Trig Cheat Sheet

Definition of the Trig Functions

Right triangle definition For this definition we assume that p 0 < q < or 0 < q < 90 . 2 Unit circle definition For this definition q is any angle.
y

( x, y )
hypotenuse opposite
y 1 x

q
x

q
adjacent sin q = opposite hypotenuse adjacent cos q = hypotenuse opposite tan q = adjacent hypotenuse opposite hypotenuse sec q = adjacent adjacent cot q = opposite csc q = sin q = y =y 1 x cos q = = x 1 y tan q = x 1 y 1 sec q = x x cot q = y csc q =

Facts and Properties

Domain The domain is all the values of q that can be plugged into the function.
sin q , q can be any angle cos q , q can be any angle 1 tan q , q n + p , n = 0, 1, 2,K 2 csc q , q n p , n = 0, 1, 2,K 1 sec q , q n + p , n = 0, 1, 2,K 2 cot q , q n p , n = 0, 1, 2,K

Period The period of a function is the number, T, such that f (q + T ) = f (q ) . So, if w is a fixed number and q is any angle we have the following periods. sin ( wq ) cos (wq ) tan (wq ) csc (wq ) sec (wq ) cot (wq ) T= T T T T T 2p w 2p = w p = w 2p = w 2p = w p = w

Range The range is all possible values to get out of the function. csc q 1 and csc q -1 -1 sin q 1 -1 cos q 1 sec q 1 and sec q -1 - < tan q < - < cot q <

2005 Paul Dawkins

Formulas and Identities

Tangent and Cotangent Identities sin q cos q tan q = cot q = cos q sin q Reciprocal Identities 1 1 csc q = sin q = sin q csc q 1 1 sec q = cos q = cos q sec q 1 1 cot q = tan q = tan q cot q Pythagorean Identities sin 2 q + cos 2 q = 1 tan 2 q + 1 = sec 2 q 1 + cot 2 q = csc 2 q Even/Odd Formulas sin ( -q ) = - sin q csc ( -q ) = - csc q cos ( -q ) = cos q tan ( -q ) = - tan q Periodic Formulas If n is an integer. sin (q + 2p n ) = sin q tan (q + p n ) = tan q sin ( 2q ) = 2sin q cos q cos ( 2q ) = cos 2 q - sin 2 q = 2 cos 2 q - 1 = 1 - 2sin 2 q 2 tan q tan ( 2q ) = 1 - tan 2 q Degrees to Radians Formulas If x is an angle in degrees and t is an angle in radians then p t px 180t = t= and x = 180 x 180 p sec ( -q ) = sec q cot ( -q ) = - cot q Half Angle Formulas 1 sin 2 q = (1 - cos ( 2q ) ) 2 1 cos 2 q = (1 + cos ( 2q ) ) 2 1 - cos ( 2q ) tan 2 q = 1 + cos ( 2q ) Sum and Difference Formulas sin (a b ) = sin a cos b cos a sin b cos (a b ) = cos a cos b m sin a sin b tan a tan b 1 m tan a tan b Product to Sum Formulas 1 sin a sin b = cos (a - b ) - cos (a + b ) 2 1 cos a cos b = cos (a - b ) + cos (a + b ) 2 1 sin a cos b = sin (a + b ) + sin (a - b ) 2 1 cos a sin b = sin (a + b ) - sin (a - b ) 2 Sum to Product Formulas a + b a - b sin a + sin b = 2sin cos 2 2 a + b a - b sin a - sin b = 2 cos sin 2 2 a + b a - b cos a + cos b = 2 cos cos 2 2 a + b a - b cos a - cos b = -2sin sin 2 2 Cofunction Formulas tan (a b ) =
p sin - q = cos q 2 p csc - q = sec q 2 p tan - q = cot q 2 p cos - q = sin q 2 p sec - q = csc q 2 p cot - q = tan q 2

csc (q + 2p n ) = csc q cot (q + p n ) = cot q

cos (q + 2p n ) = cos q sec (q + 2p n ) = sec q Double Angle Formulas

2005 Paul Dawkins

Unit Circle y
1 3 - , 2 2 2 2 , 2 2 3 1 - , 2 2

( 0,1)

p 2
2p 3
90 120 60

p 3

1 3 , 2 2 2 2 2 , 2 3 1 , 2 2

3p 4

p 4
45

5p 6

135

30 150 0 360

p 6

( -1,0 )

p 180

0 2p

(1,0 )

3 1 - ,- 2 2

7p 6

210 225

330 315 7p 300 270 4 5p 3p 3 2

( 0,-1)

2 2 , 2 2

5p 4

11p 6

4p 3

240

3 1 ,- 2 2

2 2 , 2 2

1 3 - , 2 2

1 3 , 2 2

For any ordered pair on the unit circle ( x, y ) : cos q = x and sin q = y Example 5p cos 3 1 = 2 5p sin 3 3 =2

2005 Paul Dawkins

Inverse Trig Functions

Definition y = sin -1 x is equivalent to x = sin y y = cos -1 x is equivalent to x = cos y y = tan -1 x is equivalent to x = tan y Domain and Range Function Domain y = sin -1 x y = cos x y = tan -1 x
-1

Inverse Properties cos ( cos -1 ( x ) ) = x cos -1 ( cos (q ) ) = q sin ( sin -1 ( x ) ) = x sin -1 ( sin (q ) ) = q tan -1 ( tan (q ) ) = q tan ( tan -1 ( x ) ) = x Alternate Notation sin -1 x = arcsin x cos -1 x = arccos x tan -1 x = arctan x

-1 x 1 -1 x 1

- < x <

Range p p - y 2 2 0 y p p p - < y< 2 2

Law of Sines, Cosines and Tangents

c
b

b
Law of Sines sin a sin b sin g = = a b c Law of Cosines a 2 = b2 + c 2 - 2bc cos a b 2 = a 2 + c 2 - 2ac cos b c 2 = a 2 + b 2 - 2ab cos g Mollweides Formula a + b cos 1 (a - b ) 2 = c sin 1 g 2 Law of Tangents a - b tan 1 (a - b ) 2 = 1 a + b tan 2 (a + b ) b - c tan 1 ( b - g ) 2 = b + c tan 1 ( b + g ) 2 a - c tan 1 (a - g ) 2 = 1 a + c tan 2 (a + g )

