Int J Adv Manuf Technol DOI 10.

1007/s00170-012-4566-5

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

A novel kinematic model for five-axis machine tools and its CNC applications
Hai-Yin Xu & Lian Hu & Tam Hon-yuen & Ke Shi & Liping Xu

Received: 7 March 2012 / Accepted: 8 October 2012 # Springer-Verlag London 2012

Abstract In conventional five-axis CNC machining, the machine structure is treated as a single kinematic chain just like a robotic manipulator while the cutter is treated as an end effector. In this paper, besides the machine kinematic chain, a cutter kinematic chain is introduced, and the two subkinematic chains are combined to form one machine cutter kinematic chain. Forward, inverse kinematics and constrained inverse kinematics for the proposed machine cutter kinematic chain are further put forward. Two applications are presented to demonstrate the advantages and effectiveness of the proposed kinematic model. The proposed kinematic model unifies the structure of the machine and cutter; therefore, the flexibility of the five-axis machine tool can be fully explored. Keywords CNC . Machinecutter kinematic chain . Inverse kinematics . Constraint

1 Introduction The form of a machined surface depends on the path of contact between the cutter and the workpiece. One core issue in numerical controlled machining is the generation of the axis command for driving the cutter to feed along a planned cutter contact (CC) path. Five-axis machines have been widely used in sculptured surface machining. Work was done in path planning with objectives such as improving process efficiency [1, 2], cutter wear resistance [3, 4], and avoiding collision [5, 6]. After the CC paths are planned, the corresponding cutter location (CL) points can be obtained through offsetting. There also exist methods for planning of the cutter orientation and feed rate, and cutter offsetting methods [7, 8] for calculating the CL points based on the cutter geometric shape, planned cutter inclination angle, and tilt angle relative to the contact location [9]. With CL data, the axis command can be generated by inverse kinematics of the machine kinematic chain. The kinematic chain of machine tools can be treated like those of robotic manipulators [10], and the cutter can be viewed as the end effector [1113]. Approaches in modeling the kinematic chain of robots (i.e., DenavitHartenberg convention) were adopted in modeling machine tools. Lee and She [11] proposed analytical equations for three representative types of five-axis machines. Srby [14] proposed an inverse kinematics algorithm to deal with singular configurations that can cause CC path error or collisions between the cutter and the workpiece or the machine. The above approach of going from CC points to CL points and then to axis command is rather inflexible. The motion capability of a five-axis machine may not be fully exploited. Firstly, the values of some of the degrees of freedom (DOFs) are fixed simply because they are required in the approach. For instance, both the tilt angle and the inclination angle are fixed prior to cutter offsetting, even though only one of them

This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (nos. 51075167, 61070235 and 51075139). H.-Y. Xu : L. Hu (*) School of Computer Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China e-mail: who.lein@gmail.com H.-Y. Xu e-mail: haiyinxu@hust.edu.cn T. Hon-yuen Department of Mechanical and Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong K. Shi : L. Xu School of Computer Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China

Int J Adv Manuf Technol

needs to be constrained [9]. Secondly, in many cases, what we need is a feasible solution rather than the optimal solution [15], especially when there are multiple constraints. Optimal solutions to different constraints may conflict, and the only way to resolve the confliction based on the current machine kinematic model is trial and error. In this paper, the conventional machine kinematic chain is proposed to be expanded to form a machinecutter kinematic chain for five-axis machining. Besides the machine kinematics, the kinematic effects of the cutter are incorporated in the proposed kinematic chain. There is no need for cutter offsetting. The relationship between a CC point and the machine cutter configuration can be directly described in the proposed chain. The planning of cutter posture can be formulated as constraints on the machinecutter configuration. These constraints are prioritized and accounted for, when one determines the axis command for a given CC point. As an illustration, the proposed machinecutter chain is utilized in the management of tool wear in five-axis machining. The tool posture is controlled so that the cutting edge of the cutter can be more evenly used for cutting. At the same time, the machine axis movement is constrained so that the cutting task can be accomplished without extra axis movement. The paper is organized as follows: An overview for fiveaxis machine motion control is given in this section. The machinecutter kinematic chain is proposed in the next section, and the inverse kinematics is presented in the section after. Then, based on the proposed kinematic chain, an interpolation algorithm framework is outlined, and examples are given to demonstrate its usage in tool wear management. A conclusion is drawn in the end.

