Q.2 Differentiate between research question and hypothesis. Give examples.

A research question is a highly focused question that addresses one concept or component of the hypothesis whereas the hypothesis itself is used to state the relationship between two variables. The central question is a broad question that asks for an exploration of the central phenomenon or concept in a study. The inquirer poses this question, consistent with the emerging methodology of qualitative research, as a general issue so as to not limit the inquiry. To arrive at this question, ask, What is the broadest question that I can ask in the study? Beginning researchers trained in quantitative research might struggle with this approach because they are accustomed to the reverse approach: identifying specific, narrow questions or hypotheses based on a few variables. In qualitative research, the intent is to explore the complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon and present the varied perspectives or meanings that participants hold. The following are guidelines for writing broad, qualitative research questions: Ask one or two central questions followed by no more than five to seven subquestions. Research questions and hypotheses narrow the purpose statement and become major signposts for readers. Qualitative researchers ask at least one central question and several subquestions. They begin the questions with words such as how or what and use exploratory verbs, such as explore or describe. They pose broad, general questions to allow the participants to explain their ideas. They also focus initially on one central phenomenon of interest. The questions may also mention the participants and the site for the research. Quantitative researchers write either research questions or hypotheses. Both forms include variables that are described, related, categorized into groups for comparison, and the independent and dependent variables are measured separately. In many quantitative proposals, writers use research questions; however, a more formal statement of research employs hypotheses. These hypotheses are predictions about the outcomes of the

results, and they may be written as alternative hypotheses specifying the exact results to be expected (more or less, higher or lower of something). They also may be stated in the null form, indicating no expected difference or no relationship between groups on a dependent variable. Typically, the researcher writes the independent variable(s) first, followed by the dependent variable(s). One model for ordering the questions in a quantitative proposal is to begin with descriptive questions followed by the inferential questions that relate variables or compare groups. Example A Mixed Methods Question Written in Terms of Mixing Procedures To what extent and in what ways do qualitative interviews with students and faculty members serve to contribute to a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of this predicting relationship between CEEPT scores and student academic performance, via integrative mixed methods analysis? (Lee & Greene, 2007) Q. 1 Define research and describe basic process of research Research and experimental development is formal work undertaken systematically to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of humanity, culture and society, and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications (OECD (2002) Frascati Manual: proposed standard practice for surveys on research and experimental development, 6th edition. [1] It is used to establish or confirm facts, reaffirm the results of previous work, solve new or existing problems, support theorems, or develop new theories. A research project may also be an expansion on past work in the field. To test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may replicate elements of prior projects, or the project as a whole. The primary purposes of basic research (as opposed to applied research) are documentation, discovery, interpretation, or the research and development of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge. Approaches to research depend on epistemologies, which vary considerably both within and between humanities and sciences.

Introduction to research process The research process is a simple means of effectively locating information for a research project, be it a research paper, an oral presentation, or something else assigned by your professor. Because research is a process, you will need to allow for ample time to refine or change your topic. Be sure to allow a few weeks to have materials delivered from other libraries. Basics of Doing Research The steps below provide a simple and effective approach for conducting research for a paper, presentation, or other project that requires you to locate information about a topic. Depending on your topic and your familiarity with library research, you may need to rearrange Step Step Step Step Step Step 4 5 6 or recycle 1 2 3 Locate Evaluate these steps. Adapt Choose Find Refine and relevancies Take basic your retrieve of this outline to your needs: topic. information. topic. materials. materials. notes.

your

Step 7 - Construct your project.

Step 1: Choose Your Topic Select a topic that is of interest to you, or if you have been assigned a topic, select an aspect or perspective of the topic that interests you. If you are having trouble selecting a topic, you may find it useful to browse magazines, journals, newspapers, reference sources, and online databases. Remember, selecting a topic is the most important decision you will make in the research process. Without a topic, you cant go any further.

Step 2: Find Basic Information Find basic information on your topic. Select a few key terms from your topic and search for basic information in reference sources such as subject encyclopedias, bibliographies,

handbooks, library catalogs, books, online databases, and Internet sources (Web sites). This preliminary search will help you determine how much or how little information is available about your topic.