2005 Paul Dawkins

CALCULUS
DEFINITE INTEGRAL DEFINITION COMMON INTEGRALS
where and

INTEGRALS

FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CALCULUS

where f is continuous on [a,b] and

INTEGRATION PROPERTIES

APPROXIMATING DEFINITE INTEGRALS

Left-hand and right-hand rectangle approximations

TRIGNOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION
EXPRESSION SUBSTITUTION EXPRESSION EVALUATION IDENTITY USED

Midpoint Rule

Trapezoid Rule

APPROXIMATION BY SIMPSON RULE FOR EVEN N

INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION

where

and

EEWeb.com
Electrical Engineering Community
Latest News Engineering Community Online Toolbox Technical Discussions Professional Networking Personal Profiles and Resumes Community Blogs and Projects Find Jobs and Events

INTEGRATION BY PARTS

or

EEWeb.com

The Best Source for Electrical Engineering Resources

EEWeb.com

Table of Integrals
BASIC FORMS (1) (2) (3) (4) INTEGRALS WITH ROOTS

! x dx = n + 1 x
n

n+1

(18) (19) (20) (21) (22)

"
! "

x ! adx =

2 (x ! a)3/2 3

! x dx = ln x
! udv = uv " ! vdu " u(x)v!(x)dx = u(x)v(x) # " v(x)u !(x)dx

1 dx = 2 x a xa 1 dx = 2 a ! x a! x

"x

x ! adx =

2 2 a(x ! a)3/2 + (x ! a)5/2 3 5

RATIONAL FUNCTIONS (5) (6)

! ax + b dx = a ln(ax + b)
! (x + a)
1
2

" 2b 2x % b + ax ax + bdx = $ + # 3a 3 ' &

3/2

dx =

"1 x+a
n

(23)

! (ax + b)
!

" 2b 2 4bx 2ax 2 % dx = b + ax $ + + 5 ' 5 # 5a &

(7)

x % " a ! (x + a) dx = (x + a) $ 1+n + 1+ n ' , n ! "1 # &

n

(24)

2 x dx = ( x 2a ) x a 3 xa

(8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14)

(x + a)1+n (nx + x " a) ! x(x + a) dx = (n + 2)(n + 1)

n

(25)

"

# x a! x& x dx = ! x a ! x ! a tan !1 % ( a! x $ x!a '

dx "1 ! 1+ x 2 = tan x 1 "1 dx ! a 2 + x 2 = a tan (x / a)

(26)

!
!x
!

x dx = x x + a " a ln # x + x + a % $ & x+a

# 4b 2 2bx 2x 2 & ax + bdx = % " + + b + ax 5 ( $ 15a 2 15a '
" b x x 3/2 % b + ax x ax + bdx = $ + 2 ' # 4a & b 2 ln 2 a x + 2 b + ax 4a
3/2

(27)

!a

1 xdx = ln(a 2 + x 2 ) + x2 2
(28)

x 2 dx "1 ! a 2 + x 2 = x " a tan (x / a) 1 2 1 2 x 3 dx 2 2 ! a 2 + x 2 = 2 x " 2 a ln(a + x )

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!(

!x
(29)

3/2

" (ax

+ bx + c)!1 dx =

# 2ax + b & tan !1 % $ 4ac ! b 2 ( ' 4ac ! b 2

2

# b 2 x bx 3/2 x 5/2 & b + ax ax + bdx = % " + + 2 12a 3 ( $ 8a ' " b 3 ln 2 a x + 2 b + ax 8a

5/2

(15) (16)

1 1 ! (x + a)(x + b) dx = b " a [ ln(a + x) " ln(b + x)] , a ! b

(30)

x 2 a 2 dx =

1 1 x x 2 a 2 a 2 ln x + x 2 a 2 2 2

! (x + a)

dx =

a + ln(a + x) a+ x

(31)

"
!x

a 2 ! x 2 dx =

(17)

! ax

ln(ax 2 + bx + c) x dx = + bx + c 2a !!!!!" # 2ax + b & tan "1 % $ 4ac " b 2 ( ' a 4ac " b b
2

# x a2 ! x2 & 1 1 x a 2 ! x 2 ! a 2 tan !1 % 2 ( 2 2 2 $ x !a '

(32) (33)

1 x 2 a 2 = (x 2 a 2 )3/2 3

1 x a
2 2

dx = ln x + x 2 a 2

)
Page 1

2005 BE Shapiro

This document may not be reproduced, posted or published without permission. The copyright holder makes no representation about the accuracy, correctness, or suitability of this material for any purpose.

(34)

" ! "
!

1 a !x
2 2

= sin !1

x a

(49)

! x ln(ax + b)dx = 2a x " 4 x " x ln(a

2

1# b2 & + % x 2 " 2 ( ln(ax + b) a ' 2$

(35)

x x2 a2 x a2 ! x2
x
2 2 2

= x 2 a2 dx = ! a 2 ! x 2

(50)

1 1# a2 & ! b 2 x 2 )dx = ! x 2 + % x 2 ! 2 ( ln(a 2 ! bx 2 ) b ' 2 2$

(36)

EXPONENTIALS

(37)

x a

dx =

1 1 x x 2 a 2 ! ln x + x 2 a 2 2 2

(51)

!e
!

ax

dx =

1 ax e a
1 i " xeax + 3/2 erf i ax 2a a

(38)

"
!

# x a2 ! x2 & 1 1 dx = ! x a ! x 2 ! a 2 tan !1 % 2 ( 2 2 2 a2 ! x2 $ x !a ' x2

" b x% ax 2 + bx + c ax 2 + bx + c !dx = $ + # 4a 2 ' &

(52)

xeax dx = 2 !

where

erf (x) =
(53) (54) (55) (56) (57) (58)
x

x 0

e"t dt
2

(39)

4ac ( b 2 " 2ax + b % !!!!!!!!!!!!!!+ ln $ + 2 ax 2 + bc + c ' # & 8a 3/2 a

! xe dx = (x " 1)e

!x
(40)

ax 2 + bx + c !dx =

! xe

ax

#x 1& dx = % " 2 ( eax $a a '

x 2

# x 3 bx 8ac " 3b 2 & + ax 2 + bx + c !!!!!!!!!!!!!!! % + 24a 2 ( $ 3 12a ' !!!!!!!!!!!!!!" b(4ac " b ) # 2ax + b & ln % + 2 ax 2 + bc + c ( $ ' 16a 5/2 a
2

! x e dx = e (x
2 x

" 2x + 2)

# x 2 2x 2 & x 2 eax dx = eax % " 2 + 3 ( ! a ' $ a a

(41)

!
!

