Spectrogram of 2 mm Drop

1 8 0 0 0 1 6 0 0 0 1 4 0 0 0 F re q u e n cy (H z) 1 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 -4 0 -6 0 0 .0 5 0 .1 0 .1 5 T im e ( s ) 0 .2 4 0 2 0 0 -2 0 6 0

0 -500 -1000 -1500 0.5 1 1.5 2 Time (ms) 2.5 -3 x 10

2 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 04 0 0 06 0 0 08 0 0 0 0 0 01 02 0 01 04 0 01 06 0 01 08 0 0 0 1 F re q u e n c y o f 4 m m d ro p (H z )

0 0

Fig.12 (a). Time signal graph of 4 mm drop

Fig.12 (b).Spectrum of 4 mm drop

Fig.12(c). Spectrogram of 4 mm drop

1 0 0 0 5 0 0 P re s s u re (p a ) 0 -5 0 0
P re s s u re (p a )

3 5 0 0

1 8 0 0 0
3 0 0 0

8 0 6 0 4 0 2 0 0 -2 0 -4 0 -6 0 0 .0 5 0 .1 0 .1 5 0 .2 T im e ( s )

1 6 0 0 0
2 5 0 0

1 4 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 F re q u e n c y (H z )

2 0 0 0 1 5 0 0 1 0 0 0 5 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0

-1 0 0 0 0

Fig.13 (a). 6 mm drop

2 T im e ( m s ) -3 x 1 0 Time signal graph

2 0 04 00 06 00 08 00 01 0 01 02 001 04 001 06 001 08 00 0 0 F r e q u e n c y o f 6 m m d r o p

( H z )

of

Fig.13 (b). Spectrum of 6 mm drop

Fig.13 (c). Spectrogram of 6 mm drop

Time domain data analysis shows that RMS (Root mean square), Kurtosis, RMS*Kurtosis and pressure range increases linearly with drop size as shown in figure 14, 15 and 16 respectively.

Fig.14.Drop size vs. RMS

Fig.15.Drop size vs. Kurtosis

Fig.16.Drop size vs. RMS*Kurtosis

5.2

Underwater Bubble Bursting Noise Analysis

Figure 17(a) represents a spectrogram of bubbles bursting underwater and on the surface.

Spectrum of bubbles bursting underwater and on surface is depicted in figure 17(b). Spectrogram of artificial bubbles shows that frequencies of bubble bursting vary from 4000 Hz to 14000 Hz. It depends on bubble size, turbulence of bubbles underwater and the depth at which it is generated.

18000 16000 14000 F requency (H z) 12000 10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0 0 0 .0 5 0 .1 0 .1 5 T im e ( s ) 0 .2

80 60 40 20 0 -2 0

Fig.17 (a).Spectrogram of bubbles bursting 5.3 Bubble analysis

Fig.17 (b).Spectrum of bubbles bursting

Observation reveals that size of the underwater bubbles generated not only depends upon impact of drops but also due to the unification of two or more bubbles. This phenomenon takes place on the water surface if two bubbles (both of same or different sizes) float at a distance not more than the sum of the diameter of individual bubbles. The new bubble thus formed has a much longer life than that of bubbles generated due to direct impact of water drops. Experimentally it is possible to generate bubbles as large as 20 mm in diameter, but bubbles larger than 10 mm diameter produce an underwater noise of very low frequency (below 500 Hz). These frequencies can be neglected as frequency change is very low with increase in bubble sizes above 10mm and the probability of formations of such large bubbles are rare in natural rain. Therefore bubbles of sizes up to 10 mm in diameter have been taken into consideration for the experiments. Time history signals of resonating bubbles of various sizes, shown in Fig. 18(a) to 27(a), indicate that the pressure range of bubble bursting increases linearly with bubble size. The spectrum of resonating frequency of bubbles, depicted in the Fig. 18(b) to 27(b), indicates that the resonating frequency decreases as the bubble size increases.

