General Relativity

Lecture Notes C348

c Mitchell A Berger Mathematics University College London 2004

Contents
1 Manifolds, Vectors, and Gradients 1.1 Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.1 Product Manifolds . . . . . . . . 1.2 Co-ordinate Transformations . . . . . . 1.3 Things that Live on Manifolds . . . . . 1.3.1 Scalar elds . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.2 Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.3 Parametrized Surfaces . . . . . . 1.3.4 Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.5 Gradients . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 Transformation Laws . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4.1 Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4.2 Gradients . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4.3 Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Duality between Vectors and Gradients 1.5.1 The directional derivative . . . . 1.5.2 Invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5.3 Geometric Interpretation . . . . 1 1 4 5 5 5 5 6 7 8 9 9 9 10 14 14 15 15 16 16 17 18 20 21 21 23 24 25 26 26 27 28 29 29

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2 Tensors and Metrics 2.1 Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Getting the transformation correct . . . . . . 2.3 Things to do with tensors . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 The LeviCivita Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.1 Odd / Even Permutations . . . . . . . 2.5 3-Vector Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6 Metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7 Euclidean Metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7.1 E 3 Euclidean 3-space . . . . . . . . . 2.7.2 E 3 : Cylindrical Co-ordinates . . . . . 2.8 Arc Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9 Scalar Product and Magnitude for Vectors . . 2.10 Raising and Lowering Operators . . . . . . . 2.11 Signature of the Metric . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.12 Riemannian and Pseudo-Riemannian metrics i

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2.13 Map Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.13.1 Cylindrical Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.13.2 Mercator Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Special Relativity 3.1 Minkowski Space-time . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Einsteins Axioms of Special Relativity . . . 3.4 Space-Time Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 The Poincar and Lorentz Groups . . . . . e 3.5.1 Group Axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 Lorentz Boosts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.1 Deriving the transformation matrix . 3.7 Simultaneity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8 Length Contraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9 Relativistic Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9.1 The 4-momentum . . . . . . . . . . 3.9.2 Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9.3 Energy-Momentum Conservation . . 3.9.4 Photons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30 30 31 34 34 35 37 37 41 42 43 43 46 46 48 48 49 50 50 52 52 52 53 54 54 55 55 56 57 57 58 58 58 59 59 60 62 62 63 64 64 65 65

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4 Maxwells Equations in Tensor Form 4.1 Maxwells Equations Review . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.1 Internal Structure Equations . . . . . . . 4.1.2 Source Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.3 Lorentz Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.4 Charge Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 The Faraday Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Internal Structure Equations . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Source Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 Charge Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 Lorentz Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7 Potential Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7.1 Advantage Internal Structure Equations 4.7.2 Advantage Source Equations . . . . . . 4.8 Gauge Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9 Lorentz Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.10 Light Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 The Equivalence Principle 5.1 Inertial mass . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Free Fall . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.1 Locally Inertial Frames 5.3 Geodesics . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1 Examples . . . . . . . . 5.3.2 The Geodesic Equation

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5.3.3

Covariant Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

67 69 69 71 72 74 74 75 76 77 79 79 80 81 82 85 86 87 88 89 89 90 92

6 Covariant Derivatives 6.1 Non-Euclidean Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 The Covariant Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 Derivatives of Other Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.1 The gradient of the metric in General Relativity 6.4 Covariant Directional Derivatives and Acceleration . . . 6.5 Newtons Law of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6 Twin Paradox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6.1 The rapidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Orbits 7.1 Noethers Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 The Schwarzschild Metric . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.1 Symmetries and Conserved Quantities 7.2.2 Orbits in the Equatorial Plane . . . . 7.3 Precession of Mercurys Orbit . . . . . . . . . 7.3.1 Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.2 Newtonian Solution . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.3 Relativistic Correction . . . . . . . . . 7.4 Deection of Starlight . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4.1 Newtonian Theory . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4.2 Relativistic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 Energy Conservation on Geodesics . . . . . .

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iii

Chapter 1

Manifolds, Vectors, and Gradients

... You must follow me carefully. I shall have to controvert one or two ideas that are almost universally accepted. The geometry, for instance, they taught you at school is founded on a misconception. Is not that rather a large thing to expect us to begin upon? said Filby ....

The Time Machine, HG Wells 1895

1.1

Manifolds

Mathematics provides a common mathematical term for curved surfaces, curved spaces, and even curved space-times the manifold. In essence, a manifold is an N-Dimensional surface. This means that each point of the manifold can be located by specifying N numbers or coordinates. More formally, Denition 1.1 Manifold A manifold M is a set of points which can locally be mapped into RN for some N = 0, 1, 2, . . . . The number N will be called the dimension of the manifold. The mapping must be one-to-one. If two mappings overlap, one must be a dierentiable function of the other. Example 1.1 Let M be a two dimensional surface. Suppose we have a point P and we wish to say where this point is. We can do this by specifying two coordinates x and y for P . In gure 1.1 P is mapped to (x, y) = (0.5, 1.5), i.e. P is given the co-ordinates (0.5, 1.5). Note that the lines of constant x never cross each other (similarly for the lines of constant y) if they did, then the coordinates of the crossing point would not be unique. Example 1.2 Suppose we try to map the same surface M using polar coordinates r and . Here we run into diculties: The function is not single-valued (one-to-one) at r = 0. Any coordinate pair (r, ) = (0, ) refers to the origin. The mapping is not continuous for all values of as angles only have a range of 2. we must cut the plane, say at the = or line. Then will not be continuous across this line. 1

Manifolds, Vectors, and Gradients

Figure 1.1: The manifold in example 1.1.