1 " 2ax + b % dx = ln + 2 ax 2 + bx + c ' a $ a # & ax 2 + bx + c 1

! x e dx = e (x
3 x x

" 3x 2 + 6x " 6)

(42)

1 x dx = ax 2 + bx + c a ax 2 + bx + c b # 2ax + b & !!!!!" 3/2 ln % + 2 ax 2 + bx + c ( 2a a $ '

!x e

n ax

dx = ( "1)

1 #[1+ n, "ax] where a

!(a, x) =
(59)

# x

t a"1e"t dt

!e

ax 2

dx = "i

# erf ix a 2 a

LOGARITHMS (43) (44) (45) (46)

! ln xdx = x ln x " x

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (60) (61) (62) (63) (64) (65) (66)

1 ln(ax) 2 dx = ( ln(ax)) 2 x ax + b ln(ax + b) " x a

2 2 2

! sin xdx = " cos x

! ln(ax + b)dx =
2 2 2

! sin ! sin

xdx =

x 1 " sin 2x 2 4

2b "1 # ax & ! ln(a x b )dx = x ln(a x b ) + a tan % b ( " 2x $ ' 2a !1 # bx & " ln(a ! b x )dx = x ln(a ! b x ) + b tan % a ( ! 2x $ '
2 2 2 2 2 2

3 1 xdx = " cos x + cos 3x 4 12

! cos xdx = sin x

(47)

(48)

# 2ax + b & 1 4ac " b 2 tan "1 % a $ 4ac " b 2 ( ' # b & !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!"2x + % + x ( ln ax 2 + bx + c $ 2a '

! cos ! cos

xdx = xdx =

x 1 + sin 2x 2 4 3 1 sin x + sin 3x 4 12 1

2

! ln(ax

+ bx + c)dx =

! sin x cos xdx = " 2 cos

2005 BE Shapiro

Page 2

This document may not be reproduced, posted or published without permission. The copyright holder makes no representation about the accuracy, correctness, or suitability of this material for any purpose.

(67) (68) (69) (70) (71) (72) (73) (74) (75) (76) (77) (78) (79) (80) (81) (82) (83)

! sin

x cos xdx =
2

1 1 sin x " sin 3x 4 12

(89)

!x

cos axdx =

1 1 ! sin x cos xdx = " 4 cos x " 12 cos 3x

2 2 ! sin x cos xdx =

1 !!!!!!!!!! (ia)1"n $("1)n #(1+ n, "iax) " #(1+ n,iax) & % ' 2

x 1 " sin 4 x 8 32

(90) (91) (92) (93) (94)

! x sin xdx = "x cos x + sin x

! tan xdx = " ln cos x

2 ! tan xdx = "x + tan x

! x sin(ax)dx = " a cos ax + a

!x
2

1
2

sin ax

sin xdx = (2 " x 2 )cos x + 2x sin x

! tan
! sec

1 xdx = ln[cos x] + sec 2 x 2

3 ! x sin axdx =

2 " a2 x2 2 cos ax + 3 x sin ax a3 a

! sec xdx = ln | sec x + tan x |

2

!x !e !e !e !e

1 sin xdx = " (i)n $ #(n + 1, "ix) " ("1)n #(n + 1, "ix) & % ' 2

xdx = tan x

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS WITH e ax (95) (96) (97) (98)

x

1 1 ! sec xdx = 2 sec x tan x + 2 ln | sec x tan x |

3

sin xdx =

1 x e [ sin x " cos x ] 2 1 ebx [ b sin ax " a cos ax ] b + a2

2

! sec x tan xdx = sec x

bx

sin(ax)dx =

! sec ! sec
! csc

x tan xdx = x tan xdx =

1 2 sec x 2 1 n sec x , n ! 0 n

cos xdx =

1 x e [ sin x + cos x ] 2 1 ebx [ a sin ax + b cos ax ] b2 + a2

bx

cos(ax)dx =

! csc xdx = ln | csc x " cot x |

2

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS WITH x n AND e ax (99) (100)

xdx = " cot x

! xe ! xe

sin xdx = cos xdx =

! csc ! csc

1 1 xdx = " cot x csc x + ln | csc x " cot x | 2 2 1 x cot xdx = " csc n x , n ! 0 n

1 x e [ cos x " x cos x + x sin x ] 2 1 x e [ x cos x " sin x + x sin x ] 2

! sec x csc xdx = ln tan x

HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS (101) (102) (103) (104) (105) (106)

! cosh xdx = sinh x

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS WITH x n (84) (85) (86) (87)

!e

ax

cosh bxdx =

! x cos xdx = cos x + x sin x

1 1 ! x cos(ax)dx = a 2 cos ax + a x sin ax

eax [ a cosh bx " b sinh bx ] a " b2

2

! sinh xdx = cosh x

!e
!e

ax

sinh bxdx =

!x

cos xdx = 2x cos x + (x 2 " 2)sin x

eax [ "b cosh bx + a sinh bx ] a " b2

2

tanh xdx = e x " 2 tan "1 (e x )

!x

cos axdx =

2 a2 x2 " 2 x cos ax + sin ax 2 a a3

(88)

!x

! tanh axdx = a ln cosh ax

! cos ax cosh bxdx =
!!!!!!!!!! 1 [ a sin ax cosh bx + b cos ax sinh bx ] a + b2
2

cos xdx = 1 1+n $ (i ) % #(1+ n, "ix) + ( "1)n #(1+ n,ix)& ' 2

(107)

!!!!!!!!!"

2005 BE Shapiro

Page 3

This document may not be reproduced, posted or published without permission. The copyright holder makes no representation about the accuracy, correctness, or suitability of this material for any purpose.