Fig.18. Bubble of sizes 0.5 to 2 mm (a) Time history (b) Spectrum

During the resonating frequency analysis of 1 mm bubble, multiple bubbles were generated as it was not possible to generate a single bubble at a time with high precision. The bubble sizes were observed to be between 0.5 mm to 2 mm in diameter. Fig. 18(b) shows the spectrum of resonating frequency of bubbles in which frequency peaks are observed from 4 kHz to 11 kHz, with the minimum frequency at 4 kHz. It was confirmed from the experimental results that the resonating frequency of 2 mm bubble is 3910 Hz (Fig.19(b)). Thus for 1 mm bubble size, the nearest resonating frequency has been observed at 5582 Hz, as indicated with a marker in Fig. 18(b).
[Pa] 36 20 4 -12 -28 0.12 0.16 0.2 0.24 0.28 0.32 [s] [dB(A)/1u Pa] Cursor v alues X: 27.527m s 120 Y Y: 2.201 Pa 110 100 90 80 70 2k 6k [Hz] 10k 14k

Cur sor v a lues X: 5.584k Hz Y: 96.972 dB(A)/1u Pa Ma r ker 1 X: 3.865k Hz

Fig.19. Bubble of size 2 mm (a) Time history (b) Spectrum

[Pa] 36 20 4 -12 -28 0.12 0.16 0.2 0.24 0.28 0.32 [s]
40

[dB(A)/1u Pa] Cur sor v alues X: 0.217 s 100 Y: -0.964 Pa 80 60

Cursor v alues X: 2.118k Hz Y: 104.941 dB(A)/1u Pa Ma rker 1 X: 2.132k Hz

2k

6k [Hz]

10k

14k

Fig.20.(Colour online) Bubble of size 3 mm (a) Time history (b) Spectrum

[Pa] 40 20 0 -20 -40 0.12 0.16 0.2 0.24 0.28 0.32 [s]

[dB(A)/1u Pa] Cursor v alue s X: 0.264 s 120 Y: 0.445 Pa 110 100 90 2k 6k [Hz] 10k 14k

Cur sor v alues X: 9.334k Hz Y: 84.971 dB(A)/1u Pa Mar ke r 1 X: 1.400k Hz

Fig..21. Bubble of size 4mm (a) Time history (b) Spectrum

[Pa] 45 25 5 -15 -35 0.2 0.24 0.28 0.32 [s] 0.36

[dB(A)/1u Pa] Cursor v alues 130 X: 0.500 s 120 Y: 1.641 Pa 110 100 90 80 70 2k 6k [Hz] 10k 14k

Cur sor v alues X: 1.426k Hz Y: 113.790 dB(A)/1u Marker 1 X: 1.482k Hz

Fig.22. Bubble of size 5mm (a) Time history (b) Spectrum

[Pa] 60 40 20 0 -20 -40 -60 -80 0.12 0.16 0.2 0.24 0.28 0.32 [s]

Cur sor v[dB(A)/1u Pa] a lues X: 0.223 s130 Y: -1.628 120 Pa 110 100 90 80 70 2k 6k [Hz] 10k 14k

Curs or v a lues X: 812.000 Hz Y: 89.746 dB(A)/1u Pa Marker 1 X: 988.260 Hz

Fig.23. Bubble of size 6mm (a) Time history (b) Spectrum

[Pa] 90 50 10 -30 -70 0.12 0.16 0.2 0.24 0.28 0.32 [s] Cursor v[dB(A)/1u Pa] alues X: 0.110 s Y: 0.562 Pa 120 100 80 60

Cursor values X: 950.000 Hz Y: 115.365 dB(A)/1u Mar ker 1 X: 957.708 Hz

2k

6k [Hz]

10k

14k

Fig.24. Bubble of size 7mm (a) Time history (b) Spectrum

[Pa] 280 120 -40 -200 0.12 0.16 0.2 0.24 0.28 0.32 [s] Cur sor [dB(A)/1u Pa] v a lues 160 X: 88.257m s 140 Y: -2.754 Pa 120 100 80

Cursor v alues X: 800.000 Hz Y: 129.083 dB(A)/1u Mar ker 1 X: 755.115 Hz

2k

6k [Hz]

10k

14k

Fig.25. Bubble of size 8mm (a) Time history (b) Spectrum

[Pa] 320 160 0 -160 -320 0.12 0.16 0.2 0.24 0.28 0.32 [s]

[dB(A)/1u Cur sor v a lue s Pa] 140 X: 0.127 s 120 Y: -3.102 Pa 100 80 60 2k 6k [Hz] 10k 14k

Cursor v alues X: 644.000 Hz Y: 128.923 dB(A)/1u Mar ker 1 X: 554.400 Hz

Fig.26. Bubble of size 9mm (a) Time history (b) Spectrum

[Pa] 400 200 0 -200 -400 0.12 0.16 0.2 0.24 0.28 0.32 [s]

