ORIGIN Beginnings Written by: Carl McColman Paganism is simultaneously a prehistoric and postmodern religion-it is as ancient as the fertility

symbols associated with the veneration of gods and goddesses tens of thousands of years ago, while its newest forms have emerged as recently as the mid-20th century. Broadly speaking, Paganism encompasses two key characteristics: 1) religious and spiritual practices concerning the worship of, or devotion to, the earth, the natural world, and/or the manifest physical universe; and/or 2) belief in spiritual beings: goddesses, gods, nature spirits (fairies, elves, power animals), and ancestral spirits. Not all expressions of Paganism incorporate both of these characteristics; it is possible to be a nature mystic without worshiping the goddesses or the gods, and vice versa. Many of the gods and spirits venerated by Pagans have strong ties to nature. (For example, "power animals" are helpful spirits inshamanic practice, each one related to an animal present in the physical world.) By their very nature, prehistoric religions have left behind no written records, but are known by archaeological remains. Throughout the world, graveyards and ceremonial sites reveal evidence of magical practices, sacrificial rites, and the veneration of gods, goddesses, and/or mythic beings. Paleolithic figurines of obese or pregnant women, such as those discovered in Doln Vestonice in the Czech Republic, or Willendorf in Austria, are dated as far back as 22,000-29,000 B.C.E. Such figures have been interpreted as fertility symbols and goddess symbols; such interpretations suggest that prehistoric humanity engaged in religious activities that were oriented toward nature, the earth, and the feminine (as opposed to later worship of masculine sky gods or transcendent deities); however, such speculation can never be conclusively proven. Other archaeological evidence suggests early magical/religious practices, often with a strong focus of nature symbolism. For example, an ornately decorated silver cauldron, found near Gundestrup, Denmark and believed to be of Celtic origin and dated to the 1st century B.C.E., includes a variety of magical, religious, and natural symbolism. Particularly striking is a symbol of a man sitting in a crosslegged position, wearing a crown of antlers, and holding a torc (a ceremonial neck ornament) in one hand and a serpent in the other. This image has variously been interpreted as a representation of a fertility god, Cernunnos (literally, the horned one'), or of a priest or druid who engaged in magical rites that involved the guidance of animal spirits. Mythologies from around the world often include stories of gods and goddesses with strong ties to the natural world, including deities associated with the earth, like Gaia or Rhea (Greek), Nerthus (Germanic), or Nantosuelta (Gaulish). Many deities were associated with particular elements of nature, such as the Greek gods Zeus (sky/thunder), Poseidon (the sea), and Demeter (grain/harvest). Paganism has such strong ties with nature and physical reality that among many practitioners Paganism is also understood as "Nature Religion." In 279 B.C.E., a Gaulish chieftain, Brennus, led a raiding party into Greece and sacked Delphi, the seat of a renowned oracle. According to the 1stcentury Greek historian Diodorus Siculus, when Brennus entered a Greek temple and saw idols of gods in human form, he laughed. Brennus, and apparently all the Gauls, seems to have understood the gods and goddesses not as projections of human personalities, but as embodiments of various forces of nature.

Such nature-centered types of spirituality can be contrasted with otherworldly religions that emphasize a spirituality reality that is "higher" or "better" than nature; examples of such transcendental/otherworldly faiths would include mainstream forms of Christianity and Islam. When Christianity became the dominant religion in Europe and later the Americas, it contributed to the suppression or marginalization of many indigenous nature-based spiritual practices. However, even in regions where otherworldly religions became dominant, old forms of nature worship persisted, often as folkloric practices. One example of this is the veneration of water sources in Ireland, where "holy wells" originally sacred to local pagan deities were later Christianized and became centers of devotion to the Virgin Mary or other saints. Folk beliefs in fairies and elves also may be vestigial remains of earlier nature-based spirituality. Nearly all interpretations of ancient Pagan religions are contested within scholarly circles. Although practitioners of modern forms of Paganism appeal to the past to legitimize their practice, some scholars argue that these contemporary expressions of nature-centered religion are essentially new religions, formed in response to issues and concerns of their day and related to the past only insofar as they look to archaeological and mythological data for inspiration. Between the 18th and the 20th centuries, a variety of new religious movements have emerged, particularly in Europe and North America, religions that are to various degrees based on Pagan practices such as nature veneration or goddess devotion. Examples of these would include modern Druidism, Wicca, and revivals of ethnic religions (such as Asatru). These revivals/recreations of ancient Paganism are properly called contemporary Paganism ("new paganism"). Influences In its ancient forms, Paganism had one key influence: nature itself. But in its rebirth in the 18th-20th centuries as various new or revived forms of nature-centered spirituality, Paganism in fact has been influenced by a variety of sources, not all explicitly religious or spiritual. In The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft (2000), Ronald Hutton traces literary, social, cultural, folkloric, and mythological antecedents to the writings of Gerald Gardner, who is widely regarded as the single most influential figure in the emergence of British witchcraft, or Wicca, in the 1950s. Since Wicca is the largest part of modern Paganism, its influences have been traced to the largest extent. When Gardner published his book Witchcraft Today in 1954, he probably was not inventing his tale of a surviving "witch cult" in England, but neither was he reporting on a genuine "coven" of witches that has persisted for centuries as a hidden alternative to Christianity. Rather, Gardner drew on a variety of sources in creating the new fertility religion known as Wicca. Literary adoration of nature - Modern forms of nature spirituality emerged out of the Romantic movement of the 19th century. Romantic poets venerated and celebrated nature, often in reaction to the unpleasant side of industrialization. This eventually contributed to the establishment of organizations devoted to respect for nature (such as the Boy Scouts) but also to increased interest in ancient forms of religion as means for interacting with the natural world in a spiritual way.

Romantic interest in primitive religion - Certainly vestigial forms of indigenous European Paganism could be deduced from folklore as well as certain folk practices. Veneration of water at holy wells, ceremonial bonfires during seasonal festivals, and the "cunning man" traditions of folk healers and diviners, all point to religious and spiritual sensibilities that run counter to the prevailing Christian faith in England. Likewise, interest in the "medicine men" and the indigenous religions of North America and Africa inspired those of European ancestry to investigate (or, perhaps, to re-create) their own primal traditions. Speculations of a Great Mother Goddess cult in antiquity - By the early 21st century, the concept of one single Great Mother Goddess had fallen out of scholarly favor, but in the late 19th and early 20th century it was a popular idea. Some scholars promoted the idea, while the poet and novelist Robert Graves created his own idiosyncratic vision of Goddess religion in his highly influential book The White Goddess (1966). The Great Mother Goddess emerged as an attractive alternative to the overly male image of God promoted by the Abrahamic religions; furthermore, since the one God was associated with heaven and with spirit, the "One Goddess" took on a complementary role as emblematic of matter and the earth. The culture of "Merrie England" - One way in which Romanticism flourished in England was through a nostalgic celebration of English folklore and customs, some of which may well have had ancient roots but others of which could have been more recent in origin. May Day celebrations (particularly the Maypole), Morris Dancing, Yuletide customs, fairy lore, druidism, and various other seasonal festivals all became popular, in part, because of their purported link to a nostalgic understanding of the past. For Gardner and other advocates of nature spirituality, all of these folkloric practices had an explicitly religious dimension to them - they were seen as embedded in ancient British Paganism. Anthropological speculation about witchcraft - Another by-product of Romanticism was an interest in occultism and supernatural phenomena, including Theosophy, Spiritualism, and ceremonial magic. As the age of revolution, the 19th century was also marked by hostility toward Christianity as the religion of the establishment. In this context, scholars began to speculate about the true nature of witchcraft as suppressed by Christianity, particularly in late medieval and early modern periods. Researchers like Henry Charles Lea, Jules Michelet, Charles Godfrey Leland, and Margaret Murray helped fashion a new scholarly consensus in which witchcraft as persecuted by Christianity became seen not as the practice of devil worship, but rather as the vestigial remains of authentic pre-Christian European religion. A romantic re-visioning of the witch persecutions of early modern Europe - Following the new scholarly consensus about the meaning of witchcraft, the witch trials of Europe became interpreted as a form of religious persecution, in which the dominant faith (Christianity) systematically attacked the weaker "old religion" (ancient European Paganism). This shift in perception changed the image of the witches of Europe from criminal sorceresses to heroic victims. In 1784, German scholar Gottfried Christian Voigt theorized that nine million people (mostly women) had been killed during the European witch persecutions - a figure that became widely accepted among Wiccans and other Pagans until the 1990s, when scholars began to widely question that figure. In all likelihood, only 40,000 - 90,000 people were killed for allegedly being witches (still a horrific number).

Ceremonial magic and Freemasonry- Many of the ceremonies of Gardner's witch coven drew upon rituals practiced by established secret societies of his day, including Freemasonry and ceremonial magic groups like the Order of the Golden Dawn. Although other traditions of Paganism have had different influences (for example, the myth of the burning times, i.e., the witch persecution, typically is of little importance to Celtic Reconstructionists or Odinists), this variety of influences serves as an example of how diverse the factors were that contributed to modern revivals or recreations of the Pagan path. Founders Paganism has no overall founding figure (such as Krishna, the Buddha, Jesus Christ, or Muhammad) who functions as an object of worship or veneration. Because ancient Paganism is prehistoric in origin, key figures from the beginnings of this religious path are lost to the mists of time. However, various traditions and lineages within the Pagan world can be traced to one or more key visionaries or leaders who founded (or popularized) his or her particular community. It would be inaccurate, however, to see any one of these figures as a "founder" for the overall nature religion community. An example for this would be Gerald Gardner (1884-1964), the British author whose books Witchcraft Today (1954) and The Meaning of Witchcraft (1959), as well as his ritual writings, are largely credited with the creation-or rebirth-of British witchcraft (also known as Wicca).Gardner himself maintained that he was initiated into a pre-existing secret community of witches who were practicing a Pagan religion (and not devil-worship); others insist that Wicca as it exists today is largely the creation of Gardner and his associates.That said, many groups of witches and Wiccans pay no allegiance to Gardner at all; furthermore, among other Pagans such as Druids, Celtic Reconstructionists, Odinists, devotees to Hellenic or Egyptian deities, and other practitioners who do not identify as Wiccans or witches, Gardner has little or no influence. With this caveat in mind, Paganism, like any spiritual tradition, has numerous contributors who have shaped the many forms that it takes today. The following list of individuals represent a sampling of some of the many writers, teachers, and practitioners who are renowned for their impact on the continuing development of the overall modern Pagan movement. These individuals represent a variety of specific nature-based, polytheistic, and goddess-oriented spiritual traditions, including Gardnerian Wicca, Alexandrian Wicca, Dianic witchcraft, contemporary Druidism, core shamanism, and Norse religion. Alexander Rud Mills (1885-1964) founded the First Anglecyn Church of Odin in Australia in 1936, a forerunner of the 20th-century revival of Norse paganism. Although today his religious vision is seen as too heavily influenced by Christianity, he is regarded as a contributor to later, more authentic, expressions of Heathenry. Mills is the author of The Odinist Religion (1939) and The Call of Our Ancient Nordic Religion (1957). Ross Nichols (1902-1972) founded the Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids in 1964, which (unlike previous Druid revivalist groups) began to incorporate more explicitly pagan elements into the group's practice, including an emphasis on Celtic mythology. He developed the eight-festival calendar that was adopted by various other Pagans. An anthology of his writings was published posthumously as The Book of Druidry (1975). Doreen Valiente (1922-1999) was one of several women who functioned as a High Priestess with Gerald Gardner; she also participated in another influential coven in the 1960s, the Clan of Tubal