(108)

! cos ax sinh bxdx =

!!!!!!!!!! 1 [b cos ax cosh bx + a sin ax sinh bx ] a + b2
2

(109)

! sin ax cosh bxdx =

!!!!!!!!!! 1 [ "a cos ax cosh bx + b sin ax sinh bx ] a + b2
2

(110)

! sin ax sinh bxdx =

!!!!!!!!!! 1 [b cosh bx sin ax " a cos ax sinh bx ] a + b2
2

(111)

! sinh ax cosh axdx = 4a [ "2ax + sinh(2ax)]

! sinh ax cosh bxdx =
!!!!!!!!!! 1 [b cosh bx sinh ax " a cosh ax sinh bx ] b2 " a2

(112)

2005 BE Shapiro

Page 4

This document may not be reproduced, posted or published without permission. The copyright holder makes no representation about the accuracy, correctness, or suitability of this material for any purpose.

Fourier Transform Table

x(t ) X (f ) X ( )

(t )
1

1
(f )
e j 2 ft0 (f f0 )

1
2 ( )
e j t0 2 ( 0 )

(t t0 )
e j 2 f0t cos(2 f0t ) sin(2 f0t )

1 (f f0 ) + (f + f0 ) 2 1 (f f0 ) (f + f0 ) 2j
sin c(f )

( 0 ) + ( + 0 )
j ( 0 ) ( + 0 )

rect (t )

sin c 2 rect 2
sin c 2 2 2 1 + j

sin c(t )
(t )

rect (f ) sin c 2 (f )
(f )

sin c 2 (t ) e t u(t ), > 0 te t u(t ), > 0

e |t |, > 0 e t sgn(t )
2

1 + j 2 f
1

1
2

( + j 2 f )
2
2

( + j )2
2 ( + ( )2 e f 2 j
2

( + (2 f ) e f 1 j f
2

u(t ) d (t ) dt

1 1 (f ) + j 2 f 2 j 2 f
1 T0

( ) +
j

1 j

n =

(t nT0 )

n =

n T0

1 T0

n =

2 n T0

Table of Fourier Transform Pairs

Function, f(t)
Definition of Inverse Fourier Transform

Fourier Transform, F( )
Definition of Fourier Transform

f (t ) =

1 2p

F (w )e

jwt

dw

F (w ) =

f (t )e

jw t

dt

f (t - t 0 )

F (w )e F (w

jw t 0

f (t )e j

0t

-w

0)

f (at )

1
a

F( )
a

F (t ) d n f (t ) dt n (- jt ) n f (t )

2pf (-w ) ( jw ) n F (w )

d n F (w ) dw n

f (t )dt

F (w ) jw
1

+p

F (0)d (w )

(t )
w0

ej

2pd (w 2 jw

-w

0)

sgn (t)

Signals & Systems - Reference Tables

1 pt

sgn(w )

u (t )

pd w

( )+

1 jw

jn Fn e n = -

0t

2p

Fn d (w
n = -

nw 0 )

t rect ( )
t

Sa(

wt

2
w

B Bt Sa( ) 2p 2 tri (t )

rect ( ) B Sa 2 ( ) 2
w

A cos(

2t

)rect (

t ) 2t

Ap
t

cos(wt ) (p ( 2t )2
-w

cos(w 0 t ) sin(w 0 t )

p[ d w -w

0)

+d w +w

0 )]

j u (t ) cos(w 0 t )
p

[d (w

-w

0)

-d w +w

0 )]

2 u (t ) sin(w 0 t )
p

[d (w

-w

0)

+d w +w

0 )] +

jw
w

2 0

-w

2j u (t )e
-a

[d (w

-w

0 ) - d (w

+w

0 )] +

w w

2 2

2 0

-w

cos(w 0 t )
w

(a
2 0
+

jw )
+

(a

jw ) 2

Signals & Systems - Reference Tables

u (t )e

-a

sin(w 0 t )
2 w 0
+

0
+

(a

jw ) 2

-a

t
a

2a
2
+w

t 2 /( 2s 2 )

2p e 1

-s

/2

u (t )e

-a

a +

jw
1

u (t )te

-a

(a

jw ) 2

Trigonometric Fourier Series

f (t ) = a 0
+

(a n
n =1

cos(w 0 nt ) + bn sin(w 0 nt ) )

where
1 a0 = T
0
T

2T f (t )dt , a n = f (t ) cos(w 0 nt )dt , and T0

2T bn = f (t ) sin(w 0 nt )dt T 0

Complex Exponential Fourier Series

f (t ) =
Fn e
n = -

jwnt

, where

1T Fn = f (t )e T 0

jw 0 nt

dt

Signals & Systems - Reference Tables

Some Useful Mathematical Relationships

cos( x) = e jx
+

jx

2 e jx e 2j
-

jx

sin( x) =

cos( x y ) = cos( x) cos( y ) m sin( x) sin( y ) sin( x y ) = sin( x) cos( y ) cos( x) sin( y ) cos(2 x) = cos 2 ( x) - sin 2 ( x) sin( 2 x) = 2 sin( x) cos( x) 2 cos2 ( x) = 1 + cos(2 x) 2 sin 2 ( x) = 1 - cos(2 x) cos 2 ( x) + sin 2 ( x) = 1 2 cos( x) cos( y ) = cos( x - y ) + cos( x + y ) 2 sin( x) sin( y ) = cos( x - y ) - cos( x + y ) 2 sin( x) cos( y ) = sin( x - y ) + sin( x + y )

Signals & Systems - Reference Tables

Useful Integrals
cos( x) dx sin( x)dx

sin(x)
-

cos(x)

x cos( x)dx x sin( x)dx x 2 cos( x)dx x 2 sin( x)dx

a

cos( x) + x sin( x) sin( x) - x cos( x) 2 x cos( x) + ( x 2 2 x sin( x) - ( x 2 e x a

a

2) sin( x) 2) cos( x)

dx

xe x dx
a

x a

1 a
2

x 2 e x dx
a

x2 a

2x a2 x x

a3

dx
a + b

1 x
b

ln a

+ b

dx
a

1
2

+ b

x2

ab

tan 1 (
-

Signals & Systems - Reference Tables

 &$ a $ $$  &  % #!! 