Figure 1.2: The plane divided into two regions. Polar coordinates work in Region I, even if they do not work in all space.

1.1 Manifolds

Figure 1.3: Spherical coordinates.

Note that polars are still well-dened in regions which avoid the origin and the cut. In the gure, polar coordinates are single valued and continuous in region I, but not in the entire plane. We remedy the situation by using a dierent co-ordinate system in region II. (For example, we could employ Cartesian coordinates in region II.) Example 1.3 M = S 1 (circle). There is one coordinate which can be chosen to go from to . The point mapped to = also maps to = . Thus we will need at least two co-ordinate patches. To summarize: we cover a manifold M with co-ordinate patches. In each patch, the coordinates form a cross-hatch. The minimum number of patches needed depends on the topology of M . In the previous example, M = S 1 needs two patches. A manifold M = R2 consisting of the entire plane needs only one (using Cartesian coordinates rather than polars). Example 1.4 The 2-sphere M = S 2 . Spherical coordinates do not cover the entire sphere in a one-to-one continuous fashion; azimuthal angle is many-valued at the poles and is discontinuous at = . On a globe of the Earth, corresponds to longitude, which is discontinuous at the international date line drawn near (180o ).

Exercise 1.1 Cover the 2-sphere S 2 with just two coordinate patches.
Example 1.5 S n (n-sphere)

S n = (X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn+1 ) | (X1 )2 + (X2 )2 + + (Xn+1 )2 = 1

(1.1)

Manifolds, Vectors, and Gradients

e.g.

S 2 = (x, y, z) | x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1 S 1 = (x, y) | x2 + y 2 = 1 S 0 = x | x2 = 1 = 1, 1 (1.2)

Example 1.6 B n (n-ball) B n = (X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ) | (X1 )2 + (X2 )2 + + (Xn )2 < 1 i.e B n is the solid volume inside S n1 . (1.3)

1.1.1

Product Manifolds

Example 1.7 M = T 2 (2-Torus). The 2-torus can be represented as the surface of a doughnut. Let represent angle the short way around, and angle the long way around. Both these coordinates are discontinuous at .
M =T 2

We can also represent T 2 as a rectangular box (slit and open out a torus into a rectangular shape). The edges are co-existent ( = is equivalent to = , similarly for ).

Thus we can write T 2 as the set of points T n = (, ) | , . (1.4)

1.2 Co-ordinate Transformations

Note that in the denition of T 2 , the coordinates and are completely independent. By themselves, each gives a circle S 1 . We can express this independence with the notation T 2 = S 1 S 1 . We call T 2 a product manifold, as it can be generated by considering all combinations of (the rst S 1 ) and (the second S 1 ).

1.2

Co-ordinate Transformations

Suppose we know the coordinates of points in a manifold in one coordinate system. We may need to be able to nd the same points in other coordinate systems as well, for various reasons. Somebody we work with may use another system, so there will be a communication problem unless we can translate between systems. Or perhaps the equations we wish to solve are easier in a dierent system. Also, if we know general ways of going from one system to another, we can make sure that our solutions work independently of which particular coordinate system we use. We will only deal with coordinate systems which are dierentiable functions of each other. Suppose point P has co-ordinates X = (X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ) in one co-ordinate system, and Y = (Y1 , Y2 , . . . , Yn ) in another. Then the co-ordinates (Y1 , Y2 , . . . , Yn ) must be smooth (differentiable) functions of (X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ). For example, Y1 = Y1 (X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ). Also, the co-ordinate (Jacobian) transformation matrix is Ya , Xb where a labels the row, and b labels the column in the matrix. (1.6) (1.5)

1.3
1.3.1

Things that Live on Manifolds

Scalar elds

Denition 1.2 Scalar Fields Scalar elds are functions which assign numbers to points on the manifold. More formally, a scalar eld is a function f which maps a manifold M to the set of real numbers: f : M R. Example 1.8 M = Surface of the Earth f (P ) = Temperature at point P ( weather map) N.B. We may wish to use complex functions : M C, for example to describe quantum wave-functions.

1.3.2

Curves

The scalar elds dened above map the manifold M to the Real line R. Suppose we now do the reverse. For each real number , we will obtain a point () on M . If we string these points together, we will get a curve on M .

Manifolds, Vectors, and Gradients

Figure 1.4: A curve : R M Example 1.9 Suppose M = R3 , innite three-dimensional space. Let () = (7 cos 3, 7 sin 3, ). (1.7)

This curve has the shape of a helix. The helix winds around the z axis at a radius of 7, and makes a complete turn each time increases by 2/3. Denition 1.3 Curves A curve is a mapping of the real line (or part of the real line, or a circle) into the manifold M . Formally this is written : R M for the whole real line, or : [0, 1] M (unit interval), or : S 1 M (Circle).

1.3.3

Parametrized Surfaces

Most manifolds cannot be visualized, especially if their dimension is much greater than 3. Fortunately, one and two-dimensional manifolds provide many useful visual examples. We must rst be able to imbed, or place, the manifold in ordinary 3-space R3 . A one-dimensional manifold can be drawn using a curve with one parameter as in the previous section. For two-dimensional manifolds (surfaces) imbedded in 3-space, we can specify the surface by giving two parameters. Example 1.10 Drawing a sphere. We will use spherical polar coordinates and as parameters, accepting that there will be coordinate singularities at the poles (and a discontinuity at = ). The imbedding satises S :(, ) (x, y, z) x = x(, ) = sin cos y = y(, ) = sin sin z = z(, ) = cos (1.8)

Exercise 1.2 Consider an ellipsoid E given by the equation

9x2 + 4y 2 + z 2 = 36. (1.9)

Find a parametrization E : (, ) (x, y, z) which satises this equation. That is, nd the functions x(, ), y(, ), and z(, ).