transformation of coordinate frame, machines with simultaneous spindle and table movement can also be modeled as an open chain. From the kinematic point of view, five-axis machines have an open chain structure similar to robotic manipulators. A machine with three translational axes and two orthogonal rotational axes is shown in Fig. 1. The DenavitHartenberg (DH) convention is used in the modeling of the machine kinematic chain. Machines with different values of DOF may also be considered in a similar way. The machine axes are viewed as prismatic pairs and revolute pairs respectively (Fig. 2). Variables A and C are associated with the two revolute pairs which intersect at the spindle fulcrum F, and variables X, Y, and Z with the three prismatic pairs relating the location of F to the machine origin OM. The fulcrum is at the machine origin when the prismatic variables are all zero. Point L and direction vector O are the location and orientation of the cutter, respectively, and p is a CC point on the workpiece. Given the axis command [X Y Z A C], the servo system drives the cutter to translate and rotate, and the tool contacts the workpiece at p. The transformation matrix of the machine kinematic chain in Fig. 1 describes the transformation of the cutter frame (OCxC, yC, zC) relative to the machine frame (OMxM, yM, zM). According to the DH convention (see Appendix), it is the product of the transformation matrices in the order of the corresponding kinematic pairs:

zM yM xM OM yC zC xC

2 Machinecutter kinematic chain In many motion control methods [1013], the kinematics of the machine structure is treated as a kinematic chain, like that of a robotic manipulator, and the cutter as the end effector. Here, besides the machine kinematic chain, a cutter kinematic chain is introduced. The two are combined to form one machinecutter kinematic chain to represent the complete kinematic structure of both the machine and the cutter. This facilitates referencing to individual locations on the cutting zone of the cutter. 2.1 Machine sub-chain

Cutter

OC

zw yw Ow xw

An open-chain kinematic model is adopted to represent the machine kinematics. Since the relative position and orientation between the cutter and workpiece are the focus of the model, without loss of generality, the workpiece is assumed stationary, and the cutter translates and rotates to feed along the planned CC path on the workpiece surface. With proper

Workpiece
Fig. 1 Machine and cutter coordinate system of cutter-tilting type configuration

Int J Adv Manuf Technol

zM yM OM xM
Y

Cutter F
C

A X

rt

M R

rc pc

Nc L Bc p Tc CC path

L
Fig. 3 The shape of fillet endmill cutter

Fig. 2 The machine kinematic chain and cutter offsetting

MM Rot0 z0 ; C Rot0 x0 ; A TransX; Y; Z

With this transformation matrix, axis command and the cutter location and orientation can be related as: L 1 T MM 0 1 0 1 T 2

0 T MM 0

0 T

where 0 l 0 1 T and 0 0 1 0 T are the homogenous coordinates of the cutter position and orientation with respect to the local coordinate frame of the cutter, and l is the length of the cutter as shown in Fig. 3. 2.2 Cutter sub-chain Instead of cutter offsetting used in existing methods [7, 8], a cutter kinematic sub-chain is proposed. This enables the identification of individual locations on the surface of the cutter. Without loss of generality, a filleted endmill cutter is assumed as shown in Fig. 3. The tool radius is rt and the corner radius is rc. The length of the cutter from the spindle fulcrum to the cutter tip is l. When rc 00, the cutter is a flat endmill; when rc 0rt, it is a spherical endmill. The cutter feeds along a CC path as material from the workpiece is removed due to rotation of the cutter about the