Step 3: Refine Your Topic Based on the quality and number of items located, you may need to refine your topic. If your initial search renders too little information, try broadening your topic. You can broaden a topic by searching for related concepts/synonyms using different keywords, or by selecting different resources. If your initial search renders too much information, you will need to narrow your topic. You can narrow your topic by using more specific terms and by examining subject headings in books and/or online databases. Finally, try examining book and article references for additional sources. If you need assistance with refining your topic, ask a librarian and/or your professor.

Step 4: Locate and Retrieve Materials Once you have identified your topic, you can to begin to locate and retrieve information. Before you begin locating information about your topic, you will need to identify what information formats (articles, books, websites, dissertations, etc.,) are needed and select the appropriate research tool(s). The information format is usually determined by the requirements of your research assignment or instructor.

Step 5: Evaluate Relevancy of Materials After locating your information you will need to review them for usefulness and relevency to your topic. A clearly, well-defined topic allows you to quickly eliminate irrelevant information. After your determine the relevancy, you then need to evaluate the quality of your information.

The (1) (2) (3) (4)

basic Authority Accuracy Objectivity

criteria Who Are

to is the What

evaluating the facts is Is author?

information What Is are the Is

are their

as

follows: credentials? correct? a bias?

verifiable? the

information there

purpose? the

Currency

information

up-to-date?

(5) Coverage What is the scope of the information? What does it focus on?

Step 6: Take Notes Throughout your research process you will need to keep accurate notes of what research tools and search strategies you usedthis ensures that you wont retrieve the same information twice, as well as allowing you to reproduce a particular search if needed. Notate complete citations for all your information even if you are unsure of whether or not you will use the information. Trying to locate the information at a later date may be difficult without a proper citations. A "complete citation" includes identifying information that allows you to locate information when needed. Some common citations are formatted using the APA and MLA style guidelines.

APA - American Psychological Association MLA - Modern Language Association

Step 7: Construct Your Project Finally you are now ready to start preparing your paper, presentation, or project. You

should have enough research materials to support your research topic. Be careful to cite any information that you have "quoted directly" or "paraphrased", this way you can avoid committing plagiarism. Remember that research is a circular process, you may need to go back and locate additional information that your previous search did not locate. Always give yourself enough time to conduct additional research, if needed. Q3. What sources of information are available to assist in the literature review? Discuss their importance.
A literature review is an evaluative report of information found in the literature related to your selected area of study. The review should describe, summarise, evaluate and clarify this literature. It should give a theoretical base for the research and help you (the author) determine the nature of your research. Works which are irrelevant should be discarded and those which are peripheral should be looked at critically.

A literature review is more than the search for information, and goes beyond being a descriptive annotated bibliography. All works included in the review must be read, evaluated and analysed (which you would do for an annotated bibliography), but relationships between the literature must also be identified and articulated, in relation to your field of research. "In writing the literature review, the purpose is to convey to the reader what knowledge and ideas have been established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are. The literature review must be defined by a guiding concept (eg. your research objective, the problem or issue you are discussing, or your argumentative thesis). It is not just a descriptive list of the material available, or a set of summaries. Journal articles are the primary vehicle of communication in most science disciplines and, therefore, journal indexes and e-journal packages are critical information resources. To identify and remain knowledgeable about the main indexes to the science literature and many other specific resources for each science discipline, there are science librarians, library database lists and guides arranged by subject, and specific literature guide books to assist you. Journal and bibliographic indexes typically allow keyword searching of article titles, abstracts, and subject