1.3 Things that Live on Manifolds

Exercise 1.3 Here we nd a parametrization of the Northern half of a sphere which does
not use spherical coordinates: let the two parameters be t and u, where S :(t, u) (x, y, z) x = x(t, u) = t y = y(t, u) = u z = z(t, u) = ? Find the function z(t, u). (1.10)

1.3.4

Vectors

A vector has: A Magnitude A Direction A Base Point N.B. Forget position vectors. Position is given by co-ordinates, not by vectors. In at Euclidean space, one can draw an arrow from the origin to any point, and in some elementary books this is called a vector. We will not do this, as we may wish to study highly warped manifolds where such arrows will also need to be warped (and hence their direction and magnitude will not be well dened). Vectors in dierential geometry always have a base point, and give a direction and magnitude proceeding from that point. Start with a curve : R M (or [0,1], or S 1 M ). The curve provides a set of n coordinate functions of , i.e. () = X1 (), . . . , Xn () . (1.11)

These n functions have derivatives which show how fast they increase with . Taken together, they show the direction the curve is travelling. Denition 1.4 Tangent Vectors The tangent vector to the curve is given by dX1 / d . . V() = . . n / d dX

(1.12)

Manifolds, Vectors, and Gradients

Note that the set of coordinates of a point (e.g. (X1 , . . . , Xn )) is not a vector!

1.3.5

Gradients

Gradients are formed from scalar functions. Denition 1.5 Gradients Given a function f : M R, f= f f f , ,..., 1 X2 X Xn . (1.13)

This is dierent to a tangent vector. For one thing, it is determined everywhere on M , whereas a tangent vector is only dened on a single curve. Example 1.11 Consider an ordinance survey map, giving height h as a function of position on the Earths surface h : S 2 R. The contours are lines of constant h. But note that these are not parametrized curves! (We have not been given a way to choose = 0, 1, 2, . . . etc). Thus we have no way of dening tangent vectors to the contours (at least not until we introduce metrics, in 2.6).

Exercise 1.4 Consider a torus T2 with coordinates (X1 , X2 ) = (u, v), where < u ,
< v . Suppose there is a curve : R T2 , where () = (2, 6) (i.e. u() = 2 and v() = 6)). Find the tangent vector d V() = . d Consider the function f (u, v) = sin(v). Find the gradient V f. f and the directional derivative

1.4 Transformation Laws

Figure 1.5: Curve on a torus.

1.4
1.4.1

Transformation Laws
Vectors

In co-ordinates X = (X1 , . . . , Xn ) dX1 / d . . VX = . . n / d dX In another co-ordinate system Y = (Y1 , . . . , Yn ) dY1 / d . . VY = . . n / d dY How do we relate VX and VY ? By the chain rule dY1 = d VY =
N a=1

(1.14)

(1.15)

Y1 dXa Xa d .

(1.16)

N Y1 dXa a=1 Xa d

. . .

(1.17)

N YN dXa a=1 Xa d

1.4.2

Gradients

Chain rule again. This time, we let c be the dummy index which is summed from c = 1 to c = N (we can use any letter, of course). f = Y1
N c=1

f Xc Xc Y1

(1.18)

10

Manifolds, Vectors, and Gradients

and so, the transformation is

N

Yf = c=1

f Xc ,..., Xc Y1

N c=1

f Xc Xc YN

(1.19)

1.4.3

Notation

A) Einsteins Summation Convention The placement of indices is important in geometry and relativity. The vectors we have looked at (like V 1 ) have been given indices on top, i.e. superscripts. Meanwhile, the gradients (like 1 f ) have indices lower down, i.e. subscripts. This makes it easier to distinguish between them. It also allows us to dene consistent rules for calculating inner products. But rst we will simplify the notation. In numerous expressions in geometry and relativity (and particle theory as well) there are places where the index a is repeated twice and summed over. If we do not bother to write down the summation sign, then the expressions will be less cluttered. Denition 1.6 Einstein Summation Given two objects, one indexed with superscripts A = (A1 , . . . , AN ), and one with subscripts B = (B1 , . . . , BN ), we dene
N

Bc A
c=1

Bc Ac

(1.20)

In a derivative like

f Xc

the index c will be considered a subscript.

Example 1.12 In the previous section, equation (1.19) becomes

Yf =

f Xc f Xc ,..., Xc Y1 Xc YN

(1.21)

B) Co-ordinate system labels We will label Co-ordinate systems by either primed symbols (X ) and unprimed symbols (X), or by capital letters; for example Earth F rame Spaceship F rame Lab F rame C) Dierentials f = a f Xa , f a = a f X , f = Ea f. Ea (1.23) E = S = L = E1 , . . . , EN S1 , . . . , SN L1 , . . . , LN

(1.22)

D) Vector Components In, for example, the lab frame L the tangent vector to the curve () = (L1 (), . . . , LN ()) is dL1 / d d . . V= = . d N / d dL (1.24)

(1.25)

1.4 Transformation Laws

11

with components
a VL =

dLa . d

(1.26)

We sometimes refer to the whole of the vector V by referring to a typical component V a . Similarly, we may refer to f as a f . E) Transforms Vectors: For transformations between the X frame and the Y frame, equation (1.16) becomes
1 VY =