Cain. By the 1970s Valiente was renowned as a leading writer on traditional witchcraft.She is now widely credited as authoring or co-authoring with Gardner the Charge of the Goddess, one of the most popular Wiccan ritual texts. Carlos Castaneda (1925-1998) authored several controversial books that describe his alleged studies with Don Juan, a Yaqui "shaman." Despite that fact that the authenticity of Castaneda's writings are contested, his books have sold over eight million copies and helped to create a popular understanding of the "shaman" as an indigenous spiritual elder who can initiate others into the spiritual mysteries of nature. Alex Sanders (1926-1988) established his own lineage of Wicca, the Alexandrian Tradition, which incorporated more elements of ceremonial magic into its rituals than Gardnerian witchcraft.A leading public witch in London in the 1960s, Sanders initiated several influential figures into the craft, including the writers Janet and Stewart Farrar. Michael Harner (b. 1929) founded the Foundation for Shamanic Studies, an institution that teaches "core shamanism," a distillation of general principles of indigenous magico-religious spirituality from tribal cultures around the world. He is the author of The Way of the Shaman (1980), detailing his own experiences with tribal spiritual elders in the Amazon rainforest. Zsuzsanna Budapest (b. 1940) was one of six women who founded the Susan B. Anthony Coven in 1971, now generally regarded as the birth of feminist or Dianic witchcraft (after the Greek Goddess Diana). Budapest has written numerous books on witchcraft and feminist spirituality, notably The Feminist Book of Lights and Shadows (1975) and The Holy Book of Women's Mysteries (1989). Isaac Bonewits (1949-2010) established a Pagan Druid organization, r nDraocht Fin: A Druid Fellowship (ADF), which promotes a more scholarly approach to Paganism (and which accepts all varieties of Indo-European Paganism, not just Celtic Druidism). He authored several books, most notably Real Magic (1972). Starhawk (Miriam Simos) (b. 1951) is the author of the highly influential book The Spiral Dance: A Rebirth of the Ancient Religion of the Great Goddess (1979) and the founder of the Reclaiming Coven in San Francisco. Starhawk articulated both the political as well as the spiritual implications of witchcraft in her writing, and is as well known for her political activism as her religious authority. Edred Thorsson(pen name of Stephen Flowers) (b. 1953) is a leading writer of books on the spirituality of the Runes and the religion of the ancient Norse. His books include Futhark: A Handbook of Rune Magic (1984) and A Book of Troth (1989). This list is partial, incomplete, and is not intended to be comprehensive or universal. Because most forms of Paganism are decentralized and emphasize personal spiritual experience rather than religious dogma or doctrines, founding figures play a much smaller role in most Pagan paths than do the founders of other religious traditions. Sacred Texts Unlike religions where a sacred text (such as the Bible, the Quran, or the Bhagavadgita) is accepted by adherents as a source of authority, Pagan communities generally not only have no sacred text, but often are suspicious of the very idea of "scripture." The idea that final or absolute truth could be contained within a written text or series of texts has no support within the Pagan community. This is not to say that the written word is always rejected out of hand; some writings are held in esteem by various groups. One example is Charge of the Goddess,

originally written by Gerald Gardner and Doreen Valiente, which functions as an important instructional and devotional text within many forms of Wicca. However, no text has any sort of "canonical" status; in other words, no text is regarded as authoritative or absolute. Inspired writings, like all other forms of human culture, are regarded by Pagans as expressions of humanity's experience as part of the overall cosmos, and therefore may have relative merit, but not absolute authority. Generally speaking, Pagans treat all sacred writings from other religious traditions in a similar way: no text is above criticism, but any text may be respected or even revered for whatever wisdom it might contain. Likewise, some Pagans may embrace texts that are not generally regarded as "sacred," nevertheless finding inspiration in such writings because of their inherent beauty or wisdom. An example of this is W. Y. Evan-Wentz' The Fairy-Faith in Celtic Countries, an early 20th-century compendium of fairy lore that some Pagans embrace as containing evidence of vestigial pre-Christian beliefs. Many forms of Paganism foster a deep appreciation for mythology, particularly polytheistic or shamanistic tales and folklore. Thus, anthologies of myths and legends - or interpretations and commentaries on mythology - are essential texts for many practitioners. This includes primary texts (such as the Irish Book of Invasions or the writings of Hesiod) as well as later retellings of myth (Bullfinch's Mythology or Evangeline Walton's novellas based on the Welsh myths of the Mabinogion) and even popular spiritual or psychological commentaries on the myths (such as Jean Shinoda Bolen's Goddesses in Every Woman). Myths are important for creating a shared identity among contemporary Pagans, as well as creating a common language for shared ritual practices or even shared cosmological beliefs. Likewise, the Pagan movement that emerged in the late 20th century featured a large number of writers whose works have been accepted as authoritative expressions of the beliefs and practices of various forms of nature veneration, modern polytheism, goddess spirituality, and other types of contemporary Paganism. Some of these authors include Gerald Gardner, Doreen Valiente, Raymond Buckland, Starhawk, Scott Cunningham, Diane Stein, Isaac Bonewits, Patricia Monaghan, Kveldulf Gundarsson, Emma Restall Orr, Ronald Hutton, and Marija Gimbutas, among many others. None of these writers commands anywhere near universal authority within the Pagan community - each has his or her own following, as well as others who criticize or reject their work. Rather than coalescing around one particular teacher or tradition and demanding conformity to the same, Paganism thrives in its own "bio-diversity," which means no writing (or authority) is universally accepted. Ultimately, practitioners of nature religion generally assert that nature (as encountered or understood through personal experience) is the final "authority" that trumps the opinion or wisdom of any other human being. "Nature," it might added, can be encountered on three levels: as the human body, as the external world of non-human nature, and finally as the cosmos itself expressed through the solar and lunar cycles of the year. "When in doubt, consult your nearest tree," says Isaac Bonewits, in regard to the question of how to determine the merit of books on druidism. This comment, while flippant, reveals a typical perspective

in the nature religion community - that nature, which includes one's own intuition and personal preferences and values, is always to be preferred over "dogma," which in this context means the codified beliefs or teachings of someone else, especially as found in a book. While this leads to a degree of anti-authoritarianism and individualism within the Pagan world, the consensus is that the Pagan community as a whole is self-correcting in terms of rejecting beliefs, practices, and values that are harmful or useless. Similar to how practitioners of other faiths will appeal to passages in their sacred texts to justify their beliefs or actions, adherents of many Pagan traditions will often appeal to natural phenomena, science, personal experience, or (the closest thing to sacred scripture) mythology. For example, nearly all Pagans reject the idea of belief in a single, masculine deity, by pointing to the simple fact that nearly all animals include two genders, male and female, which would then necessitate that God (or the gods) could never be limited to just one sex. "Reading" nature (or science or personal experience), therefore, is a tool for cultivating one's own individual spiritual wisdom, similar to how adherents of other faiths will read their sacred texts for inspiration. Historical Perspectives With no single sacred text, no unifying teacher, avatar, or prophet, and no pilgrimage site revered by practitioners the world over, Paganism - as a type of human spiritual activity - is as diverse and varied as the biosphere itself.While most Pagans regard this decentralized diversity as a strength, it leads to significant problems for anyone wishing to understand Paganism as a whole. These problems include two key contested issues: the question of identity (what separates "Pagan" religion from all other expressions of religion or spirituality) and the question of historicity (what is the difference between the Paganism of the distant past, and similar religious activity today?). The question of identity begins with controversy concerning the concepts of nature and of religion. Does, Paganism, as a "Nature Religion," include any practice that reveres the physical world in any form, or is it more properly understood in a more exclusionary way - only consisting of religions with clear ties to agricultural, fertility, polytheism, goddess worship, or prehistoric practices?Contemporary Pagans see divinity as able to manifest both in the "natural" and "supernatural" realms and able to take many forms, which may be acknowledged by either an individual or a community. Some of today's Pagans do reject the term "nature religion," choosing to emphasize the historic or ethnic roots of their religious practice. Equally contested is the use of the world "religion" to describe the practices typically included under the aegis of Paganism. Some of these practices are explicitly magical rather than devotional or ceremonial in their orientation.Since Pagans have no central authority, no sacred text, no uniform ethical code, no systematic beliefs, and not even a consensus regarding cosmology and theology/thealogy, perhaps a descriptor other than "religion" would be more accurate: spirituality, spiritual practice, magical practice, or something along those lines. In other words, so-called Pagan Religions might exhibit some qualities normally associated with religion, but in other important ways might more properly be seen as something fundamentally different from religion as it is generally understood. All this is to say that part of the challenge in understanding Paganism is deciding if, in fact, Paganism is a religion. If Paganism is not a "religion" in

the sense that Christianity or Buddhism is, then does Paganism deserve the same protections afforded to all religions by the second amendment of the U.S. Constitution? Part of the challenge in studying Pagan identity is trying to understand and respect the diversity within the Pagan community. Paganism, Witchcraft, Wicca, Druidism, Shamanism, Hellenic or Egyptian Religion, Asatru, Odinism, Heathenism - each of these concepts are understood in many different ways, by practitioners, outside observers, and detractors. For example, many practitioners have strong (and varied) beliefs regarding the difference between Wicca and Witchcraft - some regard Wicca as a dilution of "true" Witchcraft, while others see Wicca as a religion whereas Witchcraft is limited to magical practice. Similar tensions exist between the understanding of Paganism and Witchcraft, or between Paganism and Heathenism. This leads to a number of important questions about the relationships between religion, folk practices, and the validity of new spiritualities.When no verifiable lineage or tradition exists, is it valid to speak of a "spiritual" or symbolic tradition (as Philip Carr-Gomm, the current chief of the Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids, claims is the case for the relationship betweenthe druids of antiquity and their modern imitators)? Because of the diversity within the Pagan communities, these kinds of reflections find no consensus even among the practitioners, let alone outside observers. Due to this wide variety of beliefs and viewpoints regarding questions of identity and authority, contemporary Paganism - regardless of its relationship to the past - qualifies as a "post-modern" religion in the sense that, as a whole, it eschews any claims for overall or objective truth, in favor of "truth" as residing only in personal experience or in socially constructed contexts (which for most Pagan are local and small-scale). For the outside observer wishing to learn more about Paganism, the most fruitful approach may well be simply to embrace the ambiguities and paradoxes found within the community, basically doing what practitioners themselves do: learn all that one can about the varieties of Pagan belief and practice, recognizing that just about any statement that can be made about this religious path as a whole is subject to interpretation and rebuttal by at least some segments of the community. HISTORY Early Developments Sketching the historical development of Paganism, in its many forms, would require an encyclopedia of the religious history of humankind. This is because Paganism refers not only to a particular religious tradition, but also to a particular religious type. The Pagan "type" involves religions that are magical, polytheistic, and/or animistic, and often anchored in agricultural or fertility rituals. In this sense, every culture has some form of "Pagan" religion in its background, although such primal Paganism in many cases occurred in prehistoric times - in other words, prior to the onset of written records. While the Pagan religious type can be found around the world, this essay will concentrate on the history of a particular Pagan religious tradition-specifically, the traditions of Indo-European (and, to a lesser extent, Egyptian) polytheism. The modern Pagan movement-the recreation/revival of Paganism that emerged in Europe and in the English-speaking world in the mid-20th century-draws largely (although not exclusively) from Indo-European and Egyptian religions, particularly as those spiritualities shaped the religious life in Europe up until the arrival of Christianity (and, in hidden ways, even into the Christian era).

The Indo-Europeans were the ancestors of virtually all European cultures, as attested by the many European languages that belong to the Indo-European family. But not only did the earliest IndoEuropeans (or "Proto-Indo-Europeans") bequeath a common root language, but they also generated common religious practices, which can be pieced together through the study of language, archaeology, and comparative mythology. Such efforts are highly speculative, and as such scholars vary widely in terms of what is accepted as likely fact versus what is regarded as theory. The Proto-Indo-Europeans were polytheists, worshiping a variety of gods, such as a father-god of the sky (who eventually emerged as the Greek god Zeus or the Roman god Jupiter); a god of abundance and wealth (who became the Irish god Dagda); a goddess of love (the Greek Aphrodite or the Norse Freya); a river goddess (who emerged as the Irish goddess Danu, but for whom the Danube river is named); a water or sea god (the Irish Nechtan or the Roman Neptune); as well as many others. Comparative mythologists have speculated that the Proto-Indo-Europeans had a foundational creation myth that may have involved the creation of the cosmos from the body of a giant.Another myth suggests the slaying of a dragon or serpent by a god or a hero; the dragon represented chaos and/or the underworld, while the god or hero represented cosmic order and well-being.Many myths also hint at conflict between the gods (or between two families or tribes of gods) that took place at a central tree, representing the axis of the cosmos, which survived as Yggdrasil (the Great World Tree) of Norse mythology or the Banyan Tree within Hinduism or the Oak Tree within Celtic mythology, all emblematic of a sacred center around which the cosmos revolves. Like the gods and the myths, our knowledge of the ritual practices of the Proto-Indo-Europeans is sketchy. Scholars cannot identify words for "religion" or "temple" within Proto-European language, but words do exist for concepts such as prayer, holiness, cosmic order, consecration, sacred meals and libations, and sacred groves or enclosures. Meanwhile, archaeological evidence suggests ceremonial practices particularly associated with burial and with astronomical observances. For example, one of the most impressive of prehistoric ceremonial sites, Stonehenge, is built according to astronomical alignments. The evidence suggests that the ancient forebears of European Paganism had a clear understanding of gods and goddesses, generally aligned with aspects of the natural world, to whom they would offer sacrifices, pour libations, and conduct ceremonies, presumably to curry the favor of the gods. It is out of this mysterious matrix of ancient, largely unknown religious practices that the classical Paganism of mythology emerges. Schisms and Sects While prehistoric religion will always have a shroud of mystery about it, the knowledge of ancient Paganism is immeasurably enhanced by the cultures that adopted literacy. With the advent of writing came the preservation of myths, prayers, hymns, devotional practices, cultic and votive inscriptions, and engraved statues or other ceremonial objects, all of which contribute to an understanding of ancient religious practices. Literacy spread over Europe unevenly, shaped by cultural circumstances. For example, the Celts did not generally adopt writing until they were Romanized (or Christianized). But when written records do appear in a European culture, they reveal not a unified religious practice, but rather the persistence of many different religious and cultic activities. Unlike religions that were literary from their beginning (such as Christianity or Islam), questions of "schisms" or "sects" in Paganism are basically meaningless. European Pagans never had a common or