headings or descriptors. E-journal packages (e.g., JSTOR; ScienceDirect; SpringerLink; Wiley Interscience) often allow keyword searching of the full text of articles as well. The ability to keyword search full text enables a new level of searching. While producing many irrelevant results, full-text searches can also find information not previously discoverable by searching indexes. Multidisciplinary indexes, such as Google Scholar, Scopus, and Web of Science, which analyze article bibliographies and track citations (i.e., who is citing who) are valuable tools for identifying the most cited and presumably important papers on particular topics. Once a relevant article is found, by examining its bibliography additional older results can often be identified for your topic. Conversely, once a relevant article is found, by examining who has cited it additional newer results can often be identified for your topic. A caveat is that more recent articles will not have had the time to build up the numbers of citing articles that older articles have. Using information sources in a systematic and structured manner will save you a good deal of time. Developing a search strategy is vital as it provides you with an overall structure for your search and provides a record of your search history. This is an extremely useful record to have as you find yourself needing to refine or change the focus of your searching as your research develops. It can also improve the relevancy of results obtained as you have thought about keywords and synonyms and how these relate to each other. Q 4 Discuss briefly data collection strategies for action research, ethnographic research and case study with suitable examples. Action research, in simple terms, is an approach that teachers and facilitators employ to critically evaluate problems encountered in the classroom on a regular basis. The goal of action research is to discover techniques to improve current practices through reflection and metaanalysis. This systematic research approach, which is not limited to any specific subject matter, involves collaborative efforts with other teachers, facilitators, students, and administrators. The purpose of an action research study is not to publish reports or validate results through independent research rather to apply and validate the findings through practice and practical application. Grounded in curriculum theory, action research involves three primary steps (1) defining a problem, (2) developing an action plan that includes testing a hypothesis and

monitoring applied changes, and (3) reflecting on and sharing any findings or results (Arhar, Holly, & Kasten, 2001; Gay & Airasian, 1996; Leedy & Ormrod, 2001; McKernan, 1996). This paper reviews three data collection methods (1) interviewing, (2) observation, and (3) questionnaires. Descriptions of various techniques used for data collection provide readers with practical approaches to consider when developing technical and operational training materials.

Interviews are basic fact-finding interactions where one individual asks questions while
another responds. By conducting interviews, researchers obtain a clearer understanding of an individuals background and experience. Knowledge of this experience helps the researcher better understand the context for an individuals behavior and decision-making rationale (Seidman, 1998).

Observation is, in some part, an intuitive process that allows individuals to collect information
about others by viewing their actions and behaviors in their natural surroundings. The role of the observer can vary depending upon the level of involvement desired (e.g., remain as part of the background, no interaction; or, actively participate with the group by asking questions and responding). Tools used to collect information vary depending upon the type of data gathered. Informal observational tools may include writing field notes, making entries into a log, or keeping a journal. When observation is more formal, tools such as audiotapes, videotapes, checklists, and rating scales may be used (Arhar, Holly, & Kasten, 2001). Action research may employ the use of questionnaires when it is impossible to interview every respondent. Questionnaires generally consist of open- or closed-ended questions or items that measure facts, attitudes, or values. For example, an action research study might try to collect information about a particular teachers presentation style after every class for a month. Because this involves the comments of 150 students regarding 20 lectures, it would be impossible to interview each one every time. Consequently, a standard questionnaire would be developed togather the desired information. Both qualitative and quantitative research use questionnaires to collect data. Closed-ended questions force a response, score quickly, and are easy to evaluate. To ensure reliability, inventories often restate the question or item several times. Open-ended questions allow the participant to provide a more complete or comprehensive response. Although open-ended responses are difficult to analyze, they often provide specific and meaningful information (Arhar, Holly, & Kasten, 2001; Patten, 1998).

Q.5 Why is experimental research more effective than non experimental research? Experimental research is unique in two very important respects: It is the only type of research that directly attempts to influence a particular variable and when properly applied it is the best type for testing hypotheses about cause and effect relationships. In an experimental study, researchers look at the effects of at least one independent variable on one or more dependent variables. The independent variable in experimental research is also frequently referred to as the experimental or treatment variable. The dependent variable, also known as the criterion or outcome variable, refers to the results or outcomes of the study. The major characteristic of experimental research, which distinguishes it from all other types of research, is that researchers manipulate the independent variable. They decide the nature of the treatment to whom it is to be applied, and to what extent. Independent variables frequently manipulated in educational research include methods of instruction, kinds of assignment, learning materials, rewards given to students and types of questions asked by the teachers. Dependent variables that are frequently studied include achievment, interest in a subject, attention span, motivation and attitudes towards school. Essential Characteristcs of Experimental Research The word experiment has a long and illustrious history in the annals of research. It has often been hailed as the most powerful method that exist for studying cause and effect. Its origins go back to the very beginnings of history when for example, primaval humans first experimented with ways to produce fire. One can imagine countless trial and error attempts on their part before success was achieved by sparking rocks or by spinning wooden spindles in dry leaves. Much of the success of modern science is due to carefully designed and meticulously implemented experiments. The basic idea undrlying all experimental research is really quite simple: try something and systematically observe what happens. Formal experiments consist of two basic conditions. First, at least two ( but often more) conditions or methods are compared to assess the effects of particular conditions or treatments the independent variable. Second the independent variable is directly manipulated by the researcher. Change is planned for and deliberately manipulated in order to study its effects on one or more outcomes( the dependent variable).