Y1 dXa Y1 a dY1 = = V . d Xa d Xa X

(1.27)

The formula for an arbitrary component of V is

b VY =

Yb a V . Xa X

(1.28)

Gradients: an arbitrary component of

f in equation (1.19) can now be expressed as Xc X c f Yb (1.29)

Y b f =

For transformations between primed and unprimed co-ordinates, these expressions become
b

X = V a. Xa Xc X
b

(1.30)

b f =

c f

(1.31)

Note that the transformation matrices in equations (1.28) and (1.29), i.e. Eb /Sa and Sc /Eb , are inverses. Proof: The (a, c) component of the product matrix is
N b=1

Eb Sc Sa Eb

= =
b=1 Sc

Sc Eb Eb Sa

(1.32) (1.33)

Sa c=a c=a

by the chain rule. But Sc = Sa i.e. 1 0 (1.34)

Sc Eb = ca Eb Sa

(1.35)

12

Manifolds, Vectors, and Gradients

where ca

1 0 0 0 1 0 = 0 0 1 . . . . . .

(1.36)

is the identity matrix. QED This result is very important. Gradients and vectors have dierent (in fact, inverse) transformation laws. Thus a gradient is not a vector!

Exercise 1.5 Show that for any vector W with components W a ,

caW a = W c. (1.37)

How do two successive transformations work? Suppose we transform from co-ordinates X Y Z:

a VZ = b VY = a VZ =

Za b where V , Yb Y Yb c V , Xc X Za Yb c V . Yb Xc X

(1.38) (1.39) (1.40)

But by the chain rule Za Yb Za = Xc Yb Xc so, (as we should expect)

a VZ =

(1.41)

Za c V . Xc X

(1.42)

Now try X Y X:
a VX =

Xa Yb c V Yb Xc X c = a c VX =
a VX

(1.43) (1.44) (1.45)

good!

Example 1.13 Polar Co-ordinates. C = (C1 , C2 ) = (x, y) P = (P , P ) = (r, ) where C1 = x = r cos = P1 cos P2 C = y = r sin = P sin P
2 1 2 1 2

Cartesian Polar

(1.46) (1.47)

(1.48) (1.49)

1.4 Transformation Laws

13

or, going the other way, P1 = r = P2 x2 + y 2 = (C1 )2 + (C2 )2 y C2 = = arctan = arctan 1 x C (1.50) (1.51)

The transformation matrix (Jacobian) is: Ca Ca = = b P Pb = = and the other way Pb = Cd = = r/x r/y /x /y x/r y/r y/r2 x/r2 cos
sin r

C1 /P1 C1 /P2 C2 /P1 C2 /P2

(1.52) (1.53) (1.54)

x/r x/ y/r y/ cos r sin sin r cos

(1.55) (1.56) . (1.57)

sin
cos r

And the two matrices are inverses. Next: Check the transformation law for tangent vectors in polar co-ordinates. Let be a circle of radius R, parametrized by = /(2). Cartesian coordinates () = C1 , C2 = (x(), y()) = (R cos 2, R sin 2) (1.58) (1.59) (1.60)

Polar Coordinates () = P1 , P2 (1.61) (1.62) (1.63)

= (r(), ()) = (R, 2)

14

Manifolds, Vectors, and Gradients

The tangent vector can be computed separately for each coordinate system: Cartesian coordinates
a VC () =

= = Polar coordinates

dCa d dx/ d dy/ d 2R sin 2 2R cos 2 .

(1.64) (1.65) (1.66)

a VP () =

= =

dPa d dr/ d d/ d 0 2 .

(1.67) (1.68) (1.69)

Lets check the transformation law, using equation (1.54):

a VC () =

Ca b (at r = R, = 2) V Pb P 0 cos 2 r sin 2 = 2 sin 2 r cos 2 = 2R sin 2 2R cos 2 .

(1.70) (1.71) (1.72)

IT WORKS!

1.5
1.5.1

Duality between Vectors and Gradients

The directional derivative

Two objects in maths are called dual if they combine to give a single number (in R or C ). In elementary matrix algebra, row vectors and column vectors multiply to give a number. In quantum theory, a bra vector | and a ket vector | combine to give the complex number | . On a manifold, we can combine a vector, V, and a gradient, f , naturally by using Einstein summation: V f = V a a f
N

=
a=1

V a a f.

(1.73)

This sum gives a number called the directional derivative. Why is this natural ?

1.5 Duality between Vectors and Gradients 1.5.2 Invariance

15

Exercise 1.6 Prove from the transformation laws that the directional derivative is the same
in all co-ordinate systems. Solution For the transformation from X X , Va = Xa
b

X c X a f = f Xa c c Xa X a f = V a f = a b X X = ( c b ) V b c f = V c c f

V b c f

(1.74)

Thus V f = V a a f = V c c f. (1.75)

The directional derivative has the same form in any two co-ordinate systems, and gives the same number.

1.5.3

Geometric Interpretation

Suppose f is the temperature as a function of position. We can measure f () as we travel along (). We can nd df / d by the chain rule:
N a=1

df = d

f dXa Xa d (1.76)

= a f V a =V f.