Cur s or v[dB(A)/1u Pa] a lue s 140 X: 55.664m s 120 Y: 0.297 Pa 100 80 60 2k 6k [Hz] 10k 14k

Cur s or v a lues X: 650.000 Hz Y: 129.301 dB(A)/1u Ma r ke r 1 X: 649.460 Hz

Fig.27.Bubble of size 10mm (a) Time history (b) Spectrum 5.4 Comparison of theoretical analysis with Experimental Results

The results of theoretical and experimental analysis of resonating frequencies are compared using graphical representation as shown in Fig. 28. The experimental results of resonating frequency analysis are similar to the theoretical results with a slight deviation with the smaller bubbles. This deviation is due to the shorter life span and limitation of measurement technique for bubbles less than 1mm in diameter.

Fig.28.(Color online) Comparison between theoretical and experimental resonating frequencies of bubbles 5.5 Understanding the underwater noise spectrum of rainfall

Four different types of rain, both natural and artificial, were generated for understanding the underwater rain noise and are described below.

(1) Spectrum light natural rain (drop sizes 0.8-1 mm)

300 200 100 Pressure (Pa) 0 -1 00 -2 00 -3 00 0 dB /ref. 1u Pa 140 130 120 110 100 90 80 70 2 4 6 8
T im e ( s )

10

12

14

16

60 0

2000

4000

6000

8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000 F re q u en c y (H z)

Fig. 29. Light natural rain (a) Time history (b) Spectrum The recorded time history signal and spectrum of natural rain obtained from the time history data are shown in the Fig. 29(a) and 29(b) respectively. The rain drop sizes during this rainfall are only 0.8 to 1 mm, and the time history signal is almost flat with not much pressure variation. It is observed that the rain drops of sizes 0.8 mm in diameter or less do not contribute to the underwater noise, as these drops are almost suspended in air and fall silently on the water body. In the spectrum of natural rainfall, the minimum frequency of 4 kHz is observed and also peaks of high frequencies can be seen at 8 kHz, 10 kHz, 14 kHz and 16 kHz. From spectrum observation of various bubbles, this suggests that maximum size of the bubble formation was 2 mm in diameter (as the resonating frequency of 2 mm bubble was 3910 Hz). The other peaks are the resonating frequencies of smaller bubbles and the impact of drop of sizes of 1 mm at terminal velocity during rainfall. (2) Spectrum of artificial rain by hose (drop sizes 1-5 mm) This artificial rainfall was created by using a 1inch flexible PVC hose constituting of holes of 0.5 to 1 mm diameter and arranged in a zigzag manner at 1.5 m above the water tank in a horizontal position. Just below the hose pipe, a net having 1mm diameter holes, was used to create perfect drop distribution.
400 300 200 100 Pressure (Pa) 0 -1 0 0 -2 0 0 -3 0 0 -4 0 0 -5 0 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 T im e (s ) 12 14 16 70 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000 F r e q u e n c y (H z ) dB /ref. 1u Pa 120 110 100 90 80 130

Fig. 30. Artificial rain by hose (a) Time history (b) Spectrum The recorded time history signal, shown in figure 30(a), shows a higher pressure range variation as compared to the time history signal of natural rainfall as depicted in figure 29(a). This difference in pressure range is due to the variation in the drop sizes of rainfall. The spectrum as depicted in figure 30(b), shows that the peaks are observed from frequencies of 2 kHz to 6 kHz; which are seen due to generation of large bubble of various sizes (1 mm to 5 mm sizes) and again approximately at 8-9 kHz are because of impact of drops of 2 mm size during the rainfall. (3) Spectrum of artificial rain by tray (uniform drop size 5 mm)

1500 1000 500 0 -5 0 0 dB /ref. 1u Pa 2 4 6 8 T im e ( s ) 10 12 14 16

130 120 110 100 90 80 70

Pressure (Pa)

2000

4000

6000

8000 10000 12000 Frequency (Hz)

14000

16000

18000

Fig. 31. Artificial rain uniform drop size (a) Time history (b) Spectrum Artificial rain, of uniform drop sizes of 5 mm diameter, was generated by means of a plastic tray in which holes of one mm diameter were drilled at equal distances. The tray was filled with water and was placed on a stand at a height of 1.5 m above the water tank. The time history signal, figure 31(a), shows the pressure variation during the drops impact. Figure 31(b) shows the spectrum where peaks of lower frequencies of 1.5 kHz to 4.5 kHz are observed due to the generation of larger bubble of sizes (2 mm to 6 mm in diameter). Apart from these, some peaks can also be seen from 6 kHz to 8 kHz, which are due to the impact of uniform drops of 5 mm. (4) Spectrum of artificial rain by showerhead (drop sizes 1-2 mm)
400 300 200 100 Pressur (Pa) 0 -1 0 0 -2 0 0 -3 0 0 0 2 4 6 8
T im e ( s )