Q 7 How would you define variable? Discuss sifferent kinds of variables. A variable is something that can be changed, such as a characteristic or value. Variables are generally used in psychology experiments to determine if changes to one thing result in changes to another. Types of Variables Binary variable Obsevations (i.e., dependent variables) that occur in one of two possible states, often labelled zero and one. E.g., improved/not improved and completed task/failed to complete task. Categorical Variable Usually an independent or predictor variable that contains values indicating membership in one of several possible categories. E.g., gender (male or female), marital status (married, single, divorced, widowed). The categories are often assigned numerical values used as lables, e.g., 0 = male; 1 = female. Synonym for nominal variable. Confounding variable A variable that obscures the effects of another variable. If one elementary reading teacher used used a phonics textbook in her class and another instructor used a whole language textbook in his class, and students in the two classes were given achievement tests to see how well they read, the independent variables (teacher effectiveness and textbooks) would be confounded. There is no way to determine if differences in reading between the two classes were caused by either or both of the independent variables. Continuous variable A variable that is not restricted to particular values (other than limited by the accuracy of the measuring instrument). E.g., reaction time, neuroticism, IQ. Equal size intervals on different parts of the scale are assumed, if not demonstrated. Synonym for interval variable. Control variable An extraneous variable that an investigator does not wish to examine in a study. Thus the investigator controls this variable. Also called a covariate. Criterion variable The presumed effect in a nonexperimental study. Dependent variable The presumed effect in an experimental study. The values of the dependent variable depend upon another variable, the independent variable. Strictly speaking, dependent variable should not be used when writing about nonexperimental designs. Dichotomous variable Synonym for binary variable Discrete variable Variable having only integer values. For example, number of trials need by a student to learn a memorization task.

Dummy Variables Created by recoding categorial variables that have more than two categories into a series of binary variables. E.g., Marital status, if originally labelled 1=married, 2=single, and 3=divorced, widowed, or separated, could be redefined in terms of two variables as follows: var_1: 1=single, 0=otherwise. Var_2: 1=divorced, widowed, or separated, 0=otherwise. For a married person, both var_1 and var_2 would be zero. In general, a categorical variable with k categories would be recoded in terms of k - 1 dummy variables. Dummy variables are used in regression analysis to avoid the unreasonable assumption that the original numerical codes for the categories, i.e., the values 1, 2, ..., k, correspond to an interval scale. Use: to place cases in specific groups. Endogenous variable A variable that is an inherent part of the system being studied and that is determined from within the system. A variable that is caused by other variables in a causal system. Exogenous variable A variable entering from and determined from outside of the system being studied. A causal system says nothing about its exogenous variables. Independent variable The presumed cause in an experimental study. All other variables that may impact the dependent variable are controlled. The values of the independent variable are under experimenter control. Strictly speaking, independent variable should not be used when writing about nonexperimental designs. Interval variable Synonym for continuous variable Intervening variable A variable that explains a relation or provides a causal link between other variables. Also called by some authors mediating variable or intermediary variable. Example: The statistical association between income and longevity needs to be explained because just having money does not make one live longer. Other variables intervene between money and long life. People with high incomes tend to have better medical care than those with low incomes. Medical care is an intervening variable. It mediates the relation between income and longevity. Latent variable An underlying variable that cannot be observed. It is hypothesized to exist in order to explain other variables, such as specific behaviors, that can be observed. Example: if we observe the voting records of members of the House of Representatives on spending bills for the military, foodstamps, law enforcement,