In words, if the curve () has tangent vector V, then the directional derivative V the rate of change of f along the curve, df /d.

f gives

Chapter 2

Tensors and Metrics

You know of course that a mathematical line, a line of thickness nil, has no real existence. They taught you that? Neither has a mathematical plane. These things are mere abstractions. That is all right, said the Psychologist. Nor, having only length, breadth, and thickness, can a cube have a real existence. There I object, said Filby. Of course a solid body may exist. All real things So most people think. But wait a moment. Can an instantaneous cube exist? Dont follow you, said Filby. Can a cube that does not last for any time at all, have a real existence? Filby became pensive. The Time Machine, HG Wells 1895

2.1

Tensors
Rank 0 1 2 3 . . .

Tensors are classied by their rank: Scalars (functions) Vectors and forms (inc gradients) Two indices - appear like matrices Three indices - appear like a stack of matrices . . .
111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000

111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000

11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000

. . .

0th Rank Denition 2.1 Scalars A tensors with no subscripts or superscripts. They are functions of position on the manifold, and are completely independent of coordinates. 1st Rank Denition 2.2 Vectors Any tensor with one superscript which transforms like a tangent vector. In many books these are called contravariant vectors. We give the symbol for a vector V an overline; V has components V a . Denition 2.3 One-forms Any tensor with one subscript which transforms like a gradient. We will usually refer to one-forms simply as forms.We give forms an underline; the form W has components Wa indexed by a subscript. Two-forms will be introduced in section 4.2 (they not only have two subscripts but also must be antisymmetric). Many books refer to forms as covariant vectors or co-vectors.

16

2.2 Getting the transformation correct

17

Example 2.1 Suppose W = f

g, where f, g are functions. Then, going from X X we have f f =f (2.1)

gg =g (2.2) a X b b = a (2.3) X b a X Wb Wb = Wa (2.4) X b NOTE: W has been constructed from a scalar function f and the gradient of another scalar g. However, it may not itself be a gradient i.e there may not exist a third function h such that W = h. Higher Rank Tensors There are 2 equivalent denitions of 2nd order (and higher) tensors. 1) A tensor with (for example) one superscript and subscript transforms as a vector on the superscript and as a form on the subscript. Example 2.2 Let M be a mixed tensor with components M a b . Then M
a b

X a Xd c M d Xc X b

(2.5)

2) A tensor with 1 superscript and 1 subscript is dual to the product of one vector and one form. Thus given V and W, the components M a b of M must have the following property: the quantity = M a b V b Wa (2.6)

is scalar, i.e. the same in all reference frames. In general, a tensor with p upper indices and q lower indices will eat p forms and q vectors, and return a scalar. p p tensors A type q tensor has p upper indices and q lower indices. Denition 2.4 Type q The product with q vectors and p forms (summing over all indices) returns a scalar. For example, if T ab c d ef g is a type 4 tensor (7th rank) then 3 = T ab c d ef g Aa Bb C c Dd E e F f Gg is a scalar where A, B, D, G are forms, and C, E, F are vectors. (2.7)

2.2

Getting the transformation correct

Example 2.3 R a b c =?Rd e f Step 1 write three sets of

X X

(2.8)

on right: R abc = X X X d f R e X X X (2.9)

Step 2 Pair up indices ad be cf (2.10) (2.11) (2.12)

18

Tensors and Metrics

Step 3 The a, b, and c indices correspond to primed coordinates. Fill in the a, b, and c indices, together with primes, in the same positions as appear in R a b c : R abc = X a X X c d f R e . X X b X (2.13)

Step 4 Fill in the remaining indices by the pairings from (2): R abc = X a Xe X c d f R e . Xd X b Xf (2.14)

Note that the d, e, and f indices appear once on top and once on bottom, so they are summed over.

Exercise 2.1 How does the tensor

Rab cd transform under a coordinate transformation? (2.15)

Exercise 2.2 Suppose that in some coordinate system the tensor a b has the form
a b = 0 1 if if a=b a = b. (2.16)

Show that it also has this form in any other coordinate system.

2.3

Things to do with tensors

Each of these results in a new tensor: a. Addition Ra b c + S a b c = T a b c b. Composition M a b = V a Wb Example 2.4 V 1 = 1, V 2 = 2, W1 = 20, W2 = 30 gives M ab = 20 40 30 60 (2.19) (2.18) All terms have the same indices! (2.17)

c. Contraction between Tensors (Einstein summation) = V a Wa d. Contraction within a Tensor P ab bc = Qa c M a a = 80 = in the above example For 2nd rank mixed tensors, M a a = T r(M), the trace of M. (2.21) (2.22) (= 80 in the above example) (2.20)

2.3 Things to do with tensors

19

e. Symmetrizing and anti-Symmetrizing (for 2nd rank tensors) Given a tensor with components T ab , let S ab = 1 ab T + T ab 2 1 ab = T T ab 2 (2.23) (2.24)

and Aab Then

(1) S ab + Aab = T ab (2) S

ab

(2.25) (Symmetric) (Antisymmetric) (2.26) (2.27)

=S

ba

(3) Aab = Aba Example 2.5 T ab = S ab = 0 2 0

3 2

1 3
3 2

T ba = Aab =

0 1 0
1 2

2 3
1 2 0

= (T T )ab

(2.28) (2.29)

Tip: Watch out for bad tensor expressions: W b = Ga a V a b . This equation does not make sense because there are three as thus we do not know which two to sum over. = U aa . 2 as on top summing would not give a scalar. V c = X a Wa T ca Aa Bad now there are four as. Perhaps this really means V c = X a Wa T cb Ab , but it could also mean V c = X a Wb T cb Aa .