universal belief system from which schismatic or sectarian groups could break away. On the contrary, ancient Paganism was, according to most scholars, never a dogmatic religion with a unified, core body of teachings or beliefs. Rather than schisms or sects, a more helpful way to think about Paganism is in terms of natural diversity. Just as there are countless myths and supernatural folktales that appear to have their roots in Pagan spirituality, so Paganism thrived in an innumerable variety of ways. The easiest way to understand this is to consider that different types of mythology come from different regions of Europe. Celtic mythology and Norse mythology were preserved among the people of northern Europe, many of whom lived in regions that never fell under Roman rule. Meanwhile Greek and Roman mythology represent two other forms of myth, in some ways closely related but nevertheless distinct. Various other mythologies were found in Europe, including those of the Baltic, Slavic, Balkan, and other regions (some of these myths having survived only in fragmentary or folkloric forms). Egyptian religion, while technically not of Indo-European origin, spread to southern Europe so that some in pagan Greece and Rome practiced the worship of Isis and other Egyptian deities. But it is misleading to speak of "Greek religion" and "Roman religion" as if these were two monolithic entities. Not only were the religious practices within each culture varied, but even the mythology itself was unsystematic. Rather than think in terms of "Celtic myth," it would be more accurate to speak of Celtic myths, in the plural, for the written records suggest that different regions in the Celtic world had their own myths, their own cultic practices, and their own local deities. While some deities may have achieved sufficient renown to be worshipped throughout the Celtic world, these would have been the exceptions rather than the rule; most gods and goddesses were local, anchored to a specific location or a specific feature in the natural world. A British Pagan and a Scottish Pagan from 2,000 years ago may have worshiped completely different gods with distinctive ritual or ceremonial practices, even though they were both Celts and lived in relatively close geographic proximity. This was true throughout Europe. Only with the arrival of writing - as in the case of classical Greece and Rome - did mythologies begin to be recorded, and therefore, to be systematized. The diversity of ancient Paganism meant that many different gods and goddesses were revered, each with his or her unique sacred stories, unique sacred sites where prayer or sacrifices occurred, and unique holy or festival days. As the evidence from Proto-Indo-European language indicates, different gods from different mythologies may have emerged from common Indo-European religious practices. For example, the Roman sea god Neptune and Nechtan, an Irish god associated with a sacred well, may both have originated in a Proto-Indo-European water deity. But just as the root language of the Indo-Europeans evolved into many languages, so too the mythologies (and religious practices associated with them) of the various Indo-Europeans evolved over time. Geographical differences ensured that Pagan spirituality would evolve in a diversity of ways, even with common ancestral roots.

Missions and Expansion Ancient Paganism was not missionary in nature - in other words, Pagans did not travel abroad, seeking converts to their way of life. When cultures were expansionist (as were the Celtic, Greek, and Roman), the motivation was political and economic rather than religious or spiritual. Paganism has no sense of damnation or hell, and therefore no urgency to convert other people to the "truth." The defining feature of ancient European Paganism was polytheism, which by its very nature stressed tolerance and coexistence. The many deities revered within a polytheistic religious framework meant that local custom and adaptation was a normal and accepted part of Pagan religion. As distinct cultures emerged in Europe - Celtic, Norse, Greek, and Roman - each featured its own set of sacred stories, of venerated heroic ancestors, and of gods and goddesses, often directly linked to a particular place or aspect of nature. Within each culture were numerous tribes, clans, or city-states, each again with its own unique religious make-up.This meant that even the gods and goddesses themselves "evolved." For example, Danu (an Indo-European river goddess) lent her name to the Danube River in Germany, which at one point was a Celtic land. Eventually the Celts migrated to Ireland, taking their veneration of Danu with them, but in Ireland, she "evolved" into a shadowy mother goddess, known more for her children-the Tuatha de Danaan, or "Tribe of the goddess Dana," a mythic race of gods-heroes who play a central role in Irish myth. Thus Dana is a local adaptation of a goddess who remains important in other regions of the Indo-European Pagan world (for example, Hindu mythology includes a primordial water/mother goddess named Danu). The age of empire facilitated an increased spread of Pagan practices. During the Hellenistic age, Greek Paganism spread beyond the Greek isles; with the coming of the Roman Empire, Roman religious practices also spread to new regions. Economic trade meant that spiritual cross-fertilization would follow. This is evident in terms of the spread of Egyptian religion in the Hellenistic world after Alexander the Great conquered Egypt. Egyptian deities and myths were harmonized with the Greek equivalents, and Egyptian deities like Horus and Isis were venerated in Greece. Likewise, after the Roman conquest of Gaul and Britain, the Romans tolerated local religious practices and did not attempt to stamp them out, but rather introduced their own deities and cultic practices-resulting, again, in a syncretization between these two different forms of Paganism. Sometimes, local deities would be seen as equivalent to Roman gods or goddesses, and would be given compound CelticRoman names: for example, Sulis Minerva. Because of the increased mobility of people within the empire, generated by increased trade activity as well as military movement, religious practices from different cultures contributed to the increasing complexity of Pagan religion. Isis was worshiped in Greece; the Persian god Mithras and the Celtic goddess Epona became popular with Roman soldiers and thus were worshiped throughout the empire. But this same mobility also meant the increasing influence of a force that would eventually have a profound influence on European Paganism: the arrival of monotheism from Judea, especially Christianity. Exploration and Conquest For Paganism, the age of empire - even though the great empires of the Greeks and the Romans all began in Pagan antiquity - was, ironically, the age when Paganism would be marginalized. By the 1st century C.E., the Roman Empire had spread throughout most of Europe. Although at this time all of Europe was Pagan in the sense of practicing polytheistic religion, many of the so-called barbarians (such as the Celtic and the Germanic tribes) appear to have engaged in independent cultic veneration

of local gods and goddesses, while the Romans imported a more abstract "pantheon" of deities that were regarded as having universal authority. In the process of Romanization that occurred in places like Gaul and Britain, two key events transpired: local deities were "merged" with their more universal Roman counterparts, and the native priesthood-the Druids-were suppressed. Once a Roman presence was established in Britain, gods with both Celtic and Roman names were venerated. Examples include Sulis Minerva (the water goddess of what is modern-day Bath, England, who was merged with the Roman goddess Minerva) and Apollo Grannus (Grannus, a Celtic solar deity, merged with the Roman god Apollo). From the perspective of the conquering Romans, this practicing of merging universal and local deities was a form of religious tolerance, but for the local religion, it had the effect of subverting the prior orientation toward local veneration in favor of a more universalizing approach to deities (which had the effect of introducing an abstract dimension to spirituality that was subtly at odds with local, nature-oriented devotion). But what may have been even more damaging to Celtic Paganism was the suppression of the druids. In the 1st century B.C.E., Julius Caesar spoke of the need to suppress the Celtic druids when writing about his conquest of Gaul; a century later, when Britain was under conquest, Suetonius Paulinus attacked a college of druids on an island in Wales (modern-day Anglesey), killing the druid priests and priestesses and destroying their shrines. While the Roman conquest of Europe weakened the region's indigenous religious practices, the suppression of Paganism was completed with the arrival of Christianity. This new monotheistic religion spread quickly throughout the Empire; for example, there is evidence of Christianity in Britain as early as the 2nd century C.E. With Christianity came a religion oriented toward a single deity and a belief that polytheistic deities were demonic. Legendary tales, particularly from Ireland, suggest that the Christianization of the British Isles included a process of confronting the existing Pagan practices, and triumphing over them - often by the Christians performing wonders greater than the magic of their Pagan priests. Although such legends belong to the realm of myth rather than history, they do indicate that Christianity did not just move into a spiritual vacuum when arriving in Britain and Ireland, but did in fact supplant the pre-Christian Pagan religion. The Christianization of Europe never destroyed the old religion, because vestigial remains of old Pagan practices persisted in folklore and folk practices. Ironically, the Christians themselves contributed to the survival of European Paganism, in that the monks of the Middle Ages committed the old polytheistic mythology, which had previously been transmitted orally, to writing. Many Christian holy days coincided with earlier Pagan festivals (for example, the feast of All Saints' Day took place on November 1, coinciding with the Pagan festival of Samhain). Ancient water sources, venerated by Pagans as associated with local spirits or deities, became Christianized as holy wells dedicated to a Christian saint, but the spiritual practices associated with such wells consisted of a blend of Pagan and Christian activities. Some Pagan deities survived under the folkloric guise of fairies - mischievous and troublesome nature spirits that needed to be propitiated through offerings. So, while Christianity became established as the "official" religion of Europe, Paganism did not die, but simply went underground, hidden but present in a variety of folk practices.

In her book The Witch-Cult in Western Europe (1921), archaeologist Margaret Murray made a startling claim: that the pre-Christian religions of ancient Europe survived the coming of Christianity and, by the late Middle Ages into the modern era, became the spiritual practice of witchcraft. Witchcraft, according to this view, was the vestigial remains of an ancient Pagan goddess/fertility cult. Murray's theories have largely been discredited within the scholarly community. They remain important, however, because of the impact they had on the emergence of modern Pagan spirituality in the mid- to late-20th century. Although the idea of an "organized cult" is no longer held by academics, vestigial remains of Paganism that survived the arrival of Christianity in Europe have been documented by a variety of historians, anthropologists, and folklorists who have focused on mythology, superstitions, fairy beliefs, folk rituals, and ceremonies to demonstrate that, far from being eradicated, ancient Pagan spirituality simply survived in unofficial ways. One example is the "cunning man" or "cunning woman" tradition, in which rural communities would rely on the healing and magical practices of a cunning man or woman who was versed in herbology and folk medicine. Such figures could represent a vestigial remain of a Pagan priesthood. Eighteenth-century Britain saw the first movement toward the revival of the druids. Reflecting the popularity of antiquarianism in the late 18th-century, the druid revivalists sought to restore the indigenous spirituality of the British isles, and turned both to literary evidence from classical authors like Julius Caesar, and archaeological evidence (sites such as Stonehenge and Avebury) for inspiration. Although most critics now dismiss the early attempts at reviving druidism to be based more on fantasy than fact, these early efforts at re-visioning ancient Paganism reborn paved the way for the birth of modern Paganism two centuries later. Modern Age The Pagan Renaissance grew out of a variety of sources that coalesced between the 1930s and 1950s to produce the first generation of "public" witches and other Pagans. Following the interest in antiquarianism and ancient civilizations that became popular in the 17th through 19th centuries, including the popularity of the first druid revivals, freemasonry, and occultism, a variety of scholars in the early 20th century explored the ancient spirituality of the British Isles and Europe in a variety of ways. Folklorists such as Alexander Carmichael and Lady Gregory began collecting and recording traditional folktales in Ireland and Scotland. W. Y. Evans-Wentz studied the surviving belief in fairies in the various Celtic lands. Sir James Frazer wrote The Golden Bough, ostensibly to attack Christianity by demonstrating its roots in Pagan practices, with the unintended consequence of stimulating further interest in Paganism. Anthropologist Margaret Murray published several books in which she detailed her theory that the witches who were persecuted in early modern Europe were in fact the members of a surviving Pagan cult. Even though some of the ideas from these theorists (notably the work of Frazer and Murray) would eventually lose credibility on a scholarly level, their work proved to be influential and inspirational to those who would not merely study ancient Paganism, but seek to make it a vital spiritual practice in their own lives. A key figure in Paganism becoming not merely a topic of academic interest, but a revived (or, perhaps, recreated) religion was Gerald Gardner (1884-1964). An amateur anthropologist and avid

occultist, Gardner became associated with a Rosicrucian group in Dorset, England, through which he was brought to the home of a woman he identified as Dorothy Clutterbuck.Gardner said Clutterbuck initiated him into the New Forest Coven, which he called one of the last surviving covens of ancient witches. Scholars question whether the New Forest Coven ever existed, or if it existed prior to the 1930s. What is ultimately at issue here is Gardner's credibility, for not only did he claim the existence of the coven, but promoted himself as one of England's last "surviving" witches through three books: a novel about witchcraft (High Magick's Aid, 1949) and two books that claimed to reveal the secrets of witchcraft (Witchcraft Today, 1953 and The Meaning of Witchcraft, 1959). Whether or not Gardner (or Clutterbuck) made it all up is an unanswerable question.Either way, Gardner's books inspired a widespread interest in witchcraft as a valid religious path. Gardner was not the sole founder of modern Pagan witchcraft, but his influence was significant. Others appeared who may or may not have been influenced by Gardner; indeed some, like Robert Cochrane, maintained that their type of witchcraft both predated Gardnerian Wicca and was more authentically traditional. Following Gardner, numerous other figures began to write on the subject of witchcraft, including Raymond Buckland, Patricia Crowther, Doreen Valiente, Sybil Leek, and others. By the 1960s Wicca and other forms of witchcraft were established within the youth counterculture. Meanwhile, other forms of new Pagan spirituality emerged, parallel to the growth of Wicca. Margot Adler traces the early origins of modern Paganism back to 1938, when a Russian immigrant to America, Gleb Botkin, founded a Church of Aphrodite in New York. In Germany, interest in Germanic Paganism grew in the early decades of the 20th century, while in Britain druid leaders like Ross Nichols began to incorporate more genuine Celtic Pagan elements into their rituals, which lead to the emergence of authentically Pagan forms of druidism in the second half of the century. Other groups drew on Hellenic paganism, Egyptian religion, Native American spirituality, and even science fiction to shape their identity.In 1979, two American authors released books that coalesced the various strands of this new religious movement.Starhawk's The Spiral Dance: A Rebirth of the Religion of the Great Goddess presented witchcraft as both a living form of ancient Paganism but also as a thoroughly contemporary spirituality grounded in environmental and feminist concerns. National Public Radio correspondent Margot Adler's Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, GoddessWorshippers, and Other Pagans in America examined the diversity within the larger Pagan community. Numerous other authors contributed to this growing sensibility of Paganism-as-ecofeminist spirituality: Susun Weed, Diane Stein, Z. Budapest, Carol J. Adams, Carolyn Merchant, Carol Christ, Charlene Spretnak, and Vickie Noble were among the authors in the final decades of the 20th century who contributed to this new understanding of nature-centered spirituality. Scott Cunningham's Wicca: A Guide for the Solitary Practitioner (1989) declared that individuals interested in Paganism and witchcraft did not need to study with others who were already practicing the religion, and could in fact alter their expression of spirituality to suit their own intuitive and personal needs. In essence, Cunningham celebrated Wicca (and, by extension, modern Paganism as a whole) as a "do-it-yourself" religion. Another American author, Silver Ravenwolf, pushed this trend further with a book specifically aimed at adolescents, Teen Witch: Wicca for a New Generation (Llewellyn, 1998). But perhaps the most significant development with Paganism in the 1990s was the widespread accessibility to the internet. Pagans embraced the online world enthusiastically, and websites devoted to fostering community online soon became popular among them, particularly the Witches'