and promoting business investment, we might find underlying patterns that could be explained by postulating latent variables such as conservatism and liberalism. Manifest variable An observed variable assumed to indicate the presence of a latent variable. Also known as an indicator variable. We cannot observe intelligence directly, for it is a latent variable. We can look at indicators such as vocabulary size, success in ones occupation, IQ test score, ability to play complicated games (e.g., bridge) well, writing ability, and so on. Manipulated variable Synonym for independent variable. Mediating variable Synonym for intervening variable. Example: Parents transmit their social status to their children directly, but they also do so indirectly, through education: viz. Parents status childs education childs status Moderating variable A variable that influences, or moderates, the relation between two other variables and thus produces an interaction effect. Nominal variable Synonym for categorical variable. Ordinal variable A variable used to rank a sample of individuals with respect to some characteristics, but differences (i.e., intervals) and different points of the scale are not necessarily equivalent. Examples: anxiety might be rated on a scale none, mild, moderate, and severe, with numerical values of 0, 1, 2, 3. A patient with an anxiety score of 1 is ranked as less anxious than a patient with a score of 3, but patients with scores 0 and 2 do not necessarily have the same differences in anxiety as patients with scores of 1 and 3. Outcome variable The presumed effect in a nonexperimental study. Synonym for criterion variable. Polychotomous variables Variables that can have more than two possible values. Strictly speaking, this includes all but binary variables. The usual reference is to categorical variables with more than two categories. Predictor variable The presumed cause on a nonexperimental study. Often used in correlational studies. For example, SAT scores predict first semester GPA. The SAT score is the predictor variable. Treatment variable Synonym for independent variable

Q 8. What is the difference between descriptive statistics and inferential statistics? Descriptive and Inferential Statistics When analysing data, for example, the marks achieved by 100 students for a piece of coursework, it is possible to use both descriptive and inferential statistics in your analysis of their marks. Typically, in most research conducted on groups of people, you will use both descriptive and inferential statistics to analyse your results and draw conclusions. So what are descriptive

and inferential statistics? And what are their differences?

Descriptive Statistics Descriptive statistics is the term given to the analysis of data that helps describe, show or summarize data in a meaningful way such that, for example, patterns might emerge from the data. Descriptive statistics do not, however, allow us to make conclusions beyond the data we have analysed or reach conclusions regarding any hypotheses we might have made. They are simply a way to describe our data. Descriptive statistics are very important, as if we simply presented our raw data it would be hard to visulize what the data was showing, especially if there was a lot of it. Descriptive statistics therefore allow us to present the data in a more meaningful way which allows simpler interpretation of the data. For example, if we had the results of 100 pieces of students' coursework, we may be interested in the overall performance of those students. We would also be interested in the distribution or spread of the marks. Descriptive statistics allow us to do this. How to properly describe data through statistics and graphs is an important topic and discussed in other Laerd Statistics Guides. Typically, there are two general types of statistic that are used to describe data:

Measures of central tendency: these are ways of describing the central position of a frequency distribution for a group of data. In this case, the frequency distribution is simply the distribution and pattern of marks scored by the 100 students from the lowest to the highest. We can describe this central position using a number of statistics, including the mode, median, and mean. You can read about measures of central tendency here.

Measures of spread: these are ways of summarizing a group of data by describing how spread out the scores are. For example, the mean score of our 100 students may be 65 out of 100. However, not all students will have scored 65 marks. Rather, their scores will be spread out. Some will be lower and others higher. Measures of spread help us to summarize how spread out these scores are. To describe this spread, a number of statistics are available to us, including the range, quartiles, absolute deviation, variance and standard deviation.

When we use descriptive statistics it is useful to summarize our group of data using a combination of tabulated description (i.e. tables), graphical description (i.e. graphs and charts) and statistical commentary (i.e. a discussion of the results). Inferential Statistics We have seen that descriptive statistics provide information about our immediate group of data. For example, we could calculate the mean and standard deviation of the exam marks for the 100 students and this could provide valuable information about this group of 100 students. Any group of data like this, that includes all the data you are interested, in is called a population. A population can be small or large, as long as it includes all the data you are interested in. For example, if you were only interested in the exam marks of 100 students, then the 100 students would represent your population. Descriptive statistics are applied to populations and the properties of populations, like the mean or standard deviation, are called parameters as they represent the whole population (i.e. everybody you are interested in). Often, however, you do not have access to the whole population you are interested in investigating but only have a limited number of data instead. For example, you might be interested in the exam marks of all students in the UK. It is not feasible to measure all exam marks of all students in the whole of the UK so you have to measure a smaller sample of students, for example, 100 students, that are used to represent the larger population of all UK students. Properties of samples, such as the mean or standard deviation, are not called parameters but statistics. Inferential statistics are techniques that allow us to use these samples to make generalizations about the populations from which the samples were drawn. It is, therefore, important the sample accurately represents the population. The process of achieving

this is called sampling (sampling strategies are discussed in detail here on our sister site). Inferential statistics arise out of the fact that sampling naturally incurs sampling error and thus a sample is not expected to perfectly represent the population. Q 9. Discuss different sampling tachniques Sampling techniques What is sampling?