Exercise 2.3 Determine which tensor equations are valid, and describe the errors in the other
equations. a. Dab = Ta W a b b. Eab = F c ba Cc + Ld Sdba c. Zmn = Y a m a n d. Pc = J a a K a a Rc e. Aab = Bba + gab Dc Dc f. F c b = Gca Hda g. f = Ja Ka La M a + N b b

20

Tensors and Metrics

Exercise 2.4 Let space be two dimensional, with coordinates (X1 , X2 ). Suppose tensors with components V a , Wa , P ab , Qab , and M a b are measured to have the values
V1 W1 P ab = 2, V 2 = 3; = 4, W2 = 5; 2 1 = ; 3 6 ab (2.30) (2.31) Qab = 0 4 2 7 ;
ab

M ab =

4 2

3 1

.
ab

(2.32)

Calculate the following tensors: Tb F ac Gab = = = = V a Wa ; P ab Wa ; P ab Qbc ; M c b Qca . (2.33) (2.34) (2.35) (2.36)

Theorem. Let S ab be a symmetric tensor, and Aab an anti-symmetric tensor. Then their double contraction vanishes: Aab S ab = 0. (2.37) Proof. To evaluate the double contraction of Aab and S ab , note that we can exchange the dummy labels a and b. Thus Aab S ab = Aba S ba . (2.38) Now use the symmetry and anti-symmetry of S ab and Aab : = Aba S ba = (Aab )(+S ab ) = . This can only be true if the double contraction Aab S ab is zero. (2.39)

2.4

The LeviCivita Tensor

The LeviCivita tensor is completely antisymmetric. It is actually a tensor density (see section ??). In 2-dimensions: 0 1 ab = 1 0 In 3-dimensions:
ab1

ab2

ab3

0 0 0 = 0 0 1, 0 1 0 0 0 1 = 0 0 0 , 1 0 0 0 1 0 = 1 0 0. 0 0 0

(2.40)

(2.41)

(2.42)

Note that all these matrices are anti-symmetric. In general, in N -dimensions: 0 if any 2 of a, b, c, . . . , N are equal ab...N = 1 if (a, b, c, . . . , N ) is an even permutation 1 if (a, b, c, . . . , N ) is an odd permutation

2.5 3-Vector Identities 2.4.1 Odd / Even Permutations

21

A permutation is an re-ordering. e.g. (4, 2, 1, 3) is a permutation of (1, 2, 3, 4). For N = 3, there are 6 permutations: (1, 2, 3) (1, 3, 2) (2, 3, 1) (2, 1, 3) (3, 1, 2) (3, 2, 1) We can get from the start (1, 2, 3) to any other permutation by swapping pairs of numbers. Thus swapping 1,2 sends (1,2,3) (2,1,3), swapping 1,3 sends (2,1,3) (2,3,1), etc. Similarly, all permutations on N objects can be reached from the identity (1, 2, . . . , N ) by a sequence of swaps. Sometimes two dierent sequences of swaps will result in the same permutation. But when this happens both sequences will consist of an even number of swaps, or an odd number of swaps. Denition 2.5 Even and Odd Permutations Starting from (1, 2, . . . , N ), an even number of swaps results in an even permutation; an odd number of swaps results in an odd permutation. Example 2.6 N = 4:
1234 1243

=1 = 1 2143 =1

(2.43)

2.5
a.

3-Vector Identities
A B = Ai Bi . (2.44)

b. f = i f . c. A
i

(2.45)

ijk

j Ak

(2.46)

Example 2.7 Verify equation (2.46) for the y-component of the curl. Solution The y-component of A is A
y

= =

2jk 231

j Ak

(2nd component = y-component)

3 A1 + 213 1 A3 = (1) Ax + (1) Az z x Ax Az = . z x Example 2.8 Show that

A B = B A. AB
i

(2.47)

Solution Translate to

ijk

Aj Bk .

22
ijk but = i AB = ikj ikj ikj

Tensors and Metrics

Aj Bk Bk Aj

(Aj and Bk are just numbers, so we can reverse their order in a multiplication without aecting the result). Now we replace the dummy indices j k and k j. They are being summed over, so it does not matter which one is called which: AB
i

ijk

Bj Ak
i

= BA

A B = B A .

Example 2.9 Show that f = 0. (2.48)

Solution Translate to
( f) = =
i ijk ijk

j k f k j f k j f (partial derivatives commute)

= relabel j k

ikj

( ( (

f) =
i i

ijk

j k f f)
i

f) = ( f) = 0

f =0

Exercise 2.5 Translate the following 3-vector identities into index notation, and prove them:
A (B C) = B (C A) = C (A B); (f A) = A f + f A; (A B) = B A A B. (2.49) (2.50) (2.51)

2.6 Metrics

23

2.6

Metrics

Denition 2.6 Metric Given two nearby points, X1 , . . . , XN and X 1 + dX1 , . . . , X N + dXN , a distance ds can be dened by introducing a new object, the metric tensor gab . The distance satises ds2 = g11 dX1 dX1 + g12 dX1 dX2 + . . . + gN N dXN dXN or ds2 = gab dXa dXb . (2.53) (2.52)

N.B. Throughout these notes, ds2 means ( ds)2 , not d(s2 ). Example 2.10 In Euclidean geometry with N = 3 ds2 = or with dX1
2

dX2

dX3

ds2 = gij dXi dXj gij = ij (i, j = 1, 2, 3)

(2.54)