Voice. Many Wiccan covens and other modern Pagan groups began their own online presence. Email lists and online forums on a variety of Pagan-related topics emerged. By the turn of the century, the internet had become a central tool for networking and communication within the Pagan community. As Paganism entered the 21st century, it remains, according to observers such as the Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance, one of the fastest growing new religions in the English-speaking world. BELIEFS Sacred Narratives In the 1960s, researcher James Lovelock formulated what has come to be known as the Gaia Hypothesis, which holds that the biological and physiological systems throughout the earth function in such a closely interactive and self-regulating way that it is plausible to regard the entire earth ecosystem as a single entity - a "super-organism," as it were. While not universally accepted in the scientific community, this concept - from which it is a short jump to the idea of the earth as a single sentient being - has become one of many stories, both ancient and modern, to be embraced by various elements within the modern Pagan community. For many Pagans, not only is the Gaia Hypothesis a compelling story, but even its name is taken literally: Gaia, Greek Goddess of the Earth, is she whom many Pagans adore when they revere the earth. Contemporary Paganism, however, is more than just a spiritualized approach to certain scientific theories or hypotheses. Woven throughout the various expressions of magical, polytheistic, naturecentered, and goddess-oriented spiritualities are a rich array of myths, both ancient and modern, that create meaning and spiritual identity for practitioners. Although adherents tend to be sophisticated and recognize myth as a category separate from history, approaches to the sacred stories vary widely in the larger Pagan community. Myth can be understood as meaningful metaphor, as stories imbued with symbolic truth, and even as factual records of the exploits of spiritual heroes and deities. But because Pagans typically reject the idea of prescribed belief or dogma, sacred stories - like all other elements in modern Paganism - may be interpreted by each individual according to her or his own values and worldview. What do the myths say? Ancient myths, from cultures around the world, tell the stories of gods and goddesses, ancestral heroes and heroines, and other entities (such as friendly or unfriendly spirits, fairies or elves, or animal and plant spirits). While European myths are favored among European and North American Pagans, other sacred stories from around the world are often embraced by various Pagans, instead of or in addition to the European sources; naturally, individuals of a certain ethnicity will often orient the mythic dimension of their practice to the sacred stories of their own ancestors. But many Pagans embrace mythologies for which they may have no ancestral ties whatsoever. In the Celtic community, people of Welsh, Scottish, Irish, or other Celtic heritages may have an ancestral "right" to Celtic mythology, but others - known as "cardiac Celts" (Celts only by virtue of the longing in their hearts) - are just as likely to embrace Celtic myth and make it their own. While some Pagans insist that mythologies from different cultures should not be mixed in the pursuit of spiritual practice, many others freely integrate myths from around the world into their rituals and devotions. This practice is known as "eclectic" Paganism, and results in a uniquely colorful celebration of various gods and goddesses from all corners of the earth. Thus, it is possible to attend a Wiccan circle where the Hawaiian Goddess Pele is venerated alongside the Roman God Vulcan, or an eclectic Pagan gathering in which the Cherokee Goddess Selu is invoked along with the Irish God Lugh.

Along with the eclectic intermingling of sacred stories from around the world, some Pagans (including many Wiccans) affirm that "all the gods are one God, and all the goddesses one Goddess" - meaning that the many different deities of world mythology can essentially be understood as one archetypal God and one archetypal Goddess. Others, however, reject this idea as a purely modern innovation, and so have a more truly polytheistic approach to mythology: seeing the spirit world as populated by many different gods and goddesses, rather than by a single, universal pair of deities. Although classical mythology provides many of the gods and sacred beings revered by Nature Religionists, literary sources - from the medieval Arthurian legends to J.R.R. Tolkien's Middle Earth inspire some practitioners as well.Even though these stories are not mythological in a technical sense, their deeply archetypal symbolism and rich narrative enable them to be approach as functional myths for those who are willing to read them in such a way. Likewise, folklore (which, arguably, often represents mythology in a degraded form) can contribute to Pagan sensibilities and values. All of this is un-systematic and nearly impossible to summarize effectively. Few if any Pagans rely on their sacred stories to determine what to believe; rather, myth is celebrated as an evocative tool for inspiring the religious and spiritual imagination. Even Pagans who speak about praying to a particular god or goddess will sometimes clarify that they understand these deities as symbolic or archetypal. A prayer to Aphrodite, the Goddess of Love, may for many Pagans be simply a symbolic ritual means of accessing unconscious (or, perhaps, transpersonal) abilities to give and receive love. Others, however, may be more literal, accepting the gods and goddesses as factually real. Not all Pagans are devoted to mythological deities or spirits; some limit their religious practice to the veneration of nature. However, mythologies from around the world often emerged in cultures with horticultural or agricultural economies; thus, such myths generally have strong fertility or natural imagery. Various deities are associated with various elements of the natural world: the sky, the sea, the earth, trees, rivers, forests, the hunt, grain, and so forth. Engaging in religious practice informed by such natural imagery can be a direct way of cultivating a rich spirituality of devotion to the earth (i.e., Gaia). Ultimate Reality and Divine Beings Few, if any, Pagans orient themselves to a concept of divinity that is situated "above" or "beyond" nature. The monotheistic worldview - belief in a single God who fully transcends the physical universe, which God has created and that therefore is not God - is rejected by many Pagans as dualistic and consequently hostile to nature.By contrast, most forms of Paganism entail some sort of recognition that nature is in itself sacred, or divine, and worthy of human respect, honor, and adoration. But the ways in which such respect and adoration are expressed differ widely among different Pagan traditions, and metaphysical beliefs or concepts - such as the idea that all of nature can be related to as a single Goddess - can likewise take many forms. For some Pagans, nature is simply venerated for its own sake, without any metaphysical concepts to undergird such adoration. At its purest level, such nature mysticism exalts the empirical, measurable physical cosmos above any metaphysical or spiritual concepts and beliefs. In this view, nature is holy precisely because nature is all that we have. While the human imagination is a rich and powerful force for creating meaning and joy, such mental activity cannot be proven to point beyond nature, and therefore (according to this view) should be regarded as part of nature. The manifest physical reality of nature makes it the necessary foundation upon which this approach to spirituality rests.

Another view holds that nature is basically one with the goddess, or the god and the goddess, or some other combination of divine personages. Revering nature and venerating a god and/or goddess and/or multiple gods need not be a contradictory set of actions. A mythical or spiritual approach to nature need not be a denial of the foundational goodness of the empirical world. In its most simple form, this spiritualized veneration of nature is a form of pantheism - the belief that all things are divine, and the divine is in, and one with, all things. It is also monistic (monism is the belief that everything ultimately is united in one all-encompassing divine reality).Within this approach, worshipping nature and worshipping the divine are identical acts. In a slight variation of pantheism, Pagans may honor nature as the "body" of the divine person or persons, similar to how human flesh and blood is the body in relation to the human soul or spirit. Just as the human entity consists of both an external body and an interior mind or spirit or soul, so too could the physical cosmos as a whole be understood as the "body" of a divine being. This divine entity, like human beings, has both a body and a soul - the earth (or the cosmos as a whole) is therefore the "body" of the deity (or deities). This way of seeing nature and divinity can function as a religious variation of the Gaia hypothesis, a scientific hypothesis that the earth is a unified biosystem (although strictly speaking, science does not speculate on whether or not the "Gaia" system has a spirit integrated with its terrestrial body). In contrast with pantheism, another approach to divinity within nature religion is polytheism, the belief that the earth (or the cosmos as a whole) is the material home to a multiplicity of gods and goddesses and/or other spiritual beings. Integrally connected to the material world is an "otherworld" - a spiritual realm - that functions as the home of the deities and other spirit beings. Yet another Pagan belief system, animism, holds that spirit or consciousness pervades all material things - that every animal, plant, and inanimate object has its own spirit worthy of respect if not veneration. This view of nature holds that all things are enchanted, and are alive, even if at a very low level of consciousness (e.g., rocks) - and, therefore, are sacred.Yet another perspective emphasizes the idea that humanity is divine, and nature is holy simply because it is home. This list is not meant to be exhaustive, but rather to demonstrate the tremendous diversity of beliefs that can be anchored in Pagan spirituality. The most common factor is the notion that nature is sacred, regardless of what mythological or metaphysical beliefs may justify that core belief. Even those Pagans whose beliefs may be entirely oriented toward spiritual beings rather than toward nature veneration usually do not reject nature as "fallen" or somehow inferior to the spiritual world. Human Nature and the Purpose of Existence If you draw a map of the entire universe, it is only complete if it includes yourself in it. Likewise, "nature" is only complete if it includes "humanity" within it. Pagan wisdom traditions have no consensus on how to understand human nature or the meaning and purpose of life, other than for each individual to forge his or her own sense of self-understanding, meaning, and purpose. Within this broad framework, here are several ideas that can be found within the contemporary Pagan community. The first is the principle that humanity is part of nature, not above it or outside it. Recognizing that no map is complete without the mapmaker means that the concept of "human nature" requires as much attention to "nature" as to "humanity." Physical characteristics of being human: having a body, gender and sexuality, sensuality, and the capacity to relate to the environment in terms of pleasure and pain - these are all characteristics that matter to Pagans who seek to understand humanity.

Spiritual or metaphysical beliefs are important, too, if understood as part of nature rather than as pre-given truth. Closely related to this is the idea that humanity can only be understood in relation to the natural world. Nature is essentially relational: every part of nature is influenced by, shaped by, limited by, and defined in terms of struggle with its environment. Since human beings share so much in common with other aspects of the natural world, from similar body chemistries to shared DNA, much can be learned about humanity simply by observing the laws of nature, even though the environment cannot fully disclose what it means to be human (for example, no other species fully shares in human language). Many Pagans would affirm that humanity is both conditioned by nature and inspired by evolutionary possibility. Nature imposes limitations on the experience of being human: every human being dies, and suffering, aging, loss, sickness, and hunger are just as much part of the human landscape as joy, pleasure, love, happiness, and well-being. Part of being human is learning to accept such limitations, even if it is also part of human nature to struggle against them. Indeed, much of the thrust of nature religion involves finding the balance between respecting nature even while furthering the innate human struggle against the limitations imposed by nature. Through mythology, magic, and ritual, Pagan religions offer to their adherents tools to deepen the experience of being human in nature. The Fates may determine when individuals age, sicken, and die - but the concept of "the Fates" as mythological forces is part of the human quest to find meaning in nature. Likewise, magic and ritual - whether for self-seeking purposes such as personal gain, or for more "noble" pursuits as the healing of another - provide a spiritual framework to humanity's inborn propensity to struggle against the limitations inherent in being human. It is important to note that, as a whole, Paganism offers no pre-given purpose of existence. Although mythological wisdom from around the world offers suggestions as to the purpose of life, no dogmatic idea of one eternal, unchanging truth is universally accepted among Pagans. Even within mythology, many different ways of approaching the question of life's purpose can be found. Honor and virtue often are revered within mythic stories, but even these values are culturally relative - in other words, different cultures understand them in different ways. Many Pagans would maintain that humans are, both individually and collectively, free to chart their own course, to determine their own purpose. Without a pre-given, "supernatural" way of understanding life's meaning, or even a consensus within the mythologies of the world, Pagans are free to create their own meaning or sense of purpose. Although such freedom can be abused (for some, the purpose of life can mean little more than selfish pleasure seeking, even at the expense of others), most Pagans would argue that one's own freedom to decide meaning is more important than efforts to judge or evaluate the meaning-choices of others. Within the freedom to chart one's own purpose, resources exist that can help along the way. Mythology often teaches core values (honor and virtue are good, lying and stealing are bad) that can help one to function in social contexts and can shape an understanding of happiness and well-being. History, likewise, offers examples of heroism, creativity, wisdom, and other qualities worth emulating, while society establishes parameters of rights and responsibilities within which one's purpose may be forged. Science (biology, psychology, and sociology) all offer clues to help differentiate between lives that are more (or less) productive, effective, and happy. All these resources are available to help each individual chart his or her sense of purpose and meaning.