spindle axisfeed motion puts the cutter through a sequence of planned position where the cutter overlaps with the workpiece, and the spindle rotation causes the cutting edge(s) of the cutter to remove workpiece material on the way of the cutter. Here, the focus is on the feed motion, and cutter rotation about the spindle axis is ignored. The cutter is seen as a rigid body, and it contacts the workpiece at point pc on its fillet during machining as shown in Fig. 3. Depending on the cutter movement relative to the workpiece, this contact point is not a fixed point on the cutter. Two auxiliary points M and N are defined to assist in the building of the cutter kinematic chain that connects the spindle fulcrum F and contact point pc on cutter surface. Point N is the center of the fillet corner that passes through pc, and M is the projection of N onto the cutter central axis. Points F, M, N, and pc are connected to form the cutter kinematic chain. According to DH convention, one can model the cutter kinematic sub-chain with links FM, MN, and Npc and two revolute pairs at M and N. The link length of links FM, MN, and Np c are lr c , r t r c , and r c , respectively. The rotation axis of revolute pairs at M and N are along the z and x directions of the cutter frame, respectively, and the corresponding variables are denoted by D and E. The transformation matrix of the cutter chain MC describes the cutter contact frame (p T, B, N) relative to the cutter frame (Fig. 2). According

Int J Adv Manuf Technol

to the connection sequence of these links and kinematic pairs, it is given by: MC Trans0; rc ; 0 Rot0 x0 ; E Trans0; rt rc ; 0 Rot0 z0 ; D Trans0; 0; l rc 4

describes cutter contact frame relative to the machine frame is given by the product of the two transformation matrices: MMC MC MM 5

The transformation matrixes of the flat endmill and of the spherical endmill have the same form as in Eq. (4). They can be obtained by substituting rc 00 or rc 0rt into Eq. (4), respectively. It should be noted, for the flat endmill, that variable E is redundant and the associated rotation transformation in Eq. (4) can be omitted. Variables D and E are not part of the axis command. They may be associated with passive DOFs of the kinematic chain. Nonetheless, commands or constraints on these variables may still be followed or satisfied by adjusting variables X, Y, Z, A, and C which are with the active DOFs of the chain as will be demonstrated in a later section. 2.3 Forward kinematics of machinecutter kinematic chain The cutter kinematic sub-chain and the machine kinematic sub-chain can be combined to form the machinecutter kinematic chain (Fig. 4). The transformation matrix that

The configuration of the machinecutter kinematic chain is denoted by c0[X Y Z A C D E]T. Given a configuration c, one can obtain the contact point pc on the cutter surface and unit normal vector nc of the surface at pc: pc 1 MMC 0 0 0 1 T 6

nc

0 MMC 0 1

0 T

Two approaches to generate the axis commands are shown in Fig. 5. With the machine kinematic chain alone, inverse kinematics (IK) is used to generate the axis command based on CL points obtained by cutter offsetting according to the cutter geometry. In contrast, when working with the machinecutter kinematic chain, IK can be applied directly to CC points to generate the axis command. Furthermore, in the latter approach, it is feasible to deal with constraints on cutter variables during the IK process.

3 Inverse kinematics of machinecutter kinematic chain

zM yM OM xM

Inverse kinematics concerns computing the axis command given the location and orientation of the cutter. The current work is on the numerical computation of the inverse kinematic problem as analytic solution is not available in general. Attention is paid to the fact that the number of DOF of the proposed machinecutter kinematic chain is larger than

F
O

D
n p L

n p

M E

CC path

CL path

CC path
Fig. 5 CC path for machinecutter kinematic chain vs. CL path for machine kinematic chain

Fig. 4 The proposed machinecutter kinematic chain of 7-DOFs

Int J Adv Manuf Technol

the dimension of the axis command matrix. Also considered in the computation are constraints on the solution such as those arising from limits on the axis command and from specifications on the cutter posture. 3.1 Basic inverse kinematics The position and unit normal vector of the CC point are given by Eqs. (6) and (7), in accordance of the forward kinematics of the machinecutter kinematic chain. During machining, the CC point on the cutter and the unit normal vector coincide with the corresponding point and vector on the workpiece. Thus, p pc n nc 8

the corresponding change c in the configuration. The linear system in Eq. (10) is under-determined as the dimension of the cutter contact is smaller than that of the configuration. A cost function can be defined as C $cT $c The problem is to minimize C subject to satisfying Eq. (13). The solution to this least-norm (LN) problem is given by 1 $c J T JJ T $P in which J T JJ T matrix.
1

