Chapter 3

Special Relativity
Really this is what is meant by the Fourth Dimension, though some people who talk about the Fourth
Dimension do not know they mean it. It is only another way of looking at Time. There is no difference
between time and any of the three dimensions of space except that our consciousness moves along it. But
some foolish people have got hold of the wrong side of that idea. You have all heard what they have to
say about this Fourth Dimension?

3.1

Minkowski Space-time

In modern terms, special relativity is the study of physics in a universe governed by the Minkowski metric,
equation (2.97). The Minkowski metric has coordinates
(X0 , X1 , X2 , X3 ) = (ct, x, y, z)

(3.1)

where t is time and c is the speed of light. Note that the time component, by convention, is distinguished
by being given the index 0. Also, the metric is diagonal,
ab = Diagonal(1, 1, 1, 1),

(3.2)

with the time component of opposite sign to the spatial components.

We will examine the geometry of the Minkowski metric in detail. First recall that the spatial part of
ab is Cartesian, apart from an overall minus sign. We could, of course, transform to another coordinate
system such as spherical polars. However, this would introduce an apparent dependence of the metric
elements on position, which would obscure the simplicity and symmetry of the metric. Thus for this
chapter we will exclusively use Cartesian spatial coordinates.
We first note that the Minkowski metric is independent of position and time. This fact gives it the
property of
Definition 3.1 Homogeneity An object or physical law is homogeneous if it has the same form at
all places, i.e. (its form is invariant to translations).
A rotation of the spatial (x, y, z) axes leaves the Minkowski metric unchanged.

Exercise 3.1

Show that the Minkowski metric is unchanged by a rotation by an angle about the z axis, where
t
x
y
z

t;
x cos y sin ;
y cos + x sin ;
z.

34

(3.3)
(3.4)
(3.5)
(3.6)

3.2 Units

35

Thus it has the property of isotropy.

Definition 3.2 Isotropy An object or physical law is isotropic if it has the same in all directions,
i.e. its from is invariant to rotations, about any central point and axis.
Objects can be homogeneous but not isotropic.
Examples:
A uniform magnetic field. The field looks the same at all points in space, but points in a particular
direction.
A regular crystal. The crystal structure may appear the same at different places, but the molecular
bonds are oriented in particular directions
Most fabrics are woven with a warp and a weft, with the result that their ability to stretch depends
on direction.

It is not possible to be isotropic but nonhomogeneous. For example, consider a distribution of stars. If the distribution is nonisotropic, more stars are seen in some directions than others. But then regions seen in
different directions (A and B) must be different and therefore non-homogeneous.
Isotropic Homogeneous .

(3.7)

Also note that spherical symmetry about some

central point does not imply isotropy about all
points.

3.2

Units

The zeroth coordinate in Minkowski space-time is X0 = ct. The presence of the factor of c makes many
of the equations more complicated. But we need this factor because traditional units for time and space
are different. In order to understand space and time in a unified way, we need to employ a system of
units which treats space and time more equally.

Exercise 3.2 Suppose there were a move to convert the measure of distance on British roads to
kilometers. However, this move was fiercely resisted by half of the population. In a political compromise,
it was decided to measure East-West distances with kilometers, and North-South distance with miles.
Imagine coping with this mixed system. What would be the distance from London to Manchester?
What would speedometers and odometers look like?
Relativistic Units
In conventional units the speed of light in a vacuum is c = 2.997 . . . 108 m s1 .
In a relativistic system of units c = 1. There are two ways of constructing such systems.
a. Use a basic unit of time; the length unit will be the distance travelled by light in that time.
A) choose the time unit to be the second (s), and define the unit of length to be the lightsecond (` s)
1` s = 3 108 m.
(3.8)
In these units, c = 1` s/ s. Usually, we do not bother writing the ` s/ s, and so c = 1.

36

Special Relativity

B) Time unit: year (y); length unit: light-year ( ` y).

1`y

3 108

m
3.4 107 s
s

1016 m

(3.9)
(3.10)

and c = 1 ` y/ y. Again we will ignore the ` y/ y and just say c = 1.

b. Use a basic unit of length; the time unit will be the interval of time needed for light to travel that
distance.
Choose the length unit to be the metre ( m), and the time unit to be the light-metre (` m)
1` m 3 109 s

(3.11)

and c = 1 m/` m = 1.
Example 3.1 Express Watts in relativistic units with basic units second, kilogram.