Rather than one unchanging purpose being handed down from an otherworldly god, the purpose of humankind as a whole emerges from the combined individual purposes of all people. One could say, then, that the purpose of being human is to live a free and self-directed life, in pursuit of happiness, recognizing nature-imposed limitations but also choosing to struggle against them, whether through science, spirituality, or art. It is on the continuum between finding happiness and contentment with the way things are, and striving to make things better, that the ultimate purpose of being human is revealed. For many Pagans, maintaining balance between humanity and nature is also an important purpose of being human. Humans exist not merely to enjoy the bounty of the environment, but also to serve and protect the environment, not only for future generations of humans, but indeed for the sake of nature itself. Although such a values-driven understanding of life's purpose is far from universally held within the Pagan community, for many this is an important part of their chosen spirituality. In a spirit of noblesse oblige, humanity's intelligence and vision carry with them a responsibility to care for the well-being of nature as a whole. Finally, some Pagans do accept a metaphysical understanding of life's purpose, derived from mythology and spiritual beliefs. Living a good life can create positive karma, which can lead to a blessed afterlife existence and/or a favorable reincarnation. Suffering and the Problem of Evil Questions regarding the Pagan response to suffering and evil can best be understood as two separate issues, even if they are closely related. Suffering, or the experience of pain (whether physical or emotional/mental/spiritual), is an experiential reality, whereas evil is an abstract (metaphysical) concept. Because of this distinction, many in the modern Pagan community have distinct ways of approaching the problem of suffering versus the question of evil.Suffering is part of life. So areis loss, age, sickness, and death. Simply put, suffering is part of nature. We Humans cannot eradicate suffering any more than theywe can suspend gravity, and getting caught up in metaphysical explanations or arguments about suffering simply distract us from the real issue, which is finding ways to prevent unnecessary suffering and to alleviate or mitigate it when it does occur. Evil, which can be defined as a metaphysical principle which that causes suffering or harm, is more problematic than suffering - for while suffering can be documented, evil, as a metaphysical principle, cannot. Evil, therefore, is a matter of faith, and among Pagans, no articles of faith are universally held. Therefore, while some Pagans might choose to believe in the existence of metaphysical principles like good and evil, others argue that such principles are useless or could even be harmful, for example if used to attack or malign others unfairly. Many Pagans prefer terminology like "positive" and "negative," or "order" and "chaos" as alternatives to the categories of "good" and "evil," regarding these categories as so heavily freightedsteeped inwith Judeo-Christian assumptions that their usefulness is limited. Nevertheless, because of the high degree of tolerance within the Pagan community, adherents are free to form their own opinions about the existence and/or the problem of evil. Whether or not evil exists as a metaphysical principle which that causes harm, and whether or not there may be one or more beings or entities who embody evil are therefore matters of personal opinion. World mythology does include many mythic figures that embody evil to a greater or lesser extent:In Irish mythology, Balor; in Jewish and Christian mythology, Satan; in Persian mythology, Ahriman; in Egyptian mythology, Set; in Norse mythology, Loki. It is important to recognize that not

all of these mythic figures represent harm or evil in the same way; for example, while Satan is an embodiment of pure malice, a figure like Loki can be seen as morally ambiguous: chaotic as much as malicious. Beyond the allusions of mythology and the philosophical controversies surrounding evil, the reality of suffering and harm remain. Since these phenomena occur within the natural world, any response to them likewise must be natural. This is not to preclude a spiritual or metaphysical response to suffering; but many Pagans would regard a purely spiritual response to a natural problem as faulty or inadequate. There's no point in casting a spell over someone bleeding without first dressing their wounds. Thus, while various Pagan paths may include a variety of spells, rituals, or prayers to help alleviate or eliminate suffering, such tools would be preceded by "mundane" or non-spiritual responses to the problem. While many contemporary Pagans are critical of mainstream medicine and advocate a variety of alternative healing practices, most recognize that a combination of traditional and alternative healing practices may be necessary, particularly in serious or life-threatening circumstances. (Ffor example, it would be inappropriate to treat severe chest pains only with a healing touch practice like Reiki; a person experiencing such pain needs to be checked by a qualified physician for a possible heart attack.). How do those who reject the idea of evil explain the existence of pain and suffering? Many say it is simply part of nature, and that questions about why it exists are not nearly as helpful as strategies to help alleviate it when it does occur. Regardless of whether suffering is met with natural or spiritual meansresponses, Pagans are free to respond to suffering in any way they deem appropriate. Seen on a purely naturalistic level, pain and suffering are markers of a condition that needs to change - whether the change comes about through healing the condition thatwhich causes the suffering (or, in extreme cases, through death). Even when a person voluntarily embraces suffering (for example, someone who delays their own personal ambitions in order to care for an elderly relative), the suffering in itself is meaningful only because it is undertaken in service of a clearly understood greater good (in this case, the good of caring for others). There is no dogma or belief that would suggest suffering is always bad (or, for that matter, always noble and virtuous). Any instance of suffering must be evaluated on its own merits, whether it is a problem that must be addressed immediately, or a sacrificial act freely undertaken in honor of a greater good. Few Pagans would subscribe to a belief that suffering is inherently virtuous, but rather would view pain as a condition that, whenever possible, should be remedied. Afterlife and Salvation Most Pagans would regard concepts such as salvation or justification as meaningless to their spiritual path. With no transcendent deity who acts as judge and no concept of sin, logically no need for salvation or atonement exists. Incentives to live a good life do not involve pleasing a god or goddess who is exterior to one's self; rather, virtue and honor are their own rewards and one engages in such behavior out of a sense of love and personal pride. Some Pagans accept a simple concept of karma as a way of affirming that a person's behavior, whether good or ill, will ultimately shape his or her future destiny, whether in this life or a future life. However, karma is not seen as a system of reward and punishment (since there is no one at the helm to do the rewarding and the punishing), but rather simply as a law of the way things function in nature - equivalent to the laws of gravity or inertia.

Closely aligned to belief in karma is belief in reincarnation, or the recycling of souls. Since the body is "recycled" by decay and decomposition after death, so the soul can be recycled by taking birth in a new form. As a metaphysical belief, not all Pagans accept reincarnation, but many do; those who do, point to ancient Pagan beliefs (for example, Julius Caesar wrote about how the ancient Celtic Druids believed in the transmigration of souls), to the widespread belief in reincarnation within occult and eastern spirituality, and finally to the anecdotal evidence of many individuals who claim to have pastlife memories. Unlike other religions that regard reincarnation as a sort of prison from which one must eventually be liberated, Paganism generally does not promote such a pessimistic view of rebirth. Rather, reincarnation is seen as a tool for growth and learning - and perhaps even joy. Although each incarnation will carry its measure of suffering and sorrow, it will also bring the joy of new relationships, new experiences, and new wisdom and insight. Each incarnation is followed by a period of rest and reflection before the soul gets on the merry-go-round again. This perspective affirms the cycle of rebirth as a positive process. In addition to (or instead of) reincarnation, adherents of various Pagan traditions have mythical understandings of the afterlife in which they place belief. Typically, these otherworldly destinations of the soul after death are regarded as paradise, although some have a darker or drearier feel. Here are a few of the mythical otherworlds, as seen by various Pagan traditions, as destinations for the souls of the dead: The Summerland - the Wiccan concept of paradise, where one experiences happiness and sensual pleasure. The Summerland can function as a destination between reincarnations (a place of rest and renewal) or as the ultimate destination, when a soul eventually stops reincarnating. Tir na n'Og - Literally, the "Land of Youth." In Irish mythology, Tir na n'Og is a blessed realm across the water where souls journey after death. It is a land of continual feasting and joy, without old age, sickness, or death. Perhaps reflecting the sensibilities of the Iron Age culture that gave birth to Celtic myth, it is also a land where the souls of heroic warriors engage in valorous battle. Valhalla (Literally, the "Hall of the Slain") and Flkvangr (literally, "Field of the Host") - Two destinations for the spirits of noble warriors, as recounted in Norse myth. The great warriors who journey to Valhalla and Flkvangr upon their death will assist the gods in the apocalyptic battle prophesied to occur during Ragnark, the apocalyptic war that will occur at the end of the age. Hades - the underworld in Greek myth, ruled over by a god of the same name. The underworld is the final destination of the souls of the dead; while some descriptions suggest it is a misty and gloomy place, others suggest it is a place of peace, and at least one realm within the underworld, Elysium, is a blessed place destined for the souls of the heroic and the virtuous. These and other such depictions of otherworldly realms offer insight into the variety of beliefs that various Pagans might hold. Different traditions have teachings that are promoted within their specific community, but no single belief about the afterlife is normative for all. Because of the freedom with which individuals can form their own opinions after the afterlife, some Pagans choose either to remain agnostic about questions of what happens after death, or even reject all such ideas as mere metaphysical speculation. Since many forms of Paganism are more oriented toward the material world rather than an abstract spiritual world, such a perspective maintains that it is more important to live well in the present than to waste time worrying about what will occur in a future that cannot be controlled anyway.

RITUALS AND WORSHIP Sacred Time Ancient Pagan sacred sites, like Stonehenge in England or Newgrange in Ireland, often have an astronomical orientation, with key features of the site oriented toward specific dates of the year. For example, Stonehenge is oriented toward the sunrise of the summer solstice, while the doorway of Newgrange is oriented toward sunrise of the winter solstice. Sites like these suggest not only a high degree of astronomical and architectural sophistication among ancient Pagans, but also imply that the dates like the solstices may have had ritual significance to their cultures. The Pagan movement that emerged in the 20th century draws on a variety of folkloric, mythological, and archaeological sources to establish its own sense of sacred time. As is always the case among Pagan religions, different traditions often observe different holy days. Wicca (religious witchcraft), the most widely practiced form of Paganism, offers the best example of Pagan sacred time. Sacred time within Wicca is established by the cycles of the sun and the moon. Lunar cycles occur every 29 to 30 days, while a solar cycle occurs over the course of a year. The key events in a lunar cycle include the new moon and the full moon. Many Wiccan solitaries and groups perform rituals on the nights of the new and full moons, seeing those dates as particularly propitious for venerating the goddess as identified with the moon. Because the duration of menstrual cycles often is equivalent to the lunar month, many Wiccans understand the phases of the moon as symbolically attuned to the "phases" of the menstrual cycle. Thus, the full moon represents ovulation, and signifies a time of fecundity, creativity, and active engagement with the world; the new moon represents menstruation, and therefore is associated with rest and withdrawal from worldly activities for a time of reflection and renewal. Wiccan ceremonies can take these associations into account, with new moon rituals being more contemplative and full moon ceremonies more ecstatic or celebratory. The solar cycle as observed by many Wiccan groups involves eight holidays, collectively known as "the Wheel of the Year." These holidays include the solstices, the equinoxes, and four seasonal agricultural festivals with roots in British and Irish mythology. The wheel of the year includes these festivals: Samhain, traditionally celebrated on or near October 31 Yule, the winter solstice Imbolc, traditionally celebrated on or near February 1 Ostara, the spring equinox Beltane, traditionally celebrated on or near May 1 Litha, the summer solstice Lughnasadh, traditionally celebrated on or near August 1 Mabon, the fall equinox Several of these festivals have alternative names, sometimes from folkloric or even Christian sources: thus Samhain is also known as Hallowmas or Hallowe'en; Imbolc as Candlemas; Lughnasadh as Lammas; and Mabon as Michaelmas. Like the lunar cycle, the wheel of year is rich with symbolism and mythology. Some traditions weave throughout the eight holidays a running narrative about the birth, life, and eventual death of the goddess, who over the course of the year is impregnated by her consort and gives birth to a sacred child. Another narrative associated with the wheel of the year involves a never-ending cycle of conflict between two mythic kings - the Oak King and the Holly King - who continually defeat each