&Y Y & }

sin(2W t) t

tfvttg tt" Vl""l

heU&ovd&UW$Yr&Yavaq&&awvee&ycv U U W W b x X W b X d | W { d U U X r~ d b b o b U~ p | { }&&

U X d U o` d b` { u p` W { { X d b b t U ` { | U W a}&&wwewYrvcYaad}e5e"wYYt U i { W U n d u n U X d U o`~ n d | { o U z b W x X d b` v U d d b t U i r p n U o u n b W X` k W b j X` i vYmr}vqa}&&wcq}d&aYyfvewrvve"uv"sq&vviYrmclY"cv

g e fh55fd q y y x p d u s q h f d b` X W U "wvef r5ef rwvetrp igecaYVT A 4 S53 Q 2 4 R6PI ) H2 G F 2 ) C A EDB@ 8 92 7 2 4 653 2 1 ) 0(

'

e(at) u (t) e(a)|t|

1 0

p (t) =

|t| < |t| >

2 2

sin(f ) f

1 i2f +a 2a 4 2 f 2 +a2

1 0

c c

Y}

%#!!     &$"  

S (f ) =

|f | < W |f | > W

 G &$ G$ WG$$  6&  % #!! 

B3 A H ) c p i B 5 1 f 5 2 6`rqbD7Dhg4e(

C 53 V 2 5 R ) 2 I H 2 )E C B A 2 8 2 53 2 1 ) 76XWUTS4QP4GFD4@976400( ' %#!!     &$"  

s (t ) ei2f0 t s (t) s (t) cos (2f0 t) s (t) sin (2f0 t) d dt s (t) t s () d ts (t) s (t) dt s (0) 2 (|s (t) |) dt

B3 A H ) ca 5 H3 6`Sd&b`6Y8

s (at)

a1 s1 (t) + a2 s2 (t) s (t) R s (t) = s (t) s (t) = (s (t))

i2f S (f ) 1 S (0) = 0 i2f S (f ) 1 d S (f ) (i2) df S (0) S (f ) df 2 (|S (f ) |) df

x t

w $y w i j t ~4w t "| }g x y x ut t vbh$y 4{vz x w g x x w F$y q r t x ftg nt g 7su 4mvvvyp u $4b7Gw t xy w u u $4mU$Fvel t xt u w y w ut whgd7su $4m d w d vv q ut r t xg p tg n wuht U@ 7rsu $4m d w d vv q t xg p tg n t u 4h g dv T t xg d p o wg n xg w l w t Xmehkj w u i wg x bx @ hf yw d d $gg e yw uw $ggb yw w x $gg4Uu T t y x w ut $Fves
t

e S (f ) S (f f0 ) a1 S1 (f ) + a2 S2 (f ) S (f ) = S (f ) S (f ) = S (f ) S (f ) = (S (f ))
f 1 |a| S a (i2f )

S(f f0 )+S(f +f0 ) 2 S(f f0 )S(f +f0 ) 2i

Maxwells Equations
A sing-a-long science song written by Lynda Williams. Dedicated to Dr. Susan Lea who helped me through graduate E&M (Jackson.) Maxwells equations are 4 mathematical equations that relate the Electric Field (E) and magnetic field (B) to the charge ( ) and current (J) densities that specify the fields and give rise to electromagnetic radiation - light. In the song we use Gaussian units. Lyrics in parenthesis are the phonetic reading of the equations.

Todays Lesson: The Genesis of light.

In the beginning there was Maxwells Equations, two flux and two curl, obeying charge conservation. And then there was light.

Lesson One: Maxwell's Equations with sources in free space Equation One: Gauss'Law for the Electric Field The flux of the E Field through a closed surface (The integral of E dot ds) Is due to the charge density contained inside (4 pi integral of rho dV) Put it all together, it reads: (Surface integral of E is equal to 4 pi volume integral of rho dV) Recall the divergence theorem for a vector A (Closed surface integral of A is equal to the volume integral of the divergence of A) and apply it to Gauss' Law for E (The surface integral of E is equal to the volume integral of the divergence of E which is equal to 4 pi volume integral of rho dV) Since the integrals are equal for any volume the integrands are equal too, giving us the differential form of the Law: (del dot E is 4 pi rho) Say it! (del dot E is 4 pi rho) repetez! (del dot E is 4 pi rho) one more time! (del dot E is 4 pi rho) What does it mean? The flux of the E field though a closed surface is due to the charge density contained inside! Electric charges produce electric fields! Maxwell's Equations! Our salvation! ! " # Flux = E = % E $d S
S

4 dV
V

! " # E $d S = 4 dV %
S V

% A$d S = $ AdV
S V

" #

" #

"# " #

"# " # "# "# E $d S = $ EdV = 4 dV %

S V V

$ EdV = 4 dV
V

"# "#

"# "# $ E = 4

Equation Two: Gauss' Law for the Magnetic Field The B field is a dipole field so no matter how small the volume is you will always find equal numbers of north and south poles. So if you integrate over a closed surface youll always get a net magnetic flux of zero. In integral form it is: (Closed surface integral of B dot dS is zero) Use the Divergence theorem, (Surface integral of A is equal to the volume integral of the divergence of A) and apply it to Gauss' Law for B (Closed surface integral of B is equal to the volume integral of the divergence of B which is equal to zero) Since the integrals are equal for any volume the integrands are equal too, giving us the differential form of the Law: (del dot B is equal to zero) say it! (del dot B is equal to zero) repetez (del dot B is equal to zero) one more time (del dot B is equal to zero) What does it mean? The flux of the B field through a closed surface is zero and no matter how much we wish magnetic monopoles do not exist! Maxwell's Equations! Our salvation!

" " # # Flux = B = % B$d S = 0

S

% A$d S = $ AdV
S V

" #

" #

"# " #

" " # # "# " # B$d S = $ BdV = 0 %

S V

$ BdV = 0

"# " #

"# " # $ B = 0

Equation Three: Faradays Law Since del dot B is exactly zero, we have an interesting result. If we don't close the surface integral we get a magnetic flux. And a magnetic flux that changes in time produces an emf, that is, a non conservative circulating E field with a nonzero closed line integral. It is: (Line integral of E is minus one over c d dt integral of B)

" " # # Flux = B = B $d S 0 # # 1 d B 1d " " mf = = B $d S c dt c dt S "# # mf = % E $dl 0 "# # # # 1d " " E $dl = B$d S % c dt C S
C S

Recall Stoke's Theorem for a vector A (Closed line integral of A is equal to the open surface integral of the curl of A) Apply it to the integral form of the Law : (closed line integral of E is equal to the open surface integral of curl of E which minus one over c d dt integral of B)

" # # "# " " # # A$dl = A$d S %

C S

% E $dl = E $d S
C S

"# #

"# "#

" #

= "# "# " #

# # 1d " " B$d S c dt S 1d " # " #

Since the integrals are equal for any surface, the integrands are equal too, giving us the differential form of the Law:

E $d S = c dt B$d S
S S

(del cross E is minus one over c partial B partial t) say it! (del cross E is minus one over c partial B partial t) repetez! (del cross E is minus one over c partial B partial t) one more time! (del cross E is minus one over c partial B partial t) What does it mean? A magnetic field that is changing in time produces a non-conservative E field! Maxwell's Equations! Our Salvation!