Solution
1W

1 kg m2 s3

1 kg s1

1
9 1016

m
s2

(3.12)


ls
3 108 m
 2
ls
kg s1
s

2

1.1 1017 kg s1

(3.13)
(3.14)
(3.15)

N.B. We could have reached this by multiplying by c or c1 until only the units kg and s were left
(cancel out as many factors of c as necessary to get the units right).
In reverse: what is 1kg s1 in Watts?
Solution Multiply by c2 to obtain the right units
1 kg s1

= 9 1016 kg m2 s3
= 9 1016 W.

(3.16)
(3.17)

Exercise 3.3 The gravitational constant is G = 6.67 108 cm3 g1 s2 . Express G in relativistic
units, with the basic units being grams and centimetres (time measured in light-cms). Next in relativistic
units calculate the escape velocity V from the surface of the earth. Also calculate 1. (Recall that the
gravitational potential energy of an object of mass m at the surface of the Earth is GM m/R , where
M is the mass of the Earth and R is its radius.)
Earth mass: M = 6 1027 g.
Earth radius: R = 6.4 103 km.
Exercise 3.4 The acceleration due to gravity at the Earths surface is 1g = 9.8 sm2 . Express this
in relativistic units with basic unit being the year (i.e. lengths are measured in light years). (1 year
3.2 107 s.)

3.3 Einsteins Axioms of Special Relativity

3.3

37

Einsteins Axioms of Special Relativity

The Minkowski metric, as we have seen, is invariant to translations and spatial rotations. However, in
a four dimensional space-time manifold, we can also consider rotations involving both space and time
coordinates. Such mixing of space and time coordinates may seem mysterious, but actually the effect is
simple: the spatial origin x = y = z = 0 in the rotated system moves at a constant velocity with respect
to the original system. This is called boost.
Definition 3.3 Boost A boost is a transformation to a coordinate system moving at a constant
relative velocity with respect to the original system.
Einsteins famous 1905 paper demonstrated that we needed a new conception of space-time if we were
to have a theory of electromagnetism which looked the same in all coordinate systems, especially ones
reached via a boost transformation. He started out with the idea of a coordinate system, or reference
frame in which there are no inertial forces such as centrifugal or Coriolis forces.
Definition 3.4 Inertial Reference Frame An inertial reference frame (IRF) is a co-ordinate
system for space-time with Cartesian spatial co-ordinates, and where there exist no inertial (fictitious)
forces.
The invariance of Maxwells equations led Einstein to believe that the speed of light does not change
when boosting to a moving reference frame. He wrote down two axioms for physics in general, and
electromagnetic radiation in particular:

a. The laws of physics are invariant to translations, rotations and boosts.

b. The speed of light is the same in all IRFs.

3.4

Space-Time Diagrams

Space-time diagrams place time on the vertical axis, with one space dimension on the horizontal axis (or
two in a horizontal plane).
Definition 3.5 Worldline The worldline of an object is the path it traces in space-time.
If we just look at one space dimension (x), the velocity of the object is dx/ dt. Since the vertical
axis is time, however, the slope of the world line is dt/ dx.
For photons c = dx/ dt = 1. In special relativity light moves at an angle of arctan(1) = /4 on a
space-time diagram.
Choose a point on an objects world-line, P , to be = 0. Then let be the arclength away from P ,

p
gab dXa dXb .

(3.18)

Definition 3.6 Proper Time The arclength along a worldline is called the proper time.

38

Special Relativity

t
y

Figure 3.1: The object with the worldline to the left is at rest. The object to the right is
moving in a circular orbit.
t

Q
00
11
00 (Q)
11

0
P1
0
1
0 (P)
1

Definition 3.7 Event A space-time event P is a point in space-time.

Suppose at event P a camera flash goes off, sending an expanding sphere of light into space (and
time). We can most easily picture this expanding sphere by suppressing one dimension. For example,
suppose the z co-ordinate of P is 0. We can then consider how the light travels in the z = 0 plane. The
expanding sphere of light intersects this plane as an expanding circle. In a space-time diagram showing
the x, y, and t directions, the expanding circle traces out a cone.
The future light cone at an event P shows how a pulse of light emitted at P travels through space-

3.4 Space-Time Diagrams

39

time. A light-cone splits space-time into space-like and time-like parts. Objects moving slower than light
(i.e. all massive objects!) can only reach the time-like parts. One would need to move faster than light
to reach the space-like parts.

Figure 3.2: The interval PQ is light-like ( = 0), as Q is on Ps past light cone. The interval
PR is space-like ( < 0), while PS is time-like ( > 0).

A particle with 3-velocity V = ( dx/ dt, dy/ dt, dz/ dt) satisfies
2


V  dt2 = dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 .