other at each solstice, the Oak King triumphing in the summer while the Holly King emerges victorious each winter. Each of the agricultural festivals also has rich folklore associated with it. Samhain (the name literally means "summer's end") signifies the onset of winter and is associated with the end of harvest and the slaughtering of livestock to prepare for the cold season; thus it has traditionally been linked to death and to contact with ancestral spirits. Imbolc ("In the belly") celebrates the coming of spring and a time when ewes are lactating and pregnant with spring lambs. The celebration of spring reaches its apex with Beltane ("The fire of Bel"), a festival to mark the onset of summer and chronologically opposite of Samhain. As Samhain is a festival honoring death, Beltane is dedicated to the celebration of life and fertility. Finally, the onset of harvest is marked with Lughnasadh ("Lugh's festival"), marked by the first harvest and traditionally observed with games and other festivities. Incidentally, Bel and Lugh are the names of Celtic gods. These holidays are not universally observed among all Wiccans, let alone all Pagans. Their popularity among many Wiccans and some other Pagans stems from their symmetry and the rich mythic and folkloric material associated with the festival days. In some locations traditional celebrations associated with these holidays that predate the onset of Paganism by many generations, continue to be celebrated. For example, the town of Padstow in Cornwall has elaborate May Day festivities each year that many scholars believe are vestigial remains of ancient religious observances. The Padstow May Day celebration has been re-created in Berkeley, California for a number of years-an example of contemporary Pagans drawing on folkloric practice for inspiration. Sacred Space Many Pagans embrace the idea that the universe is enchanted; that even the most mundane and ordinary elements of nature are, at least potentially, pregnant with spiritual power and possibility. Taken to its pantheistic or monistic extreme, Paganism celebrates all space - all of nature - as sacred or holy. But within that framework of overall immanence, particular sites or points within the natural world are revered as places of special spiritual power and worthy of reverence and veneration. Stonehenge, Angkor Wat, Newgrange, The Pyramids of Egypt, Macchu Picchu,the Parthenon, the Great Serpent Mound - all over the world, numerous sites of ancient ceremonial and religious significance remain today as mysterious mute testaments to prehistoric or ancient spirituality. Pagans often look to such venerable monuments for inspiration in the continuing quest to revive or recreate polytheistic, goddess-centered, or earth-based devotion. Such human-made sites often are subject to a variety of different interpretations. Some are burial grounds; others appear to be giant observatories; still others have no clear religious or ceremonial meaning. Prehistoric sites are often the subject of imaginative speculation as different theorists offer their interpretation as to the original or ultimate meaning and purpose of such sites. In addition to sites that were clearly fashioned by human hands, other remarkable or distinctive sites throughout the earth have become subject to spiritual devotion, often because of distinguishing geographic features, but also because of metaphysical beliefs associated with such sites.Glastonbury Tor in England, the Black Hills of South Dakota, andKi l a u e a in Hawaii are examples of spectacular sacred sites, while many less dramatic sites may be centers of regional or local veneration, such as the tradition of holy well veneration in the Celtic countries. Such sites typically achieve status as "sacred" in the minds of devotees because of historical significance, particularly in regard to mythology or folklore. Sites associated with ancient gods or

goddesses carry special significance even for latter-day Pagans. Remarkable trees, abundant water sources, and other singular features of the earth can be imbued with meaning, either received through folklore or local tradition, or even established by contemporary Pagan individuals or groups who feel drawn to find or create spiritual meaning through relationship with a particular feature of the natural world. In addition to such physical forms of sacred space, Pagan traditions often also include metaphysical or imaginal forms of sacrality as well. These include mythic concepts of the otherworld, ritually created sacred space (such as the Wiccan "World Between the Worlds"), and even the concept of sacred space as found within each individual's own capacity for inner visualization. Concepts of the otherworld can take many forms. Nonmaterial realms may exist above, below, or interwoven with the material world. They can exist in a variety of metaphorical locations, such as over or beneath the ocean, through the mist, or within so-called hollow hills ("fairy mounds"). The otherworld can be a place of ineffable beauty and wonder, but also a realm fraught with danger and challenge. It can be populated with gods, goddesses, ancestors, heroes and heroines, as well as spirits, elves, fairies, or other entities seen as intimately connected with nature. Sometimes human beings can visit otherworldly realms, although myths are often vague about how such a journey can occur. Once in the otherworld, the human visitor may have a quest or sacred task to complete, may be held prisoner, or may fall in love with a beautiful otherworldly figure and then face a terrible choice between remaining with the lover or returning home to the mundane realm. Perhaps such "otherworlds" only exist in human imagination - but even so, they can be meaningful elements within an individual's or a group's spiritual practice. Such forays into the realm of mythic imagination can be experienced as challenging, healing, inspirational, or deeply transformational. Many Pagan groups and individuals engage in magical ritual practices as part of their spiritual life.Such rituals can be devotional in nature (offering love, honor, and worship to gods, ancestors, or nature spirits) or thaumaturgical (attempting to create real change in the world through magical means).In some Pagan traditions, performing a sacred ritual involves establishing a bounded space (often a circle) in which the energy of the ceremony occurs. This space is understood as having a magical quality that sets it apart from the rest of the physical universe. In Wicca, for example, such magically inscribed ritual circles are said to create a world "between the worlds" - a spiritual locus between the material and the spiritual realms, allowing access to both planes. Unlike other faith traditions where rituals need to be performed in relation to a specific physical location (such as a church or a temple), the magical circle is, in essence, a portable sacred space that can by psychically created with each new ritual and then dismantled when the ritual is finished. Pagans do not seek to create a rigid distinction between what is and is not sacred, but rather to anchor a cosmic understanding of the universe as enchanted within specific locations that are particularly appropriate for veneration.For Pagans, sacred space is a key to understanding that all of nature - indeed, all of the cosmos - is holy, by and through the particular veneration of a specific location (either in the physical universe, in the spiritual otherworld, or within the imaginal space of the devotee). Rites and Ceremonies Most expressions of Paganism are magical - which is to say, they promote the use of individual or communal ritual practices to effect personal and environmental change, particularly changes in consciousness. Rooted in pre-modern magical practices (where rituals were seen as creating direct

physical change in the environment), Pagans often have a more sophisticated understanding of magic and ritual, following Dion Fortune's definition of "magic" as "the art of changing consciousness at will." Such ceremonially enacted changes in consciousness are believed to facilitate further changes in the practitioner's life circumstances and/or relationship with the gods. Magic can be broken down into two categories: thaumaturgy (the working of wonders) and theurgy (the divine work). Thaumaturgical magic tends to be practically oriented: magic with a specific goal in mind, whether that may be gaining a fortune, losing weight, making the crops grow, or banishing cancer. Practitioners of magic may engage in it for themselves or on behalf of another. Theurgy, by contrast, has a more spiritual and devotional focus: magic performed to foster intimacy with a god or goddess, to achieve union with the deity or deities, or to transform oneself into a more holy or godlike state. Wiccan and other Pagan ceremonies can incorporate either or both thaumaturgical and theurgical elements. Depending on the beliefs of the individual or group performing the ceremony, a ritual can be devotionally oriented toward one or more specific deities, toward ancestral or fairy spirits, toward nature in general (sometimes personified as an Earth Goddess), or toward a generic understanding of "the god and the goddess." Likewise, depending on the beliefs and values of the ritual's enactors, the tone of the ceremony may be devotional, worshipful, or more explicitly magical. (A devotional or worshipful ritual makes few or no requests of the spirits that are invoked, whereas a magical ritual instructs or even commands the spirits to do the magician's bidding.) Actual rituals themselves can take an almost infinite variety of forms, particularly given the strong ethos within the broad Pagan community for following one's own intuition and creating some or all the elements of personal spiritual practice. Rituals can be learned from elders and teachers, copied from a book, or created by the individual. Rituals and magical acts often make use of symbolism, which can include decorating the ritual site with colors or objects to symbolize the elements or the god(s) being invoked.Specific tools can be incorporated (for example, the Wiccan athame, or ceremonial knife, used to cut a magical boundary in the air that separates the ritual space from its mundane surroundings), and colorful clothing or robes may be worn, to help create a sense of separation from ordinary consciousness and openness to the flow of magical energy. Some groups or traditions may have taboos associated with rituals (for example, a prohibition against wearing watches or having electronic devices like cell phones in the ritual). Candles, essential oils, incense, crystals, bells, drums or other musical instruments, and ritual foods (for offerings to the gods and/or consumption by the participants) can all be part of a ritual, depending on its purpose and function. Rituals can take place indoors, although adherents of nature religions often choose to perform ceremonies in outdoor settings - such as in a forest or around a bonfire. What follows is a brief description of a generic Wiccan ceremony. This is only one of many possible rituals that can be performed within a Pagan tradition.At an appointed time and location (say, in a forest on the night of the full moon), the participants gather, having ritually prepared themselves with a ceremonial bath and a period of fasting. The priest and priestess (leaders of the ritual) arrive early to prepare the ground for the ceremony and to set up four shrines - one in each direction with elemental symbolism (air in the east, fire in the south, water in the west, earth in the north) - and a larger altar closer to the center of the circle, north of the fire pit, marked with symbols of the god and the goddess. After the shrines and the altar are set up, the priest lights the bonfire while the priestess meditates. When the participants of the ritual arrive, the priest anoints each person with oil on their forehead,

and smudges them (ritual purification using incense from a burning sage bundle). When everyone is gathered within the circle, the priest and priestess begin the actual ritual by sweeping the bounds of the circles, then censing it with incense, then "cutting" a boundary using the priestess's athame (ceremonial knife). Brief invocations to the spirits of the four elements are offered at each of the directional shrines. Finally the priest and priestess face one another, standing between the bonfire and the main altar, and invoke the god and goddess to be present in one another. They kiss, and each in turn speaks prophetic words to the gathered assembly. Over the next hour, the community chants, drums, meditates, and dances to raise magical energy for particular purposes. At the direction of the priestess, this energy is used to create a "Cone of Power," which is then psychically directed to whatever goal the community has established: perhaps healing for a friend who is in the hospital, or for fertility in the local farmlands. After the magical energy has been raised and dispersed, the priest and priestess invoke the sacred marriage between the god and the goddess by a ritual act in which he holds a chalice of ale, into which she plunges the blade of her athame. Then they bless the ale and share it with all who are present. Finally, the ritual ends by thanking and dismissing the elemental spirits and bidding farewell to the god and goddess, and ritually re-sealing the circle with the athame. Afterward, the group may linger for general feasting and merry-making. Worship and Devotion in Daily Life Living a Pagan life in our time can involve choices as dramatic as leaving a high-paying job to join an intentional community dedicated to environmental sustainability, or as simple and ordinary as reading books on nature spirituality whenever possible.No consensus exists to direct individuals on how to live a "true" Pagan life.Like so many other aspects of this spiritual path, much is left to the individual practitioner. Many people choose to integrate Pagan traditions into their daily life by setting up one or more personal shrines or altars in their home or yard. The personal altar can be simple or elaborate; it can be set up according to traditional parameters as established by one's community, or it can be an innovative, individual expression of faith and devotion. Since the purpose behind a shrine is to foster a sense of devotion or daily connection with one's deities, anything that contributes to such a purpose would be acceptable. One's shrine might include statues of gods and/or goddesses; symbols of nature, particularly of the elements of air, water, fire, and earth; candles and/or incense; the practitioner's journal or "Book of Shadows" (a journal containing one's rituals and magical lore), meaningful objects from the natural world (such as crystals, feathers, seashells, or water from a holy well), and any other item that might have particular religious or spiritual significance. The shrine can function as a focal point for personal meditation, or as a devotional "offering" to one's gods or goddesses, or as a working altar, which can be used in rituals or ceremonies. As in the design of a shrine or altar, the ways in which it is used are subject to each person's preferences. Some practitioners could conceivably create a personal shrine or altar that functions as little more than a work of art - a visual reminder of spirituality that never gets touched or directly engaged in. Others may have a more interactive relationship with their shrine or altar, continually rearranging the items on the altar or bringing new items of interest to supplement or supplant older objects already there.Some Pagans enjoy collecting statues, jewelry, posters, books, or other items that can be displayed in their home as a way of creating a magical or mythical "feel" to their living space.