A shortcut method for investigating a whole population Data is gathered on a small part of the whole parent population or sampling frame, and used to inform what the whole picture is like

Why sample? In reality there is simply not enough; time, energy, money, labour/man power, equipment, access to suitable sites to measure every single item or site within the parent population or whole sampling frame. Therefore an appropriate sampling strategy is adopted to obtain a representative, and statistically valid sample of the whole. Sampling considerations

Larger sample sizes are more accurate representations of the whole The sample size chosen is a balance between obtaining a statistically valid representation, and the time, energy, money, labour, equipment and access available A sampling strategy made with the minimum of bias is the most statistically valid Most approaches assume that the parent population has a normal distribution where most items or individuals clustered close to the mean, with few extremes A 95% probability or confidence level is usually assumed, for example 95% of items or individuals will be within plus or minus two standard deviations from the mean This also means that up to five per cent may lie outside of this - sampling, no matter how good can only ever be claimed to be a very close estimate

Sampling techniques Three main types of sampling strategy:

Random Systematic Stratified

Within these types, you may then decide on a; point, line, area method. Random sampling

Least biased of all sampling techniques, there is no subjectivity - each member of the total population has an equal chance of being selected Can be obtained using random number tables Microsoft Excel has a function to produce random number

The function is simply:

=RAND()

Type that into a cell and it will produce a random number in that cell. Copy the formula throughout a selection of cells and it will produce random numbers. You can modify the formula to obtain whatever range you wish, for example if you wanted random numbers from one to 250, you could enter the following formula:

=INT(250*RAND())+1

Where INT eliminates the digits after the decimal, 250* creates the range to be covered, and +1 sets the lowest number in the range. Paired numbers could also be obtained using;

=INT(9000*RAND())+1000

These can then be used as grid coordinates, metre and centimetre sampling stations along a transect, or in any feasible way. Methodology A. Random point sampling

A grid is drawn over a map of the study area Random number tables are used to obtain coordinates/grid references for the points Sampling takes place as feasibly close to these points as possible

B. Random line sampling

Pairs of coordinates or grid references are obtained using random number tables, and marked on a map of the study area These are joined to form lines to be sampled

C. Random area sampling

Random number tables generate coordinates or grid references which are used to mark the bottom left (south west) corner of quadrats or grid squares to be sampled

Figure one: A random number grid showing methods of generating random numbers, lines and areas.

Advantages and disadvantages of random sampling Advantages:

Can be used with large sample populations Avoids bias

Disadvantages:

Can lead to poor representation of the overall parent population or area if large areas are not hit by the random numbers generated. This is made worse if the study area is very large

There may be practical constraints in terms of time available and access to certain parts of the study area

Systematic sampling Samples are chosen in a systematic, or regular way.

They are evenly/regularly distributed in a spatial context, for example every two metres along a transect line They can be at equal/regular intervals in a temporal context, for example every half hour or at set times of the day They can be regularly numbered, for example every 10th house or person

Methodology A. Systematic point sampling A grid can be used and the points can be at the intersections of the grid lines (A), or in the middle of each grid square (B). Sampling is done at the nearest feasible place. Along a transect line, sampling points for vegetation/pebble data collection could be identified systematically, for example every two metres or every 10th pebble B. Systematic line sampling The eastings or northings of the grid on a map can be used to identify transect lines (C and D) Alternatively, along a beach it could be decided that a transect up the beach will be conducted every 20 metres along the length of the beach

C. Systematic area sampling A pattern' of grid squares to be sampled can be identified using a map of the study area, for example every second/third grid square down or across the area (E) - the south west corner will then mark the corner of a quadrat. Patterns can be any shape or direction as long as they are regular (F)