" # "# "# 1 B E = c t

Equation Four: Ampere's Law with Conservation The line integral of the B field around a closed path is equal to the surface integral of the current density flow through a surface bound by the path. In integral form: (Closed line integral of B is equal to 4 pi over c surface integral of J) Once again we use Stoke's Theorem: (Line integral of A is equal to the surface integral of the curl of A)

" # 4 " " # # # B$dl = J $d S % c C S

% A$dl = A$d S
C S

" # #

"# " #

" #

And apply it to the integral form of the Law: (line integral of B is equal to the open surface integral of curl of B which is equal to 4 pi over c surface integral of J)

% B$dl = B$d S
# # 4 " " = J $d S c S
C S

" # #

"# " #

" #

Since the integrals are equal for any surface, the integrands are equal too, giving us the differential form of the Law: (del cross B is equal to 4 pi over c J) say it! (del cross B is equal to 4 pi over c J) repetez! (del cross B is equal to 4 pi over c J) one more time! (del cross B is equal to 4 pi over c J) But that's not all! If you take the Divergence of Ampere's Law - well do it! (del dot del cross B equals del dot 4 pi over c J) We have a problem because the divergence of a curl is zero but the the divergence of J is not!

B $d S =
S

" #

" #

# # 4 " " J $d S c S

"# " 4 " # # J B = c

"# "# " "# 4 " # # $ B = $ J c "# "# " # "# 4 " # 4 $ B = 0 $ J = c c t "# " # $ J = t

Recall the equation of continuity, that is: (del dot J is equal to minus partial rho partial t) That is net outflow of current is equal to the rate at wich the charges are lost. That's charge conservation! We must obey it! But we know that a changing E field produces a B field and if you take the partial time derivative of Gauss' electric law you get a current term.

"# "# $ E = 4 t t "# "# E $ = 4 t t "# E t

So let us define a 'Displacement Current' (partial E partial t)

and put it into Ampere's equation so that it obeys charge conservation (del cross B is equal to 4 pi over c J plus one over c partial E partial t) say it! (del cross B is equal to 4 pi over c J plus one over c partial E partial t) repetez! (del cross B is equal to 4 pi over c J plus one over partial E partial t) one more time! (del cross B is equal to 4 pi over c J plus one over c partial E partial t) "# "# " 4 " 1 E # # J+ B = c c t

What does it mean? The curl of the B field is due to the current flow and a changing electric field. Maxwells Equations! Our Salvation! Finally, we have it all. say it with me in the light of the law! Gauss! (del dot E is 4 pi rho) NO monopoles! (del dot B is equal to zero) Faraday. (del cross E is equal to minus one over c partial B partial t) Ampere's (del cross B is equal to 4 pi over c J plus one over partial E partial t) Gauss! (del dot E is equal to 4 pi rho) NO monopoles! (del dot B is equal to zero) Faraday. (del cross E is equal to minus one over c partial B partial t) Ampere's Law (del cross B is equal to 4 pi over c J plus one over partial E partial t) In the beginning of the world was Maxwell's Equations Two flux and Two curl obeying charge conservation and then there was light.alright!

"# "# $ E = 4 "# " # $ B = 0 " # "# "# 1 B E = c t "# "# " 4 " 1 E # # J+ B = c c t "# "# $ E = 4 "# " # $ B = 0 " # "# "# 1 B E = c t "# "# " 4 " 1 E # # J+ B = c c t

Lesson #2: Maxwell's Equations in Macroscopic

5

Media The free space equations are not valid in the presence of matter, in macroscopic media because the E and B fields produce polarization (P) and magnetization (M) effects in the bound charges of the material. P, the polarization vector, is the electric dipole density induced by the external field, E. P weakens E so we define the Displacement D which is the field due only to charges that are free . (D is equal to E plus 4 pi P) say it, D: (D is equal to E plus 4 pi P) M, the magnetization, is the magnetic dipole density induced by the external field, B. M strengthens B and so we define the H which is the field due only to the currents that are free. (H is equal to B minus 4 pi M) say it, H: (H is equal to B minus 4 pi M) H and D come into play where you have a rho or J. Just substitute D for E, do the same, H for B. Gauss's Law becomes (del dot D equals 4 pi rho) say it. (del dot D equals 4 pi rho) Ampere's Law becomes (del cross H is equal to 4 pi over c J plus 1 over c partial D partial t) again (del cross H is equal to 4 pi over c J plus 1 over c partial D partial t) Finally we have it all. Gauss: (del dot D is equal to 4 pi rho) NO Magnetic Monopoles: (del dot B is equal to zero) Faraday: (del cross E is equal to minus one over c partial B partial t) Ampere's Law:(del cross H is equal to 4 pi over c J plus 1 over c partial D partial t) "# "# $ D = 4 "# " # $ B = 0 " # "# "# 1 B E = c t "# "# "" 4 " 1 D # # J+ H = c c t
6

"# "# " # D = E + 4 P

"" " # # "" # H = B 4 M

"# "# $ D = 4 "# "# "" 4 " 1 D # # J+ H = c c t

Once again my friend.