Pagans have a variety of attitudes toward prayer. Some feel that prayer is meaningless, since it implies an external deity "out there" or "up there" to whom one addresses one's petitions. Others think of prayer as an appropriate activity, even if belief is placed in a god or goddess who is found within. Instead of, or in addition to, prayer, meditation - whether involving visualization, recitation of a mantra, or Buddhist-style breath awareness - can also be a part of an individual's practices, depending on his or her interest and inclination. Other borrowed religious practices, from the use of a mala or rosary, to yoga or Tai Chi, to lectio divina, to chanting, may also be incorporated into an individual's daily spirituality.Because of the freedom and tolerance within nature spirituality as a whole, each person is free to fashion his or her own devotional life as their own interests dictate. Many Pagans incorporate divination into their spiritual practice. Divination practices from around the world, including astrology, Tarot, Runes, the I Ching, Ogham, and the use of a pendulum as a dowsing tool, all are common within the Pagan community. Some divinatory practices are culturally specific and therefore may be particularly common within specific traditions; for example, the runes are especially popular with Norse Pagans, and the Ogham with druids or other Celtic Pagans. Divination can be used as a means of predicting the future, but often Pagans will bring a more sophisticated spiritual sensibility to their divination practice, engaging in it to seek guidance from the gods and goddesses and insight into their own unfolding spiritual growth and development. Some Pagans may do readings for others, and particularly gifted ones may offer their services professionally through a metaphysical bookstore or at a psychic fair. But many read strictly for themselves or for close friends, seeing divination as an intimate spiritual practice rather than a mere form of entertainment or fortune telling. Since Pagans often resist the idea that "spirituality" is somehow distinct from the rest of life, ultimately almost any activity can be embraced as a part of a spiritual practice. Camping, hiking, gardening, nature photography, drawing or other creative pursuits, the practice of herbalism or the use of essential oils, incense making, the preparation and use of folk healing remedies - these are some of the many practices that can be incorporated into daily life with a clear recognition that such activities have spiritual meaning. Ultimately, every Pagan is responsible for developing his or her most meaningful practices. Symbolism A visitor to a bookstore or gift shop that caters to Pagans will notice a broad assortment of symbolic jewelry: pentacles and pentagrams, Thor's hammer and the Minoan labrys, the Sheela-na-Gig and the crescent moon. Even symbols borrowed from other faith traditions, including the Yin-Yang, the Qabalistic Tree of Life, and the Medicine Wheel, feature prominently in the world of nature-centered and magical spirituality. What the observer may deduce - and rightly so - is that no single image or symbol holds universal prominence within this highly diverse and decentralized spiritual path. Unlike the Christian cross, the Jewish Star of David, or the Sanskrit OM, no one symbol fully defines the multi-faceted world of Paganism. That said, the pentagram (the five-pointed star, usually but not always depicted enclosed by a circle) is nearly universally used by Wiccans and other witches, and comes closest to being the most commonly used symbol within Paganism as a whole. Rooted in ancient Greek and Roman paganism, with ties to goddesses such as Hygeia and Venus, the pentagram has been associated with occultism, ceremonial magic, and even Christianity (the five points signifying the five wounds of Christ). By the

20th century and the rise of religious Wicca, the pentagram had become a more general symbol representing the cosmos as a whole. One common way of interpreting the pentagram assigns an element to each point of the star: the highest point represents spirit, with other points representing fire, air, water, and earth. Surrounded by a circle that signifies eternity or the vast emptiness of the cosmos, the pentagram functions as a symbol of the entirety of nature. Because of its Greco-Roman origins and its usage today embedded in symbolism drawn from classical occultism - the four elements underneath spirit - not all Pagans regard the pentacle as important or even useful. Celtic Reconstructionists and Odinists, for example, do not generally incorporate symbolism from cultures outside the Celtic or Norse world, and therefore regard the pentacle as irrelevant to their spirituality as the Christian cross. Within such ethnically specific expressions of Paganism, symbols with strong cultural associations generally take precedence. Thus, Pagan Druids often use the Awen, a symbol depicting three straight lines that diverge as they move downward, with a dot or point above each line. This symbol was created during the Druid renaissance of the 18th century and has been interpreted in various ways. Practitioners of Norse religion often regard the Mjllnir, or hammer of Thor, as emblematic of their distinctive cultural tradition. Similar symbols include the Caduceus for adherents of Greek Paganism, the Ankh for Egyptian traditions, and the Medicine Wheel for some Native American traditions. The labrys, or double-edged axe, has roots in Greek and Cretan culture, but because of its association with Minoan priestesses it has become a symbol of Dianic Wicca and witchcraft (traditions with a strong feminist ethos). Nature religions also employ symbolism borrowed from other faith traditions. Wicca's links to ceremonial magic and occultism include, for at least some Wiccan lineages, a strong emphasis on Hermetic Qabalah (a non-specifically-Jewish permutation of the Kabbalah that emerged within the occult community between the 15th and 17th centuries); this means that the Tree of Life is significant to their spiritual practice. Pagans who practice divination use related symbols including the glyphs of astrology and the imagery from the Tarot. Meanwhile, the Daoist Yin-Yang symbol and the Christian Celtic Cross (particularly when drawn as an equal-armed cross) are used by some segments of the Pagan community as symbols of the cosmos as a whole. Often these images from other religions are re-interpreted within a Pagan context; for example, the Celtic Cross does not symbolize the death of Jesus for Pagans, but rather functions as a European variation on the medicine wheel: the circle symbolizing eternity and/or the goddess, the cross symbolizing the four directions and/or the god. Some Pagans employ more abstract symbolism as well. For example, Wiccans often will use colors to signify the elements and deity: yellow is associated with air, red with fire, blue with water, green with earth, black with the goddess, and white with the god. The four suits of the Tarot deck have similar associations: swords signifying air, wands fire, cups water, and pentacles earth. Such associations may vary slightly from group to group; many groups prefer to associate wands with air and swords with fire, for example. Perhaps the most ubiquitous symbol of all within Paganism is so widespread and commonly held that it often goes unnoticed - the circle. The circle has a strong feminine association, linked to the vulva or the womb (in contrast to the more masculine/phallic symbolism of the straight line). Likewise, the circle has strong associations with nature: the earth is round, the earth moves in a circular orbit around the sun, the moon likewise progresses in a circular progression around the earth. Reincarnation suggests a circular movement of souls between death and life. Although not all Pagan traditions explicitly use the circle in rituals in the same way that Wiccans do with "circle casting,"

even culturally specific forms of Paganism often conduct ceremonies in a circle - subtly reinforcing the nearly universal Pagan rejection of hierarchy. ETHICS AND COMMUNITY Community Organization As practiced in the English-speaking world, Paganism in the 21st century is decentralized and diverse. Unlike other religions where organization at the community level often means owning and maintaining a community building (a church, synagogue, mosque, or meditation center), nearly all Pagan groups meet in people's homes or in accessible outdoor settings (such as parks or state forests). Some groups, however, do own and manage their own nature preserves. This article examines some common organizational structures among modern North American Pagans; it does not consider how other Pagan groups (particularly among indigenous peoples, or in the past) may have structured their common spiritual lives; nor is it meant to be exhaustive even among contemporary Pagan religions. Because Paganism involves the experience of mystical communion with, or devotion to, nature and/or Pagan deities, it is entirely possible to be a solitary practitioner of the Pagan path. As a spirituality devoid of dogma, there is no mandate to organize. Many people may engage in Pagan spirituality as a purely private and personal pursuit; some writers of nature spirituality books have thus addressed their work specifically to the solitary practitioner. Scott Cunningham's Wicca: A Guide for the Solitary Practitioner (1993) is a best-selling book, indicating the widespread appeal of Pagan spirituality to those who do not wish to affiliate with a group. While solitary practice is acceptable, many Pagans do affiliate with others, typically in small groups that are either governed by consensus or some form of democratic process. These groups are known as circles, groves, tribes, or covens (a term used mostly by Wiccans and witches). Some groups (particularly traditionalist covens) have established leadership structures, although the small size of these groups supports direct accountability between the leaders and the membership. Despite a romantic notion that covens of witches should be limited to thirteen members (promoted by early authors like Gerald Gardner), in practice Wiccan and other Pagan groups can have anywhere from three to five or up to 100 or more members. Often larger groups will "hive" or split into smaller groups, thus enabling the religion to grow and allowing new leadership to emerge. Some groups are part of lineages or traditions, established by students of Pagan elders who go on to form their own groups, but remain under the tutelage of their mentors. Other groups are newly formed by enterprising individuals who read books on the religion and simply start their own gathering. On the regional or national level, umbrella organizations like the Covenant of the Goddess or the Pagan Federation enable independent Pagan groups to join together for common purposes, such as networking or political advocacy. Requirements for joining Wiccan or other Pagan groups vary. Some groups can only be joined through a ritual initiation, which typically occurs after a period of study. Other groups, such as the druid organization r nDraocht Fin, are membership-based: one joins simply by submitting an application. Some groups have a dues structure; others ask for pledges; others do not require

financial contributions but expect members to shoulder their share of group-related work. Groups typically engage in educational and ritual work: elders teach younger and newer members the theology and spirituality of Pagan religion in general and of their tradition in particular; communal rituals help the group members to put their spirituality into practice. Groups also often will engage in fellowship and community-building activities, as well as service projects, often oriented toward environmental preservation. As mentioned above, some Pagan individuals and groups own parcels of land that function as nature preserves as well as gathering places for the community at large. For many Pagans, retreating from urban settings to forest or wilderness environments, even if only for a weekend or a week, can be an important aspect of nature-oriented spiritual practice. Such Pagan nature preserves might be used only by one particular group or tradition, or might be more open to a broad cross-section of Wiccan, Pagan, nature-centered, occult, and goddess-oriented groups. Large-scale gatherings, known as Pagan festivals, can attract anywhere from fifty to a thousand or more participants. Participants generally camp on the land, offer and attend a variety of classes and workshops, engage in rituals, tend a communal bonfire, engage in communal music-making (usually involving a hand-drum circle), and purchase Pagan books, jewelry, and other merchandise. For many Pagans, attending a regional or national gathering is the highlight of the year. Finally, it should be noted that many Pagans are active online, and that numerous groups, mail lists, bulletin boards, blogs, meet-up groups, and other online resources are devoted to the learning and practice of Paganism. The relative anonymity of the internet allows newcomers to explore Pagan spirituality without necessarily committing to it. The wealth of resources online enable interested parties to learn about different traditions within Paganism - and even study one particular tradition in-depth - all from the safety and comfort of one's computer. Although some practitioners may "graduate" from online engagement with the Pagan community to in-person involvement with a group, for many the online dimension of their religious practice remains an essential part of their spiritual life. Leadership With influences as diverse as ancient mystery religions, shamanism and indigenous spirituality, 19thcentury occultism, and the anti-authoritarian ethos of the 1960s counterculture, many Pagan communities today feature a priesthood that is unpaid, relatively easy to enter, and collaborative in its leadership style. Few, if any, groups concentrate authority and leadership in a small number of clergypersons who minister to a large community of laypersons. Instead, Pagan communities typically will ordain many - if not most or all - active and committed members to positions of ritual, educational, and/or organizational leadership. Not only are both men and women eligible for clergy positions within Paganism, but many groups actually favor women. Many Wiccan communities regard their High Priestess as first among equals, and organize both new and existing covens around the leadership of the High Priestess. Generally the only groups that prohibit one gender or the other from assuming leadership positions are those that limit membership in general to just one gender. Likewise, groups rarely if ever limit ordination on account of sexual preference or relationship status.

Few Pagan seminaries exist; most local covens and groups provide their own training for future clergy. The largest pagan seminary is Cherry Hill Seminary, an online educational institution. Otherwise, in keeping with the non-professional status of most Pagan clergy, training typically does not involve traditional academic coursework (although some groups might require candidates to complete university-level coursework in clinical pastoral education or counseling). Rather, training is provided in a small-group or in a one-on-one format, focusing on oral instruction rather than the study of assigned texts. Groups generally provide instruction with a strong practical component, with students engaging in ritual leadership, ritual design, the development of psychic skills, organizational or administrative classes, and teaching of newcomers as part of their overall training. Some Wiccan and other Pagan communities feature a rite of passage or initiation ceremony to mark progress in the spiritual life as well as attainment of priesthood or leadership responsibility. Not all groups equate initiation with ordination. One common structure within Wicca is a three-degree initiation process, with new students receiving training and instruction culminating in three separate levels or degrees of initiation (often spaced a year or more apart). Some groups regard first-degree initiates as priests or priestesses, while others consider only second- or third-degree initiates to be ordained clergy. Since clergy and spiritual leadership is generally a social function, solitary adherents of Paganism may feel no need to regard themselves as priests or clergy. Solitaries may receive training from a mentor, or may be self-taught through books or personal intuition. Some solitaries may function as clergy in relation to society at large - for example, engaging in prison ministry or performing weddings - even though they are not members of an established religious or spiritual community. To the extent that Pagan communities are self-contained and do not interact with society as a whole, clergy credentials are not a significant concern; respect for the priest or priestess within the group is usually enough of a credential. However, as the Pagan community has grown and more naturecentered clergypersons engage in "public" ministries such as performing weddings and funerals, providing pastoral counseling, prison or hospital ministry, and speaking in public settings on behalf of their religious tradition, the perceived need for clergy credentials has grown. Some national organizations, including the Covenant of the Goddess and r nDraocht Fin: A Druid Fellowship, provide clergy credentials to qualified candidates. Others seek ordination through a third party, such as the Universal Life Church (ULC), Metaphysical Interfaith Church, or Universal Brotherhood. The requirements for ordination within these groups vary widely; the ULC, for example, requires little more than filling out an online form. Pagans who wish to pursue a fully professional credential can pursue ordination through the Unitarian Universalist (UU) Association, since the UU community accepts Pagans both as members and as clergypersons. However, ordination within the UU community leads specifically to credentials as a UU minister, which means that one's identity as a Pagan becomes a descriptive quality, rather than the central defining feature, of the individual's identity as a clergyperson. Within most groups, however, issues such as credentials or the ability to minister to non-group members is not an issue, and most Pagan clergy exercise their ministry in collaborative community with others who function as their peers, sometimes under the tutelage of one or more elders who function as mentors. This relatively informal and unstructured approach to ministry works because it diffuses power and authority among the group membership, which minimizes problems such as abuse or egotism and also enables each clergyperson to work without pay, since the responsibilities of the priesthood are shared with others.