Figure two: Systemic sampling grid showing methods of generating systemic points, lines and areas. Advantages and disadvantages of systematic sampling Advantages:

It is more straight-forward than random sampling A grid doesn't necessarily have to be used, sampling just has to be at uniform intervals A good coverage of the study area can be more easily achieved than using random sampling

Disadvantages:

It is more biased, as not all members or points have an equal chance of being selected It may therefore lead to over or under representation of a particular pattern

Stratified sampling This method is used when the parent population or sampling frame is made up of sub-sets of known size. These sub-sets make up different proportions of the total, and therefore sampling should be stratified to ensure that results are proportional and representative of the whole. A. Stratified systematic sampling The population can be divided into known groups, and each group sampled using a systematic approach. The number sampled in each group should be in proportion to its known size in the parent population. For example: the make-up of different social groups in the population of a town can be obtained, and then the number of questionnaires carried out in different parts of the town can be stratified in line with this information. A systematic approach can still be used by asking every fifth person. B. Stratified random sampling A wide range of data and fieldwork situations can lend themselves to this approach - wherever there are two study areas being compared, for example two woodlands, river catchments, rock types or a population with sub-sets of known size, for example woodland with distinctly different habitats. Random point, line or area techniques can be used as long as the number of measurements taken is in proportion to the size of the whole. For example: if an area of woodland was the study site, there would likely be different types of habitat (sub-sets) within it. Random sampling may altogether miss' one or more of these. Stratified sampling would take into account the proportional area of each habitat type within the woodland and then each could be sampled accordingly; if 20 samples were to be taken in the woodland as a whole, and it was found that a shrubby clearing accounted for 10% of the total area, two samples would need to be taken within the clearing. The sample points could still be identified randomly (A) or systematically (B) within each separate area of woodland.

Figure three: A diagram highlighting the benefits of using stratified random sampling and stratified systemic sampling within certain fieldwork sites. Advantages and disadvantages of stratified sampling Advantages:

It can be used with random or systematic sampling, and with point, line or area techniques If the proportions of the sub-sets are known, it can generate results which are more representative of the whole population It is very flexible and applicable to many geographical enquiries Correlations and comparisons can be made between sub-sets

Disadvantages:

The proportions of the sub-sets must be known and accurate if it is to work properly. It can be hard to stratify questionnaire data collection, accurate up to date population data may not be available and it may be hard to identify people's age or social background effectively.

Q 10. Define research ethics and the approaches used in ethical issues.

Research ethics involves the application of fundamental ethical principles to a variety of topics involving scientific research. These include the design and implementation of research involving human experimentation, animal experimentation, various aspects of academic scandal, including scientific misconduct (such as fraud, fabrication of data and plagiarism), whistleblowing; regulation of research, etc. Research ethics is most developed as a concept in medical research. The key agreement here is the 1974 Declaration of Helsinki. The Nuremberg Code is a former agreement, but with many still important notes. Research in the social sciences presents a different set of issues than those in medical research. The scientific research enterprise is built on a foundation of trust. Scientists trust that the results reported by others are valid. Society trusts that the results of research reflect an honest attempt by scientists to describe the world accurately and without bias. But this trust will endure only if the scientific community devotes itself to exemplifying and transmitting the values associated with ethical scientific conduct.[1] There are many ethical issues to be taken into serious consideration for research. Sociologists need to be aware of having the responsibility to secure the actual permission and interests of all those involved in the study. They should not misuse any of the information discovered, and there should be a certain moral responsibility maintained towards the participants. There is a duty to protect the rights of people in the study as well as their privacy and sensitivity. The confidentiality of those involved in the observation must be carried out, keeping their anonymity and privacy secure. As pointed out in the BSA for Sociology, all of these ethics must be honoured unless there are other overriding reasons to do so - for example, any illegal or terrorist activity. Ethical approach Ethical scrutiny of research, scientific integrity and good research governance are increasingly high-profile concerns to research funders and research organisations. Whilst these concerns are not limited to research involving human subjects, as a social science based institution, the Institute of Education takes its responsibilities in this area very seriously.