(3.19)

2

For a photon,  V  = c = 1, and so dt2 = dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 between any two events along a photons
world-line. By Einsteins second axiom, this is true for a photon as seen in any IRF.
Suppose we define a small interval between two points d by
d 2 dt2 dx2 dy 2 dz 2 .

(3.20)

d 2 = 0

(3.21)

Then
along a photon path in all IRFs. This suggests that d behaves like a metric line element. In fact, it is
precisely the line element
d 2 = gab dX a dX b
(3.22)
resulting from the Minkowski metric

gab = ab

1 0
0
0
0 1 0
0

=
0 0 1 0 .
0 0
0 1

Space-time equipped with ab is called Minkowski space or M 4 . A world-line is a curve in M 4 .

Theorem

(3.23)

40

Special Relativity
Proper time equals clock time in the rest frame of the object.
Proof: In the rest frame R,
dR1 = dR2 = dR3 = 0,

(3.24)

so d 2 = dR0 = dt2R . We generally chose to have coordinate time increase in the same
direction as proper time, so we can take the positive square root:
d = dtR .
The tangent vector to the world line is the 4-vector

dt/ d
dXa
dx/ d

Ua =
=
dy/ d
d
dz/ d

(3.25)

(3.26)

What is the corresponding form Ua ?

Ua = ab U b

dt/ d
1 0
0
0

0 1 0
0
dx/ d
=
0 0 1 0 dy/ d
dz/ d
0 0
0 1


dt
dx
dy
dz
=
,
,
,
.
d
d
d
d
|U |2 = Ua U a
2 
2 
2 
2

dx
dy
dz
dt

=
d
d
d
d
2
2
2
2
dt dx dy dz
=
d 2

2
ds2
d
=
=
=1
d 2
d
Ua U a = 1
in all reference frames

(3.27)
(3.28)

(3.29)

(3.30)
(3.31)
(3.32)
(3.33)
(3.34)

This is easiest to see in the rest frame, where Ua = (1, 0, 0, 0).

Exercise 3.5 Suppose a spaceship moves at speed V in the Earth frame. What is
dtE / d where tE is the Earth time and is proper time inside the spaceship? Next suppose the spaceship is investigating some scalar function of position f (tE , xE , yE , zE ) (e.g.
temperature of the interplanetary medium). The ship measures and records f ( ) as it travf
els through space. Find df / d in terms of tfE and the spatial gradient ( x
, f , f ).
E yE zE
Can you express your result in 4-vector notation?

3.5 The Poincar

e and Lorentz Groups

3.5

41

The Poincar
e and Lorentz Groups

These are the sets of transforms from one IRF to another i.e. that preserve gab = ab .
Thus going from coordinates XA to XB with transform LAB gives

1 0
0
0
1 0
0
0
0 1 0
0 1 0
0
0
;

gA ab =
g
=
(3.35)
ab
B
0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0
0 0
0 1
0 0
0 1
Example 3.2 Rotation about Axes.
0
1
0
1
0 y
1
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yB
0
1
A
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0
1

LAB has the rule

tB = tA
xB = cos xA + sin yA
yB = sin xA + cos yA
zB = zA

1
0
0
0

Ba
0 cos sin 0
=
=
Ab 0 sin cos 0
0
0
0
1

(3.36)
(3.37)
(3.38)
(3.39)

LAB

(3.40)

Example 3.3 Translations.

Consider the transformation PAB
tB = tA + 3 yB = yA 5
xB = xA 2 zB = zA 4
The orientation of the axes does not change:
origin of the B system is at (ta , xa ) = (5, 4).

B
A

(3.41)

= I 4 . However, the origin moves the

The set of all ab preserving transformations is called the Poincare group, while those
which leave the origin fixed (no translation, just rotation) are the Lorentz group. The
Lorentz group is a subgroup of the Poincare group.

42

Special Relativity

3.5.1

Group Axioms

a. Closure:
XA
=

PAB

XA AC

XB

PBC

XC

XC .

(3.42)
(3.43)

Let PAB and PBC be any elements of the Poincare group. Then: PAC =
PBC PAB (composition of the two transformations) preserves ab if both PAB and
PBC do.
b. Identity:
If XA = XB , then

PAB

1
0
=
0
0

0
1
0
0

0
0
1
0

0
0
.
0
1

(3.44)

c. Inverse:
1
PAB
= PBA

(3.45)

(PAB PBC ) PCD = PAB (PBC PCD )

(3.46)

d. Associative:

Theorem:
For any Lorentz transform LAB
|det(LAB )| = 1

(3.47)

Proof:
Both A and B are inertial frames, so gA ab = ab and gB ab = ab . Thus
Bc Bd
cd
Aa Ab
= Lc a Ld b cd .

ab =

(3.48)
(3.49)

where L = LAB . Now, the determinant of the product of two matrices is the product of
the determinants, so
det() = det(L)2 det()
= det(L)2 = 1.