Lets decompose gab into symmetric and anti-symmetric parts: gab ds2 = Sab + Aab = (Sab + Aab ) dXa dXb (2.55) (2.56)

where Sab = Sba and Aab = Aba . Consider the anti-symmetric contributions to ds2 , Aab dXa dXb . This is the double contraction of an anti-symmetric tensor Aab with a symmetric tensor dXa dXb , so by equation (2.37) Aab dXa dXb = 0. (2.57)

We have just shown that Aab is useless, and so we get rid of it. Thus we dene gab to be symmetric gab = gba . (2.58)

24

Tensors and Metrics

How many components does gab have? If the manifold is N dimensional, then an arbitrary tensor of rank r has N r components. But since the metric is symmetric, not all these components will be independent. g11 g12 . . . g1N g21 g22 . . . g2N gab = . (2.59) . . . . . . gN 1 gN 2
N2

...

gN N

components

By symmetry (gab = gba ), g11 g12 = g13 . . . g1N so there are

N (N +1) 2

gab

g12 g22 g23 g2N

g13 g23 g33 g3N

... ... ... ...

g1N g2N g3N = gba . . . gN N

(2.60)

independent components.

2.7

Euclidean Metrics

E 2 Euclidean Plane Cartesian: By the Pythagorean theorem, ds2 = dC1

2

+
2

dC2

= dx2 + dy 2
2

(2.61) (2.62)

= gC 11 dx + gC 12 dx dy + gC 21 dy dx + gC 22 dy . So gC 11 = gC 22 = 1 while gC 12 = gC 21 = 0, or gC ab = 1 0 0 . 1

Polars: Two methods to nd the metric:

2.7 Euclidean Metrics

25

Method 1: Draw pictures: a = 2(r + dr) sin = 2(r + dr) = r d Thus ds2 = dr2 + r2 d2 or, in terms of the metric tensor ds2 = gab dPa dPb , gP ab = Method 2: We know that gC ab = gP ab = 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 .
cd

d 2 (+O( d)3 ) (+O( dr d)).

(2.63) (2.64) (2.65)

d 2

(2.66)

1 0 0 r2

(2.67)

Cc Cd Pa Pb

(Cartesians on top (c,d), polars on bottom (a,b)).

2.7.1

E 3 Euclidean 3-space
1 = 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 . 1

Cartesian: gC ab Spherical: If we just move in r: ds2 = dr2 r (2.69) (2.68)

If we just move in , we move on a radius r: ds2 = r2 d2 (2.70) If we just move in , we move on a constant radius r sin : ds2 = r2 sin2 d (2.71)

26

Tensors and Metrics

Thus ds2 gP ab = dr2 + r2 d2 + r2 sin2 d2 1 0 0 0 . = 0 r 2 2 0 0 r sin2 (2.72) (2.73)

2.7.2

E 3 : Cylindrical Co-ordinates

X1 , X2 , X3 = (, , z) ds2 = d2 + 2 d2 + dz 2 1 0 = 0 2 0 0 0 0 1

(2.74) (2.75)

gCyl

ab

(2.76)

2.8

Arc Length
What is the arc length P Q? We dene
Q

L=
P

ds()

(2.77)

Thus
Q

L=
P Q

ds2 (2.78) gab dXa dXb

=
P

2.9 Scalar Product and Magnitude for Vectors

Example 2.11 E 2 with Cartesian coordinates. Here
Q

27

L=
P

dx2 + dy 2 .

(2.79)

We can divide by

d2 and multiply by d to make

Q

L=
P

dx d

dy d

d.

(2.80)

If we are able to choose = x as our parameter, so that y = y(x) (i.e. y is a well behaved function of x. See diagram),

111111111111111 000000000000000 x

111111111111111 000000000000000 x

Bad

Good

then
Q

L=
P

dy dx

+ 1 dx

e.g. y = sin x
Q

L=
P

1 + cos2 (x) dx

y 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 11111111111111 00000000000000 1 0 x 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 -1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
V a V a is not invariant under co-ordinate transfor-

2.9

Scalar Product and Magnitude for Vectors

a

Given a vector, V, with components V a the sum mations, and so it is meaningless!

28

Tensors and Metrics

But, if we have a metric, we can dene V V = gab V a V b The magnitude of V is V = Similarly, with two vectors V, W V W = gab V a W b For two forms A, B A B = g ab Aa Bb where g ab is the inverse of the metric tensor, in the sense that g ab gbc = a c . Also A = A A. (2.86) (2.85) (2.84) (2.83) VV (2.82) This is invariant! (2.81)

2.10

Raising and Lowering Operators

V W = (gab V a ) W b (2.87)

Note that V W = gab V a W b is a scalar. We can write this as

Then gab V a is dual to the set of vectors It takes a vector, W, and returns a scalar number. Therefore, given a vector V, we can dene a form V where Vb = gab V a . Similarly V W = V a gab W b Wa = gab W
a b

(2.88)

(2.89) (2.90) (2.91) (2.92)

V W = V Wb = Vb W a

By contraction with the metric, we can raise or lower the index. Exercise 2.6 Suppose that Aab is anti-symmetric. Let Aab = gac gbd Acd where gac is the (symmetric) metric tensor. Show that Aab is antisymmetric as well.