Principles of Moral Thought and Action "An [if] it harm none, do what ye will." Although written in the style of 16th-century English, this maxim, known as the Wiccan Rede, probably dates back only to the mid-20th century. It was first recorded in print in 1964, having been spoken by Doreen Valiente, a priestess who had been initiated by Gerald Gardner. Some observers of modern witchcraft speculate that it may represent a revision of Aleister Crowley's occult maxim, "Do what thou wilt shall be the whole of the Law," which first appeared in 1904. Regardless of its origin, the Rede - as a succinct moral code - spread rapidly throughout the Wiccan and religious witchcraft community. Balancing an emphasis on personal responsibility with an imperative for non-harm of others, it meshed beautifully with the zeitgeist of the 1960s, an era when status quo morality was being questioned in the light of student unrest, emerging feminist and gay/lesbian concerns with their attendant re-thinking of traditional sexual morality, and public disapproval of conflicts such as the war in Vietnam. The Wiccan Rede's simple and common sense ethic allowed both the new freedoms of the age to flourish, while preserving a basic sense of responsibility and care for others - at least in terms of refraining from harm. Many variations of the Rede have emerged since its first appearance in the 1960s, some versions subtly re-defining its moral parameters. One common variant appends "Lest in thy self-defense it be," modifying the prohibition against harm in the interest of self-protection. The Wiccan community does not have a consensus view on how to interpret the Rede; some see it as a spiritual maxim pertaining only to magic, while others regard it as governing all conduct. For some, the prohibition on harm extends to an unwillingness to engage in military service, while others see no such limitation inherent in the Rede. Despite its popularity among Wiccans and some other modern Pagans, the Wiccan Rede is hardly universally observed in the Pagan community. Most non-Wiccans regard it as strictly a Wiccan text, and seek other principles for moral guidance. Many adherents of ethnic Pagan revivalist traditions look to the heritage of their chosen culture for guidance. For example, Celtic and Norse pagans advocate a life grounded in virtue as understood in the great myths and legends of northern Europe. Such values often reflect the importance of tribal kinship, valor among warriors, and personal pride. Here is a list of "Nine Noble Virtues" as used by some Norse Pagans: Courage - the ability to face both the joys and the challenges of life fearlessly; Truth - honesty and integrity in one's words as well as one's actions; Honor - strength of character as reflected in one's behavior and trustworthiness; Fidelity - loyalty and faithfulness to family, tribal, and spiritual commitments; Discipline - consistency in effort toward reaching one's goals; Hospitality - kindness to strangers, travelers, and those who are in need; Industriousness - willingness to work hard toward excellence in productivity; Self-Reliance - pride in the ability to care for one's own needs; Perseverance - refusal to admit defeat or to let obstacles thwart one's efforts. As is the case of the Wiccan Rede, the culturally specific values of various Pagan traditions are not universally accepted - not even within a specific cultural tradition.

Many Pagans consider environmental stewardship and care for the earth to be a central tenet of their religious ethics. Such an emphasis arises less out of traditional maxims or virtues and more out of the widespread contemporary recognition that humanity needs to redefine our relationship with the earth. Consequently, some Pagans feel inspired to engage in personal environmental activities (recycling, organic gardening, using green energy and reusable items like cloth grocery bags), participate in environmental advocacy groups (from national organizations like the Sierra Club to regional and local associations devoted to conservation work), and engage in political action on behalf of environmental causes. Others within the larger Pagan community may choose not to engage in such activity, either because they do not consider it spiritually necessary or because they do not see a necessary connection between Pagan spirituality and environmental activism. For example, they may prefer to engage in spiritual or magical efforts on behalf of nature, rather than emphasizing social or political action. Indeed, magic and spirituality play an important role not only in the practice of many forms of Paganism, but also in the shaping of Pagan ethics. Magic is grounded in a recognition that selfinterest and care for one's own family and tribe are acceptable principles of action; in this sense, Pagan spirituality functions quite well within a democratic capitalist economy, where self-interest is a foundational social principle. However, some magical communities impose restraints on the morality of self-interest, whether in terms of the Rede's "harm none," in terms of classical or mythological concepts of virtue, or in terms of balancing the competing interests of personal self-interest with the mandate for environmental responsibility and sustainable living. Ultimately, no universally observed ethical principles define the Pagan movement as a whole, although mythologically-derived notions of virtue and honor, the Wiccan Rede, the acceptance of magic as a tool for exercising spiritual power, and a balanced sense of the importance of caring for the environment are widely held values. Vision for Society Pagans encompass the entire spectrum of social and political value systems. Adherents of this type of spirituality may in good conscience espouse liberal, conservative, moderate, libertarian, green, and other political values. This, in itself, offers an important clue to the Pagan vision for society: it is a society where freedom of thought, expression, and political ideas are foundational. Although many Pagans identify with tribal or prehistoric social structures on a mythic or spiritual level, they also generally accept and espouse the values of liberal democracy. Many promote social change of some form, usually involving the promotion of non-sexist, non-homophobic, nonhierarchical, and even non-monogamous social values, although some minority groups (particularly among ethnic reconstructionist pagans) espouse less liberal positions. Alongside such progressive social values, many Pagans advocate environmentalism (although ideas about how environmentalism should be promoted vary; for example, libertarian Pagans might advocate for a free market approach to environmental responsibility, while left-leaning Pagans might argue for social policies to promote or enforce environmentalist policy initiatives).

One of the first well-known Pagan leaders to actively promote social activism as an outgrowth of her religious practice was Starhawk. After her first book (The Spiral Dance [1979], an introductory text to witchcraft), Starhawk wrote several books about social and political activism from the perspective of promoting ecofeminist values. By the late 1990s and early 2000s, Starhawk had emerged as a public figure as renowned for her activism as for her religious beliefs. Her work includes training others in nonviolence and direct action, and supporting the peace movement, women's movement, environmental movement, and the anti-globalization movement. In her book Truth or Dare: Encounters with Power, Authority, and Mystery (1987) Starhawk suggests that power can function in three ways: "power-over," "power-from-within," and "power-with." "Power-over" is power wielded by the privileged to dominate or control others. "Power-from-within," by contrast, is power not concentrated in the hands of a few, but rather power that emerges within individuals to enable them to reach their full potential and to engage creatively with others. "Powerwith" is the healthy social alternative to "power-over." "Power-with" is the egalitarian and truly democratic exercise of power in which peers join together to share power in common. Most of what is wrong in contemporary society can be traced back to toxic forms of dominating power. Thus the way to transform society is to encourage all people (and particularly those who traditionally have been denied access to power) to manifest their power-from-within, and then to join together with others as equals to create shared, healthy, non-dominating power structures in order to create a truly just and good social order. Selena Fox, the founder of Circle Sanctuary in Wisconsin, engages in a variety of social and environmental initiatives. She is the founder of the Lady Liberty League, devoted to promoting religious tolerance, especially (but not exclusively) for Pagans; through Circle Sanctuary she has led efforts toward nature preservation and environmental education. The Circle community engages in a variety of social ministries, including prison ministry, food drives, and public education on nature spiritualities. In 2005 Circle was in the forefront of "the pentacle quest," the successful legal effort to force the Veterans Administration to permit pentacle-marked headstones and memorials for Wiccan military veterans. In 2005, Llewellyn Publishers released a collection of essays called Pagan Visions for a Sustainable Future, edited by Ly de Angeles, Emma Restall Orr, and Thom van Dooren. This anthology features a variety of perspectives on the question of how Pagans envision a good society and what it will take to bring such visions to fruition. Topics covered include the ethics of Paganism (focusing on the question of "sacred relationships"), the relationship between magic and ecology, the role of shamanism in social and environmental change, telling the truth as a political act, and the value of sacred community. Taken as a whole, these essays celebrate the promise of Paganism to create a future in which humankind lives in harmony with the earth, spirituality grounded in magic will empower individuals and strengthen communities, and the human family will move beyond sexism, racism, and heterosexism, creating instead a culture where individuals are free to reach their full potential without artificial limitations imposed by social restraints. Despite the prominence of ecofeminist values and social activism within the Pagan community, not

all individuals and groups espouse such perspectives. It is possible to be a Pagan and be non-political, conservative, or libertarian. Many practitioners are enthusiastic supporters of their nation's military. Others see no essential contradiction between Paganism and acceptance of the social and political status quo. Nevertheless, for many Pagans, part of the experience of embracing nature-based, goddess-oriented, or polytheistic spirituality is also embracing the ability to envision a different social order for the future, in which personal liberties (particularly concerning sexuality and gender) are maximized, current social and economic problems are addressed by a return to tribal or communal values, and care for the earth (including the adoption of sustainable environmental practices) is considered a key social value. Gender and Sexuality When Gerald Gardner and his associates began publicly to discuss and promote Wicca in the 1950s and 1960s, several elements of the movement had strong erotic or fertility overtones. Gardner's group performed their rituals in the nude - a phenomenon called "working skyclad" - and one of the tools used in some rites was a scourge (which symbolized self-denial or sacrificial suffering). Some rites included ceremonial kissing between the priest and the priestess, while the dramatic "Great Rite" involved either actual or symbolic sexual intercourse between the priest and priestess leading the ritual. Although Gardnerian Wicca may be extreme in its explicit use of erotic symbolism and rituals - other forms of Wicca, witchcraft, and other nature religions do not always work skyclad or engage in other forms of ceremonial sexual expression - it is emblematic of the unabashedly positive view that Paganism in general holds toward sexuality. Unlike other religious traditions that have advocated celibacy, prohibited all sexual expression outside of marriage, and encouraged married couples to limit or restrict their sexual behavior, Pagan religions often reflect the permissiveness of the 1960sera sexual revolution in regard to extramarital sexuality, homosexuality, swinging or nonmonogamous relationships, fetishes or BDSM, use of contraceptives, and abortion. Although many adherents of Paganism adopt lifestyles consistent with mainstream liberal society, those who choose alternative lifestyles generally are accepted within the Pagan community with no need to hide or apologize for their lifestyle choice. Like society at large, Pagans abhor predatory or coercive sexual acts such as rape, date rape, child molestation, exploitative pornography, or sexual harassment. While polyamory (non-monogamy) and swinging is generally tolerated, opinion is divided among Pagans as to whether such behavior is truly good. Even those who accept or embrace non-monogamy believe it is wrong to lie or deceive one's partner(s) about such behavior - in other words, it is only okay to have multiple sexual partners when everyone involved is knowledgeable and accepting of the situation. Although abortion is not considered immoral in the Pagan community, the use of contraceptives is seen as preferable to the emotional and physical trauma of abortion. Persons with sexually transmitted diseases have a moral obligation to either refrain from sexual activity or, at the least, inform partners of their situation and use condoms or other prophylactics to reduce the risk of transmission.

Along with the liberal and positive approach to sexual behavior and ethics, Paganism generally endorses feminism and accepts a post-patriarchal understanding of gender. Nearly all segments of the Pagan community regard men and women as true equals, complementary to the extent that the biological realities of gender means some differences in abilities and strengths, but with a clear understanding that this complementarity does not in any way privilege one gender over the other. While some groups (such as Dianic Witchcraft) may limit their membership to one gender and consequently may regard that gender as privileged in some ways, for the most part nature spiritualities exult in the differences between male and female and celebrate the joyful ways in which those differences can come together in friendship, love, and sexual union. With this basic affirmation of equality between the sexes in place, the Pagan community nevertheless includes broad possibilities for the expression of gender identity. Traditional gender roles (such as the strong male warrior and the nurturing mother) are accepted and in some settings even affirmed. Some Pagan groups recognize a difference between "Male Mysteries" and "Female Mysteries" - male mysteries can include a celebration of hunting, athletic competition, the ethos of the warrior, and the cultivation of virtues such as bravery and honor; likewise, female mysteries can include the celebration of the menstrual cycle, the feminine journey from maiden to mother to crone, and the cultivation of traditionally "feminine" skills such as divination, herbalism, or healing work. The concept of male and female mysteries, like the construction of gender identity itself, is fluid and can vary from group to group (or even individual to individual). And while some groups may enforce restrictions that only allow persons who are genetically male or female to participate in the mysteries of their gender, on a purely individual level much latitude exists within the larger Pagan community for men or women to pursue their own interests, regardless of traditional gender affiliation. Thus, male herbalists and female warriors are not only acceptable within the Pagan community, but can even be regarded as prestigious examples of the personal freedom available within the community. Gay, lesbian, bisexual, intersexed, and transgendered persons also are generally welcomed within the Pagan community. Although some groups specifically cater to non-heterosexual or non-exclusivelyheterosexual Pagans, many groups welcome diversity in sexual expression among their members. Those whose sexuality and gender identity differ from societal norms are a sign not only of the diversity of nature itself, but also the liberality and tolerance that most Pagans consider to be bedrock values of their spirituality.