(3.50)
(3.51)

|det(LAB )| = 1 .

(3.52)

Definition 3.8 Proper and Improper Transforms

3.6 Lorentz Boosts

43

Proper Lorentz transforms have det(L) = 1

Improper Lorentz transforms have det(L) = 1
Example 3.4 Mirror Transform

t
1 0 0 0
t
0 1 0 0 x
x

=
0 0 1 0 y .
y
z A
0 0 0 1
z B

(3.53)

This improper transform reflects objects in the x direction.

3.6

Lorentz Boosts

3.6.1

Deriving the transformation matrix

Suppose a spaceship moves, velocity vi w.r.t. Earth:

Ships rest frame: S
Earths rest frame: E

(3.54)
(3.55)

Assume the origins coincide Sa = 0 is the same event as Ea = 0. There will be many
Lorentz transformations which go from the Earth frame to the Ships frame; these will
differ by rotations in space. We can guess, however, that there will be a simple one where
the y and z coordinates do not change: yS = yE and zS = zE . Thus we will try transforms
of the form:

t
? 0 0 0
t
0 ? 0 0 x
x

=
(3.56)
y
0 0 1 0 y
z E
0 0 0 1
z
 S 
 
t

t
=
=
(3.57)
x S

x E
1) c = 1 in both frames
In all frames, a photon moving to the
right passes through events with
  
t
t
=
.
(3.58)
x
t

t
(t,-t)

11
00
00
11
00 (t,t)
11

Ph

o
ot

Ph

ot
on

1
0
0
1

A photon moving to the left, on the

other hand, passes through
   
t
t
=
.
(3.59)
x
t

44

Special Relativity
Suppose in the Earth frame a photon passes through the event
 
 
t
1
=
.
x E
1 E

In ships co-ordinates,
 


 
t
t

1
=
=
x S
t S

1 E

(3.60)

tS = +
= +
+ = + .

(3.61)
(3.62)
(3.63)

Thus

 
 
t
1
A photon could also pass through
=
, which has ships co-ordinates
x E
1 E
 

 
t

1
=
x S

1 E
 
t
=
t S
tS =
=
=

(3.64)
(3.65)
(3.66)
(3.67)
(3.68)

Combining these two results gives

+ =+
=
2 = 2

= ,

(3.69)
(3.70)
(3.71)

(3.72)

We now have
 

 
t

t
=
.
x S

x E
2) Follow spatial origin in ships co-ordinates

(3.73)

3.6 Lorentz Boosts

45

 
 
t
t
On the ship,
=
. But, Earthlings see this move at speed V
x S
0 S
 
 
t
t

=
x
Vt
 E  
t
t

=
x S
0 S

 

t
=

Vt E

(3.74)
(3.75)
(3.76)

And so,
tS = tE + V tE
= ( + V ) tE
xS = tE + V tE
= ( + V ) tE
=0
+ V = 0
= V

(3.77)
(3.78)
(3.79)
(3.80)
(3.81)
(3.82)
(3.83)

Thus, we have
 

t
1
=
x S
V

V
1

 
t
.
x E

(3.84)

3) Apply det(L) = 1


det
V


=1

(3.85)

= 2 2V 2
2

1V
1
2 =
1V2
=

(3.86)

1
.
1V2

4) Inverse Transformation
From the ships frame to the Earths frame
 

 
t
V
t
=
x E
V
x S
This is the inverse transform to the one from Earth to ship, as V V .

(3.87)
(3.88)

(3.89)

(3.90)

46

Special Relativity

3.7

Simultaneity

A surface of simultaneity is a set of points where t =constant in some reference frame.

Lets look at the Ships surface of simultaneity in the Earths co-ordinate frame.
The line tS = 0 contains events occurring simultaneously in the ships frame.

tE

line t =0

S
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line tE=0

From the inverse transformation,

tE = V xS
xE = xS
tE = V xE .

(3.91)
(3.92)
(3.93)

This is the line in the Earths frame of reference corresponding to tS = 0.