14 is the pseudo-inverse of the Jacobian

3.2 Priority inverse kinematics with constraints Besides strict requirements imposed at the cutter contact, the axis configuration may be carefully selected to satisfy various constraints which arise in practical machining. The constraints can be classified into two categories, one is hard constraints that are equality constraints on the DOFs, and the other is soft constraints that are inequality constraints on the DOFs. Hard constraints involve prescription of values of the DOFs, and they should be followed exactly. Soft constraints are dealt with by penalty weights in the associated cost function. 3.2.1 Hard constraints 10 Equality constraints on the DOFs can be written as A$c b 15

where p is the CC point on the workpiece, and n is the unit normal vector of the machined surface at p. In order to facilitate the presentation, Euler angles and instead of n are adopted in the remaining part of the paper. The position and orientation at the CC point are denoted by T the CC vector P px py pz a b , which can be seen as a function of the machinecutter kinematic chain configuration c: P f c The inverse kinematic problem can be written as: c f 1 P 9

A computational approach to the solution of the inverse problem is adopted, as the analytic solution to such problems may not be easily obtained in general. In machine tool-related inverse problems, typically, the solution c at a point P is known and the task is to find the solution cN at a nearby point PN. Consider the first-order approximation of PN as P N P J cN c where J is the Jacobian Matrix defined as @ Px ; Py ; Pz ; a; b dP J dc @ X ; Y ; Z; A; C; D; E is evaluated at c. Eq.(11) can be further written as $P J $c 13 12 11

where A and b are constant matrices. For example, if the value of DOF E is specified as E H , then A 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 and b EH EC where EC is the current value of E. Eqs. (13) and (15) above constitute a linear system. The solution of this system is given by J $c A !T ( J A ! J A !T )1 $P b ! 16

where $P PN P and $c cN c . Thus, given a small change P in the cutter contact, one looks for

if the system is under-determined as before; it simply becomes ! !1 $P J if the solution can be uniquely determined. $c b A Since there are two redundant DOFs in the machine cutter kinematic chain, one can specify up to two hard constraints on the configuration. In a sense, planned cutter orientation can be treated as hard constraints on DOFs A and C because the two rotatory axes of the machine are uniquely determined by the planned cutter orientation.

Int J Adv Manuf Technol

3.2.2 Soft constraints Inequality constraints on the DOFs can be written as bmin A$c bmax 17

adjustment to c. The adjustment c causes the configuration to correct the deviation P. A minimization problem similar to that in Section 3.1 can be solved to give: 1 dc J T JJ T dP where J is computed at the configuration c+c. 23

where A, bmin, and bmax are constant matrices. These are soft constraints as Ac can assume any value between the two limits bmin and bmax. Instead of directly forcing values on DOFs, soft constraints only require that the DOFs do not exceed a pair of limits cmin and cmax. These can usually be satisfied by selecting an update on c whose norm is slightly larger than that in the unconstrained case. A cost function can be defined as C $cT $c A$cT QA$c $cT W c 18

4 Demonstration In this section, two applications are given to demonstrate the advantages of the above proposed kinematic model. In the first application, an interpolation algorithm framework based on the proposed machinecutter kinematic chain is outlined. The second application is given to demonstrate the usage of hard constraints and soft constraints. With the machinecutter kinematic chain, one can manage tool wear by directly controlling the CC point on the cutter surface and simultaneously adjusting cutter posture by setting limits to corresponding DOFs of the machinecutter kinematic chain. 4.1 Interpolation algorithm of the machinecutter kinematic chain For every feed interval, the axis command is generated according to the position and orientation of target CC point, current configuration of machinecutter kinematic chain, and constraints of DOFs. The algorithm is as follows: Step 1: Input target CC point position p and orientation n, current configuration c, hard constraints and/or soft constraints, tolerance . Step 2: Compute target CC vector P0[px, py, pz, , ]T. Step 3: If there are hard constraints, separate c to cH, cS and set the value of cH according to hard constraints, or else set cS 0c. Step 4: c0{cH, cS}; compute the feed vector P0Pf(c). Step 5: If there are soft constraints, compute weighting matrix W for cS according to (Eq. 1820), or else, W is set to be the identity matrix. Step 6: Compute cS according to Eq.(21). Step 7: Update cS 0cS +cS. Step 8: c0{cH, cS}; compute the CC vector deviation P0 Pf(c). Step 9: if |P| is greater than tolerance , compute the adjustment c of c according to Eq. (23). Step 10: Update c0c+c and output axis command [X Y Z A C]. In the proposed machinecutter kinematic chain, the requirements of cutter orientation and other requirements are considered in the form of hard and soft constraints of DOFs.