Gauss: (del dot D is equal to 4 pi rho) NO Monopoles: (del dot B is equal to zero) Faraday: (del cross E is equal to minus one over c partial B partial t) Ampere's Law with conservation: (del cross H is equal to 4 pi over c J plus 1 over c partial D partial t) In the beginning world was Maxwell's Equations Two flux and Two curl obeying charge conservation and then there was light. alright! Lesson #3: Maxwell's Equations in Vacuum You thought it was over but now its time to begin. What happens when there are no currents, no charges within? Then everything simplifies in this special case we have Maxwell's equations in empty space! Since theres no sources set the J's and rhos to zero. Hs turn into to Bs and D's turn back into E's! Let's start with gauss: (Del dot E is equal to zero) (del dot B is equal to zero) (del cross E is is equal to minus one over c partial B partial t) (del cross B is equal to one over c partial E partial t)

"# "# $ D = 4 "# " # $ B = 0 " # "# "# 1 B E = c t "# "# "" 4 " 1 D # # J+ H = c c t

=0 J =0
"# "# $ E = 0 "# " # $ B = 0 " # "# "# 1 B E = c t "# "# " 1 E # B = c t "# "# $ E = 0 "# " # $ B = 0 " # "# "# 1 B E = c t
7

Once again! ( Del dot E is equal to zero) (del dot B is equal to zero) (del cross E is equal to minus one over c partial B partial t) (del cross B is equal to one over c partial E partial t)

Once again (del dot E is equal to zero) (del dot B is equal to zero) (del cross E is equal to minus one over c partial B partial t) (del cross B is equal to one over c partial E partial t) Zero flux, no monopoles, change in B produces E change in E produces B Oh! The symmetry! In the beginning of the world was Maxwell's Equations Two flux and Two curl and then there was light. alright! Lesson # 4: The Test! Now its time for the test. Just relax and do your best! Don't worry if at first you get it wrong. This is just a song! The answers will be given at the end and you can do it again and again until you get it right, Maxwell's equations of Light! Alright! Maxwell's Equations in free space with sources! Gauss! ( ) No monopoles! ( ) Faraday! ( ) Ampere's Law with conservation! ( ) Maxwell's Equations in Macroscopic Media Gauss! ( ) No monopoles! ( ) Faraday! ( ) Ampere's Law with conservation! ( ) Maxwell's Equations in Empty Space Gauss! ( ) No monopoles! ( ) Faraday! ( ) Ampere's Law! ( )

"# "# " 1 E # B = c t "# "# $ E = 0 "# " # $ B = 0 " # "# "# 1 B E = c t "# "# " 1 E # B = c t

Very good! But how did you do? Try it againmy friend

Free space with sources: Gauss: (del dot E is equal to 4 pi rho) No Monopoles ( ) (del dot B is equal to zero)

"# "# $ E = 4 "# " # $ B = 0 " # "# "# 1 B E = c t "# "# " 4 " 1 E # # J+ B = c c t

Faraday: ( ) (del cross E is equal to minus one over c partial B partial t) Ampere's Law with conservation: ( ) (del cross B is equal to 4 pi over c J plus 1 over c partial E partial t) Macroscopic Media Gauss: ( ) (del dot D is equal to 4 pi rho)

"# "# $ D = 4

No Monopoles: (del dot B is equal to zero)

"# " # $ B = 0 " # "# "# 1 B E = c t "# "# "" 4 " 1 D # # J+ H = c c t

Faraday: ( ) (del cross E is equal to minus one over c partial B partial t) Ampere: ( ) (del cross H is equal to 4 pi over c J plus 1 over c partial D partial t)

Maxwell's Equations in Empty Space Gauss: ( ) (del dot D is equal zero) No Monopoles ( ) (del dot B is equal to zero) Faraday: ( ) (del cross E is equal to minus one over c partial B partial t) Ampere: ( ) (del cross B is equal to 1 over c partial E partial t)

"# "# $ E = 0 "# " # $ B = 0 " # "# "# 1 B E = c t

9

In the beginning of the world was Maxwell's Equations Two flux and Two curl obeying charge conservation and then there was light! alright!

"# "# " 1 E # B = c t

Epilogue: The Wave Equation Start with Maxwell's Equation in a Vacuum

"# "# $ E = 0 "# " # $ B = 0 " # "# "# 1 B E = c t "# "# " 1 E # B = c t " # "# "# "# "# 1 B E = c t

and take the curl of Faraday's Law.

The trick is to use the vector ID for the curl of a curl and then you'll see that everything simplifies cuz Gauss's Law tells us del dot E is zero

"# "# " # "# "# " # " # A = A 2 A

"# "#

( E ) = ( E ) "# "# "# ( E ) = E

2

"# "#

"# "# "#

"# E

and Ampere's law simplifies the other side

# 1 "# " B t c "# # 1 2 E 1 "# " B = 2 2 c t t c " # "# "# "# "# 1 B E = "# c t 2 "# 1 E 2 E = 2 2 c t

Put it all together and we derive a wave equation for the E field:

our familiar friend!

"# "# 1 2 E E 2 2 =0 c t
2

Take the curl of Amperes Law and follow the same path you'll get an equation for B too.

" # " 1 2 B # B 2 2 =0 c t
2

These are both wave equations that describe

10

transverse, plane waves traveling at the speed of c the speed of light!

"# "# 1 2 E E 2 2 =0 c t
2

" # " 1 2 B # B 2 2 =0 c t
2

A changing E produces B A changing B produces E Electromagnetic Fields Oscillating and regenerating at the speed of light. Electromagnetic waves travelling at the speed of light. In the beginning of the world was maxwells equations two flux and two curl obeying conservation and then there was light!

11

The Complete Smith Chart

0.12

0.11
0.1

0.13
0.37

0.14 0.36
80
1.2
40
0.15
0.35

0.39
100
50

0.38

45

9 0.0
8 0.0
0.4 1

0.4
110

90 1.0

0.9

70

0.1 6 0.3 4
60
1.6

0.6 60

2 0.4

120

0.7

1.4

35

0.0

7 3 0.4 0 13

70

0.0

(+ jX /Z

R ,O o)

E NC TA EP SC SU VE TI CI PA CA

) /Yo (+jB

0.3

0.1 7 3

55

0.8

30
1.8
2.0

0.5

65

0.2

50

0.3

0.1 2

19 0.

0. 06

25

31 0.