Events P, Q are simultaneous in the Earths frame, but not in the Ships. Events P, R
are simultaneous in the Ships frame, but not in the Earths.
Exercise 3.6 Suppose a spaceship moves at speed V x with respect to the Earth, where
V = 1/2. Let the coordinates in the rest frame of the ship be
Sa = (S0 , S1 ) = (tS , xS ),

(3.94)

(ignoring the y and z components). Similarly, let Ea = (E0 , E1 ) = (tE , xE ) be coordinates

in the rest frame of the Earth. Also let (0, 0)S = (0, 0)E . Draw a space-time diagram
where the horizontal axis gives xE and the vertical axis gives tE . On this diagram draw
the line xS = 0 (the time axis in the ship rest frame) and the line tS = 0 (the space axis
in the ship rest frame). What is the angle between these lines?

3.8

Length Contraction

noindentDefinition Length: The length of an object is the spatial distance between the
ends, measured simultaneously in some reference frame.

3.8 Length Contraction

47

Consider a metre stick at rest on the

spaceship; The space travellers measure the position of the ends of the
stick simultaneously at P, R. Earthlings see P, Q as simultaneous events
corresponding to the ends of the stick
at tE = 0.

R
LS

P
LE

V t RE

Thus,
tE
P 0
Q 0
R ?

xE
0
LE
?

tS
0
?
0

xS
0
?
LS

Apply the Lorentz transform to find the ?s.


Q:
R:

 
 


tQ

V
0
V LE
=
=
xQ
V

LE
LE
  
 


tR
V
0
V LS
=
=
xR
V
LS
LS

(3.95)
(3.96)

The right end of the stick moves from Q R with speed V w.r.t. Earth
xRE = xQE + V (tRE tQE )
= xQE + V tRE

(3.97)
(3.98)

If we combine this with the Lorentz transform, we get

LS = LE + V (V LS )
= LE = LS ( V 2 )
2

(3.99)
(3.100)

= LS (1 V )

(3.101)

= LS 2

(3.102)

= LS

LE = LS 1

(3.103)
(3.104)

48

Special Relativity
and since > 1,
LE < L S .

3.9
3.9.1

(3.105)

Relativistic Dynamics
The 4-momentum

The three-momentum of an object is defined as

p = m V. In space-time, we use U

instead of V. For an object travelling at speed V, a Lorentz transformation from the

rest frame of the object gives



a
.

U =
(3.106)
V
We can check that |U|2 = 1:

Ua U = (, V)
a

= 2 (1 V 2 ) = 1.

(3.107)

Next, we extend momentum from the three dimensional

p to a four-dimensional
object. We do this by including the energy E. This makes intuitive sense: classical mechanics conserves E as well as the three components of momentum. Another rational for
combining energy and momentum follows from the symmetries of space-time. Noethers
theorem (see chapter 7) shows that momentum conservation is a direct consequence of the
homogeneity of space (i.e. invariance to spatial translations). But Noether also showed
that energy conservation follows in the same way from the homogeneity of time (invariance to time translations). Thus combining space and time into space-time corresponds
to combining energy and momentum into one object as well.
As we will see later, when analyzing orbits, the 4-momentum works most naturally
as a form rather than a vector. In other areas of physics momentum also appears as
dual or conjugate to vectors, in particular the position vector. Recall, for example, that

in quantum theory momentum appears paired with the position vector

x , e.g. in the

Fourier transform term exp(i

p
x /~). In these cases
p combines with
x to form a
scalar, just as a form combines with a vector to form a scalar. This is why we will begin
with its definition as a form. We are free to give names to the components of p. In

fact, we will give the symbols E to p0 and

p to the other components. Afterwards, we

justify these names, showing that E acts like energy and

p acts like the non-relativistic
momentum.
noindentDefinition 4-momentum The 4-momentum is a form p defined by
pa mgab U b = mUa .

(3.108)

The components of the 4-momentum will be given names:

pa (E,
p ).

(3.109)

3.9 Relativistic Dynamics

49

The raised form of the 4-momentum pa g ab pb is simply

pa = mU a .

(3.110)

In Special Relativity where gab = ab the raised form of the 4-momentum is

 
E
a
ab
p = pb =
.

(3.111)

This implies


(3.112)

p = m V.