Following the adoption of a new policy on research ethics in June 2005, we have an established committee structure ensuring that our governance procedures are appropriate to our needs and those of our funders. All new staff and student research proposals at the Institute of Education are required to undergo an ethics review. A new Code of Practice for Responding to Complaints by Research Participants about the Ethical Conduct of Research was approved in June 2007. All our research is conducted with reference to the appropriate professional code of practice for social research (principally BERA, BPS or BSA). While sound governance of research is clearly essential, we also expect the highest possible standards from our researchers. Our ethics review processes are explicitly designed in order to promote a reflective and proactive approach to research ethics. Q 6. Enlist various strategies to analyze data statistically in quantitative research. Discuss any five in detail.
Data analyses for quantitative studies and qualitative studies is quite different. Whereas the raw data for quantitative studies are numbers (e.g test scores). The raw data for qualitative studies are words and possibly visual materials such as photos. These data include primarily fieldnotes, often supplemented by documents and interview transcripts. Since the focus is on what people actually said, direct quotations are preferable to paraphrases or the observers recollections. This is easier said than done, however. Having the bulk of the data represent quotations usually requires transcripts of many interview tapes, which is no mean task; it is both immensely time consuming and expensive. Statistical analysis too

often has meant the manipulation of ambiguous data by means of dubious methods to solve a problem that has not been defined. The purpose of this article is to provide readers with definitions and examples of widely used concepts in statistics. This article first discusses some general principles for the planning of experiments and data visualization. Then, since we expect that most readers are not studying this article to learn statistics but instead to find practical methods for analyzing data, a strong emphasis has been put on choice of appropriate standard statistical model and statisticalinference methods (parametric, non-parametric, resampling methods) for different types of data. Then, methods for processing multivariate data are briefly reviewed. The section following it deals with clinical trials. Finally, the last section discusses computer software and guides the reader through a collection of bibliographic references adapted to different levels of expertise and topics.

Choosing a random sample may not be easy and there are two types of errors associated with choosing representative samples: sampling errors and non-sampling errors. Sampling errors are those errors due to chance variations resulting from sampling a population. For example, in a population of 100,000 individuals, suppose that 100 have a certain genetic trait and in a (random) sample of 10,000, 8 have the trait. The experimenter will estimate that 8/10,000 of the population or 80/100,000 individuals have the trait, and in doing so will have underestimated the actual percentage. Imagine conducting this experiment (i.e., drawing a random sample of 10,000 and examining for the trait) repeatedly. The observed number of sampled individuals having the trait will fluctuate. This phenomenon is called the sampling error. Indeed, if sampling cis truly random, the observed number having the trait in each repetition will fluctuate randomly about 10. Furthermore, the limits within which most fluctuations will occur are estimable using standard statistical methods. Consequently, the experimenter not only acknowledges the presence of sampling errors, but he can estimate their effect. In contrast, variation associated with improper sampling is called non-sampling error. For example, the entire target population may not be accessible to the experimenter for the purpose of choosing a sample. The results of the analysis will be biased if the accessible and non-accessible portions of the population are different with respect to the characteristic(s) being investigated. Increasing sample size within the accessible portion will not solve the problem. The sample, although random within the accessible portion, will not be representative of the target population. The experimenter is often not aware of the presence of non-sampling errors (e.g., in the above context, the experimenter may not be aware that the trait occurs with higher frequency in a particular ethnic group that is less accessible to sampling than other groups within the population). Furthermore, even when a source of nonsampling error is identified, there may not be a practical way of assessing its effect. The only recourse when a source of non-sampling error is identified is to document its nature as thoroughly as possible. Clinical trialsinvolving survival studies are often associated with specific non-sampling errors. riptive" (scientificmethodological) component (Beauchamp et al., 1982). It divides questions concerning the morals and politics of social scientific studies from questions ve"
(moral-political) component of social research and the "descriptive" (scientificmethodological) component (Beauchamp et al., 1982). It divides questions concerning the morals and politics of social scientific studies from questionsarch in Education, 24

concerning their scientific merits and pursues them relatively independently. Indeed, not keeping these domains separated is often considered the mark of biased social research and advocacy. In our discussion of the traditional view, we follow suit and separate the ethics of social research from broader political and methodological issues. We save raising questions about this maneuver for our discussion of the "contemporary

approach."