Exercise 2.7 Let

T ab = 2 5 3 . 7 (2.93)

Find its symmetric and antisymmetric parts Aab and S ab . Next, let the metric be gab = Find Aab . Show explicitly that Aab S ab = 0. (2.95) 1 2 2 . 1 (2.94)

2.11 Signature of the Metric

29

2.11

Signature of the Metric

One can show, using linear algebra, that any metric, gab , can be diagonalized by transforming to a suitable co-ordinate system. e.g. If in coordinates X, the metric is gab = Then there exists coordinates X where gab = 1 0 0 1 3 5 5 62

In general, we can make the values on the diagonal 1 or -1 by transforming to suitable co-ordinates Find eigenvectors and eigenvalues of gab Transform to co-ordinates along the eigenvectors (diagonalize metric) divide each eigenvector by its eigenvalue (all go to 1,-1) There may be a few ways of doing this. However, it can be shown that the sum of the diagonal elements will always be the same. This is called the signature of the metric. Example: E 3 with Cartesian coordinates 1 = 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

gab

(2.96)

Signature = 3. Example: Minkowski Metric 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 = 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1

gab = ab

(2.97)

Signature = -2.

2.12

Riemannian and Pseudo-Riemannian metrics

Is the magnitude of a vector always positive? Denition 2.7 Riemannian metric For a Riemannian metric, any vector V = 0 satises ||V||2 = V V > 0. A metric which is not Riemannian is called Pseudo-Riemannian. Signature = N metrics are Riemannian. To see this note that we can calculate V V (at some point P ) in any coordinate system, including the system with only 1 diagonal elements for the metric. Then V V = gab V a V b = (V 1 )2 (V 2 )2 ... (V N )2 . If signature = N then there will be only pluses, and the sum will be positive. (2.99) (2.98)

30

Tensors and Metrics

Signature < N metrics are pseudo-Riemannian. On the other hand, if the signature is less than N , then there will be some minuses in the sum. Say for example that V V = (V 1 )2 + (V 2 )2 + + (V n1 )2 (V N )2 . Then we could choose a vector V whose only non-zero element is V N . This would make V V < 0. Euclidean metrics are Riemannian, while the Minkowski metric is pseudo-Riemannian.

2.13

Map Projections
ds2 = R2 d2 + sin2 d2 , (2.100)

The Earth, radius r = R = constant, has the metric line element (in spherical coordinates S = (, ))

with 0 , . gS ab = R2 1 0 0 sin2 (2.101)

2.13.1

Cylindrical Map
Project out onto paper Paper Globe

y
y

0 x

We wish to project the Earth onto a piece of paper of width w and height h. The co-ordinates on the map will be M = (x, y) with

x = y =

w 2 h cos 2

(2.102) (2.103)

Rcos

Let us call the metric for the map projection gM ab . Using this metric we can calculate the arclength of any path drawn on the map (from Buenos Aires to Glasgow for example). The calculation will give the distance along the corresponding path on the Earths surface.

2.13 Map Projections

31

Problem: nd the metric gM ab . Method 1: Use the transformation law for tensors: Mc Md g cd . Sa Sb S Method 2: Directly transform the metric line element: rst, gM ab = = R2 d2 + sin2 d2 2 d = dx w 4 2 ds2 = R2 d2 + 2 sin2 dx2 . w ds2 Next, from the formula for y, dy d2 Also, sin2 d2 = Thus 4 dy 2 . 4y 2 = 1 2y h
2

(2.104)

(2.105) (2.106) (2.107)

h = sin d 2 4 dy 2 = . h2 sin2

(2.108) (2.109)

(2.110) (2.111)

h2

4 2 h2 4y 2 4 dx2 + 2 dy 2 . (2.112) w2 h2 h 4y 2 Changing the aspect ratio w/h will stretch or compress the map in the vertical direction. We should choose this ratio to give the least distortion. Note that at y = 0 (the equator) the y dependence disappears. The metric will be symmetric in x and y at the equator if w = h. In this case, the line element and metric are h2 4y 2 1 ds2 = 4R2 dx2 + 2 dy 2 . (2.113) 4 h h 4y 2 ds2 = R2 gab = 4R
2 h2 4y 2 h4

0
1 h2 4y 2

(2.114)

2.13.2

Mercator Projection

Idea: Align compass bearings to constant directions on the map.

32
ds2 = a2 + b2 a = R sin d b = R d ds2 = R2
w Again, let x = 2 . Choose y so that the slope of dy dx

Tensors and Metrics

(2.115) (2.116) (2.117) (2.118)

d2 + sin2 d2

of a curve is a constant for constant : R d 1 d = . R sin d sin d (2.119)

cot = On the map, however, cot =

dy dx

(2.120) (2.121) (2.122)

= After integration,
y

dy d

w 1 d 1 d = sin d 2 sin dx w 1 = 2 sin w 2

0

y=
0

dy =

d sin

(2.123)

y=

w log cot 2 2

(2.124)

We can now nd gM ab . First, we derive a simple identity: let y Then sin = Proof: sech y 2 ey + ey 2 = cot /2 + tan /2 2 = cot /2 1 + tan2 /2 2 = cot /2 (sec2 /2) = 2 cos /2 sin /2. = 2 y = log cot . w 2 1 = sech y. cosh y

Now ds2 = R2 = 2 w d2 + sin2 d2

2

R2 ( sin dy)2 + sin2 dx2

2.13 Map Projections

33

Thus we have found the Mercator line element: ds2 = and the Mercator metric: gM ab = 2R w
2

2R w

sech 2 y dx2 + dy 2 ,

(2.125)

sech 2 y

1 0

0 1

(2.126)

Exercise 2.8 London has latitude 51 and longitude 0 . Suppose you travel on the surface of the
earth, following a geodesic (great circle) which leaves London in the direction due East. Where will you rst hit the equator? (This problem can be done without any equations!)