(3.113)

p =
so that

m V

The right hand side gives the non-relativistic 3-momentum, apart from the factor of
(which is very nearly 1 in non-relativistic situations). Thus we are justified in our choice

of the symbol
p for the spatial components of the 4-momentum.
The 0th component of p resembles the non-relativistic energy, plus just a bit extra:
E = p0 = m

(3.114)


2 1/2

=m 1V


1 2
4
= m 1 + V + O(V )
2
1
m + mV 2 + O(V 4 ).
2

(3.115)
(3.116)
(3.117)

We interpret this as the rest mass (m) + kinetic energy (mV 2 /2) + relativistic correction
(O(V 4 )).
In the rest frame = 1 and we have Einsteins famous equation
E=m .

(3.118)

(or in non-relativistic units E = mc2 ).

Exercise 3.7

a. Show that if the particle has three-velocity V,

p = E V.

b. Show that E 2 = |
p |2 + m2 .
3.9.2

Forces

Newton:
Classically: F = ma
In Special Relativity, this becomes
fa = ma a

(3.119)

50

Special Relativity

where

dU a
d2 X a
=
.
d
d 2

aa

(3.120)

Theorem:

a aU a = 0

(3.121)

i.e. the 4-acceleration is perpendicular to the 4-velocity.

Proof:
dU
U
d


1 d UU
=
2
d
1 d
=
(1)
2 d
= 0.

a U =

(3.122)
(3.123)
(3.124)
(3.125)

Corollary Since the force f = ma , with m scalar, we also have

f U=0 .
3.9.3

(3.126)

Energy-Momentum Conservation

Consider 2 particles colliding:

Total 4-momentum
p

before
after

pa1 + pa2
pa3 + pa4

(3.127)
(3.128)

Conservation of Energy and Momentum:

p

= pa1 + pa2 = pa3 + pa4

(3.129)

3.9.4

Photons

The four-velocity becomes ill-defined when V 1:






U =
V
V

(3.130)

3.9 Relativistic Dynamics

51

Fortunately, the 4-momentum still makes sense. Let m 0 while V 1, keeping

E = m constant:

pa = (m, m V) = (E, E V).

(3.131)

Note that |p|2 = m2 .

The 3-vector V becomes a unit vector as its modulus V 1. Let k = limV 1 V.

Here k tells us the direction of travel of the photon.
Then pa = (E, E k).
In quantum theory, E = ~ for a photon, where is the angular frequency of the
light. This implies

pa = ~(, k )
(3.132)

We will write ka = (,
where k = k.
k ) for the wave-number
= p = ~k .

(3.133)

N.B. The world-line of a photon cannot be parameterized by (proper time), since

proper time does not exist for a photon (d = 0 along the path of a photon). We can still
use other parameters, for example the coordinate time t in some reference frame.

Chapter 4

Maxwells Equations in Tensor Form

Well, I do not mind telling you I have been at work upon this geometry of Four Dimensions for some
time. Some of my results are curious. For instance, here is a portrait of a man at eight years old, another
at fifteen, another at seventeen, another at twenty-three, and so on. All these are evidently sections, as it
were, Three-Dimensional representations of his Four-Dimensioned being, which is a fixed and unalterable
thing.

4.1

Maxwells Equations Review

We will use units where 0 = 0 = c = 1 (Vacuum Equations)

4.1.1

Internal Structure Equations

The internal structure equations involve the fields only; matter terms involving charges
and currents do not appear.

B = 0,

E + t B = 0.

(4.1)
(4.2)

Equation (4.1) implies there are no magnetic monopoles - lines of magnetic flux have
no endpoints. The meaning of Equation (4.2) can be seen by integrating over a surface S
bounded by a curve C:
52

4.1 Maxwells Equations Review

53

^n

Z 

E n
d2 x =

t B n
d2 x
S
Z

d
=
B n
d2 x
dt S
d
=
[magnetic flux through S]
dt
Z

(4.3)
(4.4)
(4.5)

but, by Stokes theorem

Z
Z 

2
E dl
E n
d x=

(4.6)

= [electric power round C]

(4.7)

Thus, changes in the magnetic flux produce electric power (and vice-versa).
4.1.2

Source Equations

E = c ,

B t E = J .

(4.8)
(4.9)

Equation (4.8) implies that electric field lines start and stop at electric charges.

For non-relativistic applications, t E is

small, and equation (4.9) gives

B J

(4.10)

i.e. Magnetic field lines circle currents

Maxwells equations give us 4 vector equations, but 8 component equations.

54

Maxwells Equations in Tensor Form

4.1.3

Lorentz Force

The source equations tell us how matter generates fields. We need a supplemental equation
to see how fields affect matter - the Lorentz Force equation. For a particle of charge q



F =q E+VB .
(4.11)

4.1.4

Charge Conservation

Charge conservation is expressed by the equation

t c + J = 0.