where W I AT QA and Q is a positive diagonal matrix 2 3 q1 0 . . . 0 6 0 q2 . . . 0 7 7 Q6 19 4... ... ... ...5 0 0 . . . qm with m being the number of soft constraints. The weight qi is defined as [16]:  2    b  i;max bi;min 2Ai $c bi;max bi;min  20 qi   2 2   4 bi;max bi bi bi;min According to this weight function, the value of qi is 1 when Aic is midway between bi,min and bi,max, and it increases as Aic approaches either of the two limits. In this way, updates which involve moving the axis configuration toward the limits are discouraged. The problem is to minimize C subject to satisfying Eq. (13). The weighted least-norm (WLN) solution to this problem is 1 $c W 1 J T JW 1 J T $P 21 It is clear that, without the soft constraints and the Q weighting in the cost function, W becomes the identity matrix, and the WLN solution degenerates to the LN solution of Eq. (14). 3.3 Error correction Due to the first-order approximation of the inverse kinematic function in Eq. (11), it is conceivable that discrepancy P exists between target CC vector PN and f c $c: dP PN f c $c 22

If the size of the discrepancy |P| is greater than a preset tolerance , one can reduce the deviation by making an

Int J Adv Manuf Technol

4.2 Applications of the machinecutter kinematic chain The proposed machinecutter kinematic chain and priority inverse kinematics are flexible on controlling every single DOF by setting hard and/or soft constraints. In this section, several examples are given to show the advantage of the proposed model. A filleted endmill cutter is used in these examples. The tool radius rt 05 mm, the corner radius rc 02 mm, and the length of the cutter from the spindle fulcrum to the cutter tip l is 100 mm. The part surface is a sweep surface that formed by a parabola translates along a cosine curve, and the CC path is the trajectory of the apex of the parabola. The cutter feeds along the CC path with a constant feed step length of 0.2 mm, and the CC points are computed using a simple curve interpolation method. 4.2.1 Achieving constant speed cutting Constant cutting speed leads to consistent roughness of the processed surface. According to the cutting speed equation: V 2pRS 24

Fig. 7 Adjust E to avoid cutter tip contact

For machines with constant spindle speed, constant cutting speed means fixed value of E:   V rt 1 27 EH arccos 2prc S rc According to the algorithm in Section 4.1, a hard constraint is set to E. The configuration of the machinecutter kinematic chain c is separated to be cH 0EH and cS 0[X Y Z A C D] at step 3, and weighting matrix W is set to be the identity matrix at step 5. The value of cH is fixed, and c can be calculated according to Eq. (2123). Figure 6 shows the cutter posture sequence of constant speed cutting of a constant spindle speed machine. For machines with variable spindle speed, although there is no need to fix the value of E, we still have to avoid overrun the spindle speed caused by the cutter tip contact of the ball endmill. In this case, a soft constraint of E can be adopted. Suppose the upper limit of the spindle speed is Smax, then the lower limit of E is:   V rt Emin arccos 1 28 2prc Smax rc and the upper limit Emax is 360.

where S is the spindle speed, R is the cutting radius, and V is cutting speed. Referring to Fig. 3 and the definition of DOF E, we have: R rt rc rc cos E Substituting Eq. (25) to Eq. (24) yields: V 2prt rc rc cos E S 26 25

so S could be calculated according to E and vice versa.