130 120 dB /ref. 1u Pa 110 100 90 80 70 10 12 14 16 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 Frequency (Hz) 14000 16000 18000

Fig. 32. Artificial rain by showerhead (a) Time history (b) Spectrum The artificial rain, of drop sizes of 1.0 to 2.0 mm, was created by a using a showerhead consisting of concentric and evenly distributed 1 mm holes. The time history signal is shown in the figure 32(a) which represents the pressure range with respect to time. The spectrum, figure 32(b), shows the lowest peak at frequency of 4 kHz indicating that the largest bubble formed was of 2 mm size. The peaks observed at higher frequencies are due to the resonating frequencies of smaller bubbles and the impact of the falling drops of sizes 1-2 mm diameter. E. Time domain analysis of natural and artificial rainfalls Time domain analysis was done to find out the various parameters of rainfalls such as RMS (Root mean square), kurtosis, RMS*Kurtosis and pressure range. The legends used during the graphical representation and comparison for different rainfall are NR- natural rain, AR Hoseartificial rain by hose, AR Sh-artificial rain by showerhead and AR Ud5- artificial rain of uniform drop of 5mm size . The graphical representation of RMS, Kurtosis, RMS*Kurtosis and Range vs. all types of rainfall are shown in the figure 33 (a), (b), (c) and (d) respectively.

(a)

(b)

(c) (d) Fig. 33. Time domain analysis of natural and artificial rains (a) Rain vs. RMS (b) Rain vs. Kurtosis (c) Rain vs. RMS*Kurtosis (d) Rain vs. Pressure Range RMS value has been observed highest in NR (figure 33(a)) due to the fact that the drop impacts during the natural rainfall on water surface were with terminal velocity. The second highest RMS value can be observed in AR Ud5 and is due to higher kinetic energy of the drops due to their large drop size (5mm). The variations of Kurtosis and RMS*Kurtosis vs. rainfalls are shown graphically in the figure 33(b) and 33(c) respectively. The time domain analysis of rainfalls indicate that pressure range is increasing linearly with drops size (minimum drop size was 0.8 to 1 mm observed in the NR and maximum uniform drop size of 5 mm was in ARUd5 (figure 33(d)).

6. CONCLUSION These experiments were conducted with drop sizes of 2 mm, 4 mm and 6 mm only, as drops smaller than 2 mm size could not be consistently generated with the present experimental setup. The following observations can be concluded: Generation of drop of 2 mm, 4 mm and 6 mm sizes is consistent and having very good repeatability with the present experimental setup. The pressure variation range has been observed highest in a drop impact if the bubbles formation takes place. As the drop size increases, the range of pressure variation, kurtosis and RMS, RMS*Kurtosis values were found to increase linearly. The frequency of drop impact decreases as the drop size increases.

The frequencies of bubble bursting are observed from spectrum and spectrogram analysis to vary from 4000 Hz to 14000 Hz. However it also depends on bubble size, turbulence of bubbles underwater and the depth at which it is generated.

As a future scope, this experiment can be extended to lower drop sizes.

IV. CONCLUSIONS The results obtained from the various experiments show that the resonating frequencies of bubble analysis are similar to the theoretically calculated results, with a slight deviation for smaller bubbles (< 2mm). Large bubbles, above 10 mm in diameter, are not much useful for underwater rain noise measurement as they have low resonating frequencies (< 500Hz). Unification of two bubbles (both of same or different sizes) floating apart takes place if the distance between the bubbles is not be more than the sum of the diameter of the two individual bubbles. This new bubble has a much longer life span than that of the bubbles generated due to drop impact. Underwater bubbles of 2mm diameter are mostly formed, resulting in a corresponding 4 kHz peak in the spectra of all types of rain. During heavy rainfall, lower frequency peaks (less than 4 KHz) are always formed due to generation of large underwater bubbles. During light rainfall, higher frequency peaks (up to 20 kHz) are usually formed. As a future scope, an acoustic inversion technique for a more accurate rain drop size measurement is being pursued.

7.

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