(4.12)

If we integrate this over a volume V , bounded by the surface S, containing charge Q;

t c d x =
J d3 x
V
Z
IV

d
3
=
c d x =
J n
d2 x
(By the Divergence Theorem)
dt V
S
d
(Q) = [flow of charge out of V ]
=
dt
Z

V
Q

A physical system of fields and matter can be represented as follows:

(4.13)
(4.14)
(4.15)

4.2 The Faraday Tensor

4.2

55

The Faraday Tensor

We define the Faraday Tensor as the antisymmetric tensor

b

}|
{
Ex Ey Ez )
0
Bz By
a.
Bz
0
Bx
By Bx
0

0
Ex
Fab =
Ey
Ez

(4.16)

Definition 4.1 two-forms A two-form is an antisymmetric second rank tensor with

two lower indices.
Thus the Faraday tensor is a two-form. In general, we will define fields as forms (like
gradients), and particles (i.e. 4-velocities, currents) as vectors. However, at times we can
raise or lower using the metric. e.g. Ua = gab U b .
Exercise 4.1
a. Find the raised version of Fab , i.e. find F cd = ce df Fef . Be careful if you use matrix
multiplication!!
b. Next find the dual Faraday tensor
F ab 1/2 abcd F .
cd
Answer:

F ab

4.3

0
+Bx +By +Bz
Bx
0
Ez Ey

=
By Ez
0
Ex
Bz Ey Ex
0

(4.17)

(4.18)

Internal Structure Equations

a Fbc + b Fca + c Fab = 0

True for any a, b, c = 0, 1, 2, 3.

Example 4.1 a = 1, b = 2, c = 3
1 F23 + 2 F31 + 3 F12 = 0

=
Bx +
By + Bz = 0
x
y
z

B =0
which is the first Maxwell equation.
Note: There are 64 combinations of a, b, c, but most are useless!

(4.19)

56

Maxwells Equations in Tensor Form

Example 4.2 a = 1, b = 2, c = 2
1 F22 + 2 F21 + 2 F12 = 0

(0) +
(Bz ) +
(Bz ) = 0
=
x
y
y
= 0 = 0

Which is true automatically, and tells us nothing.

Only 4 choices of a, b, c are useful those where all three are different.
Exercise 4.2 Consider the equation
b F

ab

= 0.

(4.20)

Find the four equations for E and B generated by letting a = 0, a = 1, a = 2, and a = 3.

Show that these are just the Internal Maxwell equations
B = 0,

4.4

E+

B
= 0.
t

(4.21)

Source Equations
b F ab = j a .

(4.22)

where: j 0 = c , (j 1 , j 2 , j 3 ) = J , and
F ab = ac bd Fcd ,
F ab = g ac g bd Fcd ,

(Special Relativity);
(General Relativity).

(4.23)
(4.24)

Special Relativity:

F ab

0
Ex
Ey
Ez
Ex
0
Bz By
.
=
Ey Bz
0
Bx
Ez By Bx
0

There are 4 equations, for a = 0, 1, 2, 3

E.g. a = 0:
b F 0b = j 0
0 F 00 + 1 F 01 + 2 F 02 + 3 F 03 = j 0
t (0) + x Ex + y Ey + z Ez = c

E = c

(4.25)

4.5 Charge Conservation

4.5

57

Charge Conservation

c
+ J = 0
t


0
1
0 j + 1 j + 2 j 2 + 3 j 3 = 0

(4.26)
(4.27)

or
a j a = 0 .

(4.28)

This equation follows immediately from the Source equation:

a j a = a b F ab = 0

(4.29)

as a b is antisymmetric while F ab is symmetric.

The 4-divergence
In general, when the 4-divergence, a V a , of a vector field vanishes, we say that V a is
conserved.
 
c
a
. The time component j 0 = c gives the amount of charge
The 4-current is j =
J

moving in the time direction per unit (space) volume. The components of J give the
amount of charge moving in each space direction per unit time.
Exercise 4.3 Let inertial frame B move at speed V x with respect to inertial frame
A. Suppose in frame A the magnetic field components vanish. Using the Faraday Tensor,
find the magnetic field components and electric field components in frame B.

4.6

Lorentz Force
f a = qUb F ba .