Fig. 6 Fixed E to achieve constant speed cutting for constant spindle speed machine

Fig. 8 Limit the spindle speed

Int J Adv Manuf Technol

E=5 /3 N

E=23 /12

Fig. 11 The wearing ring formed by the combination of cutter self rotation and feed motion

Fig. 9 Cutter posture sequences of no constraint to DOFs

According to the algorithm, cS 0c, and W is arranged as described in Section 3.2.2. The weight for E is computed based on the soft constraint, and the weights for other DOFs are 1 because they are all free. Then, c can be calculated according to Eq. (2123). Figure 7 shows the adjusted value of E by the soft constraint and unadjusted value of E. Figure 8 shows the corresponding spindle speed. The adjustment of W guarantees that the spindle speed will not exceed its mechanical

property. The cutter posture sequences in Figs. 9 and 10 show that the cutter inclines to avoid tip contact although the constraint is exerted on a passive DOF E. Constant speed cutting can also be achieved based on the traditional machine kinematic chain model by presetting the appropriate inclination angle. However, a tilt angle which has nothing to do with cutting speed must be preset simultaneously. 4.2.2 Tool wear management The abnormal tool worn or broken in processing may scrap the workpiece or even damage the machine and cause great loss. Since the existing motion model cannot predict the CC point on the cutter surface, the current countermeasure is to monitor the cutter and expect to detect excessive wear [1719]. However, we introduce the cutter sub-chain to describe the CC point on the cutter surface and adapt a hard constraint to balance tool wear. What's more, we still have

Fig. 10 Cutter posture sequences of constraint to E

Fig. 12 Plan E to avoid local over wearing

Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Fig. 15 A and C are limited to their interval b using WLN in IK solution

Fig. 13 The cutter posture sequence of planned DOF E

redundant DOFs to reduce the magnitude of the cutter posture change. As mentioned in Section 2.2, the cutter rotates on its central axis and feeds along the CC path. Prolonged cutting causes tool wear along a wear ring on the cutter (Fig. 11). The location and width of the wear ring depend on the time profile of DOF E during machining. For the current case of unplanned E, E changes over a narrow range, and tool usage at each E value appears to be rather uneven (Fig. 12). In order to distribute wear more evenly and over a wider range (Fig. 11), one would like to plan for the time profile of E in a machining operation. This can be realized with the adoption of a hard constraint during inverse kinematics calculation (Section 3.2.1). A case of

uniform reduction of E from 23/12 to 5/3 is shown in Figs. 11 and 12. The corresponding cutter posture is shown in Fig. 13. While the case of planned E implies more uniform distribution of tool wear, a comparison of the tool posture for the planned and unplanned E also implies the possibility of bigger tool swing when one fixes the profile of E (Figs. 10 and 13). The profiles of DOFs A, C, and D for the two cases are also compared (Fig. 14). The overall trends of the profile of each of these DOFs are similar for the two cases, which is reasonable as these two cases are for the same CC path. However, it is also clear that the ranges of motion of all the DOFs are wider when a constraint on E is present. An attempt is made is reduce the range of motion of some of the DOFs. The lower and upper limits of A and C are both set at [5/3 17/9]. This is done by adopting soft constraints

Fig. 14 The profiles of DOFs A, C, and D while E is planned and unplanned

Fig. 16 The cutter posture sequence with hard constraint for E and soft constraints for A and C

Int J Adv Manuf Technol

(Section 3.2.2) besides the hard constraint on E, during the inverse kinematics calculation. These soft constraints effect reallocation of the axis movement. The adjusted profiles of A and C are shown (Fig. 15) together with the profiles computed without the soft constraints. The adjusted profiles clearly indicate that the range of motion of A and C is narrower, and the profiles stay within the limits. Figure 16 shows the cutter posture sequence with soft constraints of A and C which are smoother than that of Fig. 15.