(4.30)

Example 4.3 What is the a = 1 component of the force? Solution

f 1 = qUb F b1
= f 1 = q F 01 Vx F 11 Vy F 21 Vz F 31

= q (Ex Vx (0) Vy (Bz ) Vz By )

= q (Ex + (Vy Bz Vz By ))



= q Ex + ( V B)x
and so


f 1 , f 2 , f 3 = q E + B
Checking that f U = 0


f U = qU F U
= qF U U

(Ua = (, V))

58

Maxwells Equations in Tensor Form

but F is anti-symmetric, while U U is symmetric; the double contraction therefore

gives 0.
Exercise 4.4 Express the Lorentz scalars
F ab Fab ,

F ab F
ab

(4.31)

in terms of E and B. Suppose that E vanishes in some inertial frame. Show that E must
be perpendicular to B in all frames. Is it possible for B = 0, E 6= 0 in one frame and
E = 0, B 6= 0 in another?

4.7

Potential Form

Definition 4.2 Electromagnetic potential The electromagnetic potential is given by the

form

= (e , A)
(4.32)

where e is the static electric potential and A is the magnetic vector potential.
The Faraday tensor involves antisymmetric derivatives of :
Fab = b a a b .

(4.33)

This definition is consistent with the assignments

E = e t A,

B = A.

(4.34)

4.7.1

(4.35)

Advantage Internal Structure Equations

These are automatically satisfied:

a Fbc + b Fca + c Fab = ?
Using the electromagnetic potential,
= a (c b b c ) + b (a c c a ) + c (b a a b ) = 0
just by cancellations.
4.7.2

Advantage Source Equations

The equation
b F ab = j a

(4.36)

b b a a b = j a

(4.37)

becomes
where a = g ab b .

4.8 Gauge Transformations

59

We can write this as

2 a a b b = j a
where:
2 dAlembertian
= b b
2
2
2
2
= 2 2 2 2
t
x
y
z
2

= 2 2
t
Thus, Maxwells equations reduce to a single source equation, with the internal equations being automatic and no longer needed.

4.8

Gauge Transformations

Recall that B = A. Suppose we apply the gauge transformation A 0 = A + for

some function . Then
0

B = A0
(4.38)

= A +
(4.39)

= A +0
(4.40)

= B.
(4.41)
Similarly, if 0 = + , then
0
Fab
= b (a + a ) a (b + b )
= b a a b + (b a a b )
= Fab .

The potentials are therefore not unique, and we are free to choose the most convenient
potential, a , to solve the problem

4.9

Lorentz Gauge

Suppose we try a potential, 0 , where

a 0a = h
for some function h. Then we may apply the gauge transformation
0 = +
where satisfies
a a = h.

60

Maxwells Equations in Tensor Form

This equation can be shown to always have a solution, and so we are left with a new
potential which satisfies
a a = 0 .

Lorentz Gauge

(4.42)

In Lorentz gauge, the source equation becomes

2 a = j a .

4.10

(4.43)

Light Waves

In the vacuum, j a = 0
= 2 a = 0
b a

= b = 0

2 2 2 =0
=
t2
x
y
z
a

(4.44)
(4.45)

(4.46)

which is the wave equation, with solution of the form

a = C a eikb x

a i(t k
x)

=C e

(4.47)
.

(4.48)

Here k = (, k ) is the wave vector, and C a is the amplitude.

Check:
2 a
= 2 a
2
t
2 a
= kx2 a
x2
etc . . .
Substituting these into the wave equation gives

2 + k 2 = 0
or




= k.

(4.49)
(4.50)
(4.51)
(4.52)

(4.53)
(4.54)

Exercise 4.5 Suppose that magnetic monopoles exist in nature. Then, in addition to
the electric charge-current 4-vector je , there is a magnetic charge-current 4-vector jm =
(m , jm x , jm y , jm z ) where m is the magnetic charge density and jm x is the current of
magnetic charge in the x direction. The Maxwell equations become
b F ab = jea
ab
a
b F
= jm
.

4.10 Light Waves

61

ab
a
a. Consider the second equation b F = jm
. Find the four equations for E and B
generated by letting a = 0, a = 1, a = 2, and a = 3.
b. Show that magnetic charge is conserved; i.e. show that
a
a jm
= 0.

c. The Lorentz force on a magnetic monopole of charge qm and 4-velocity U a is

fa =

dpa
ab
= qm Ub F .
d

Find the four equations generated by letting a = 0, a = 1, a = 2, and a = 3. Express

these in terms of the three-velocity V = d

x /dt and = (1 V 2 )1/2 .
d. Show that the Lorentz force in the previous item is perpendicular to U in the sense
that
f U = 0.
e. Suppose that the Faraday tensor Fab can be written in the form
Fab = a b b a
for some four-potential . Show that the magnetic current 4-vector must vanish, i.e.
jm = 0.