cos 6 0 Rot0 y0 ; 6 4 sin 0 2

0 1 0 0

sin 0 cos 0

3 0 07 7 05 1 3 0 07 7 05 1

31

cos 6 sin 0 0 Rot z ; 6 4 0 0

sin cos 0 0

0 0 1 0

32

5 Conclusion A cutter kinematic chain is developed based on the geometric shape of the cutting tool. It is incorporated into the machine chain to form a machinecutter kinematic chain. A numerical IK method for the kinematic chain is proposed that allows axis commands to be generated directly from CC points. The kinematic chain involves redundant DOFs. Path planning objectives can be prioritized and translated into hard and/or soft constraints which can be handled in the proposed IK method. The proposed kinematic chain is used in the management of tool wear in five-axis machining. A hard constraint on the tool posture is set up so that, while the tool contact follows a specified path for cutting, the cutting zone of the cutter can be more evenly utilized. Soft constraints are also imposed on the rotary axis movement so that, while the tool posture controlled cutter is executed, the axis movement remains moderate.

where [a, b c] is the translation vector of a prismatic pair, and is the rotation angle of a revolute pair. For a kinematic chain composed of a series of kinematic pairs, the transformation can be described by the product of the transformation matrices in the order of the corresponding kinematic pairs.

References
1. Fan JH, Balla A (2008) Quadric method for cutter orientation in five-axis sculptured surface machining. Int J Mach Tools Manuf 48:788801 2. Can A, nvar A (2010) A novel iso-scallop tool-path generation for efficient five-axis machining of free-form surface. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 51:10831098 3. Balic J (2001) A new NC machine tool controller for step-by-step milling. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 18:399403 4. Ozgedik A, Cogun C (2006) An experimental investigation of tool wear electric discharge machining. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 27:488500 5. Yoon JH, Pottmann H, Lee YS (2003) Locally optimal cutting positions for 5-axis sculptured surface machining. Comput Aided Des 35:6981 6. Wang Y, Wang Z, Gindy N (2009) Collision-free maching fixture design based on parametric tool space for five-axis grinding. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 45:17 7. Lo CC (1999) Real-time generation and control of cutter path for 5-axis CNC machining. Int J Mach Tool Manuf 39: 471488 8. Li H, Feng HY (2004) Efficient five-axis machining of free-form surfaces with constant scallop height tool paths. Int J Prod Res 42:24032417 9. Lee YS (1997) Admissible tool orientation control of gouging avoidance for 5-axis complex surface machining. Design Comput Aided Des 29:507520 10. Bohez ELJ (2002) Five-axis milling machine tool kinematic chain design and analysis. Int J Mach Tools Manuf 42:505520 11. Lee RS, She CH (1997) Developing a postprocessor for three types of five-axis machine tools. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 13:658665 12. She CH, Chang CC (2007) Design of a generic five-axis postprocessor based on generalized kinematics model of machine tool. Int J Mach Tools Manuf 47:537545 13. She CH, Huang ZT (2008) Postprocessor development of a fiveaxis machine tool with nutating head and table configuration. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 38:728740

Appendix According to DH convention, the transformation matrices of prismatic pair and revolute pairs are defined as follows: 2 3 0 a 0 b7 7 1 c5 0 1

1 60 Transa; b; c 6 40 0

0 1 0 0

29

1 60 0 0 Rot x ; 6 40 0

0 cos sin 0

0 sin cos 0

3 0 07 7 05 1

30

Int J Adv Manuf Technol 14. Srby K (2007) Inverse kinematics of five-axis machines near singular configurations. Int J Mach Tools Manuf 47:299306 15. Wang N, Tang K (2007) Automatic generation of gouge-free and angular-velocity-compliant five-axis toolpath. Comput Aided Des 39:841852 16. Chan TF, Dubey RV (1995) A weighted least-norm solution based scheme for avoiding joint limits for redundant joint manipulators. IEEE Trans Robot Autom 11:286292 17. Li X, Dong S, Venuvinod PK (2000) Hybrid learning for tool wear monitoring. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 16:303307 18. Bradley C, Wong YS (2001) Surface texture indicators of tool weara machine vision approach. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 17:435443 19. Kerr D, Pengilley J, Garwood R (2006) Assessment and visualization of machine tool wear using computer vision. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 28:781791