0. 4

14

0.4

40

0.4

RE AC TA 75 NC EC OM PO N EN T

0.0 4

0.4 6

15 0

0.0 > WAVELE 0.49 NGTH S TOW ARD 0.0 D < 0.49 GEN RD LOA A ERA 0.48 S TOW 7 180 H TO 0.4 170 70 NGT R -1 ELE V 0.47 > WA 160 < 160 -90 90 -

80

IND UCT IVE

1.0

85

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

10

20

0.2

0.1

0.4

o) jB/Y E (NC TA EP SC 44 -75 0. SU 40 -1 VE 06 TI 0. C DU IN R -70 O ), Zo X/

0.48

0.6

-85

1.0

4 0.0 0 -15 -80

6 0.4

0.3

0.0

-65

0.6

-60

1.6

0.7

1.4

0.8

0.9

1.2

-55

1.0

-5

5 -4

RADIALLY SCALED PARAMETERS 100 40 40 30 0 1 1 0.0 ORIGIN 0.9 1 0.8 0.9 0.1 0.7 20 10 20 2 0.6 0.8 0.2 15 3 0.5 0.7 0.3 4 0.4 0.6 0.4 5 0.3 0.5 0.5 5 4 10 6 7 0.2 0.4 0.6 3 2.5 8 8 9 2 6 10 0.1 0.3 0.7 1.8 5 12 1.6 4 14 0.2 0.8 0.05 1.4 3 2 20 0.01 0.1 0.9 1.2 1.1 1 1 1 1 30 0 0 0 0 1 CENTER 1 1.1 0.99 1.1 0.1 1.2 0.95 1.2 15 TOWARD LOAD > 10 7 5 1.1 0.2 1.3 1.2 0.4 1.4 0.9 1.3 1.4 0.6 4 1.3 1.4 0.8 1 0.8 1.5 1.5 1.6 3 1.8 1.5 0.7 1.6 2 2 0.6 < TOWARD GENERATOR 2 1 3 3 2.5 0.5 1.7 0.4 1.8 4 4 3 0.3 5 5 6 4 0.2 1.9 5 0.1 10 20 10 0 2 10 15
R BS B] , P r I SW d S [d EFF , E o S O CO EFF .L . N FL . CO R L RF RT

1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2

TR

N SM

TR S. RF S. A A W. L. W. TT N P L L EN SM EA O O . .C . C K SS [ SS C [dB O O (C dB O ] EF EF O ] EF F, F, NS F E P T. or P) I

0.3

0.1

1.8

0 -5 -25

0.5

2.0

3 0.3

7 0.1

-30

-60

4 0.3

6 0.1

-35

-70

0.35

0.15

0.36

0.14 -80

-4 0

0.37

0.13

0.4

0.2

-90

0.12

0.38

0.11 -100

0.39

0.1 0.4 1 -11 0 .09 0 0.4 2 120 0.08 CA PAC 0.4 I 3 TIV ER 0.0 EA 7 CT -1 AN 30 CE CO M PO N EN T (-j

0.

0.4

5.0

0.2

-10

8 0.

50

RESISTANCE COMPONENT (R/Zo), OR CONDUCTANCE COMPONENT (G/Yo)

50

20

10

-15

4.0

-20 3.0

1.0

0.8

0. 8

0.6

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.4

0. 4

0.2

20

0.3

0.6

3.0
1 0.2 0.2 30

0.3

0.8

4.0

15

1.0

0.22

0.28

5.0

0.2

20
10
0.25 0.26 0.24 0.27 0.23 0.25 0.24 0.26 0.23 0.27 REFLECTION COEFFICIENT IN DE GREE LE OF S ANG ISSION COEFFICIENT IN TRANSM DEGR LE OF EES ANG
10

0.1

20

50

-20
0.22 0.28

0.2 1

-30

0.2 9

0.2 0.3

-4 0

0. 19 0. 31

REFLECTIONS AND STANDING WAVE RATIO

Page 1 of 9

THE SMITH CHART

.In the last section we looked at the properties of two particular lengths of resonant transmission lines: half and quarter wavelength lines. It is possible to compute the impedance transformation of an arbitrary length of line by using the following formula:

The lengths are measured in feet, angles in radians, frequencies in MHz and impedances in ohms. This equation can be cumbersome to solve. All the impedances are often complex numbers, and the formula itself has real and complex parts. A graphical method for solving this equation, known as the Smith Chart, was developed by P.H. Smith in the late 1930s and originally described in Electronics for January1939. It may he obtained at most university book stores and is still used today because of its simplicity. The following paragraphs explain the theory behind and the use of the Smith Chart. You may want to click here to look at an IEEE paper that explains the Smith Chart in a different way, to improve your understanding

http://www.ycars.org/EFRA/Module%20C/TLSmith.htm

1/26/2006

REFLECTIONS AND STANDING WAVE RATIO

Page 2 of 9

One of the simpler applications is to determine the feed-point impedance of an antenna, based on an impedance measurement at the input of a random length of transmission line. By using the Smith Chart, the impedance measurement can be made with the antenna in place atop a tower or mast, and there is no need to cut the line to an exact multiple of half wavelengths. The Smith Chart may be used for other purposes, too, such as the design of impedance-matching networks. These matching networks can take on any of several forms, such as L and pi networks, a stub matching system, a series-section match, and more. With a knowledge of the Smith Chart, the technician can eliminate much "cut and try work. The input impedance, or the impedance seen when "looking into" a length of transmission line, is dependent upon the SWR, the length of the line, and the characteristic impedance of the line. The SWR, in turn, is dependent upon the load that terminates the line. There are complex mathematical relationships that may be used to calculate the various values of impedances, voltages, currents, and SWR values that exist in the operation of a particular transmission line. These equations can be solved with a personal computer and suitable software, or the parameters maybe determined with the Smith Chart. Even if a computer is used, a fundamental knowledge of the Smith Chart will promote a letter

http://www.ycars.org/EFRA/Module%20C/TLSmith.htm

1/26/2006

REFLECTIONS AND STANDING WAVE RATIO

Page 3 of 9

understanding of the problem being solved. And such an understanding might lead to a quicker or simpler solution than otherwise. If the terminating impedance is known, it is a simple matter to determine the input impedance of the line for any length by means of the chart. Conversely, as indicated above, with a given line length and a known (or measured) input impedance, the load impedance may be determined by means of the chart-a convenient method of remotely determining an antenna impedance, for example. Although its appearance may at first seem somewhat formidable, the Smith Chart is really nothing more than a specialized type of graph. Consider it as having curved, rather than rectangular, coordinate lines. The coordinate system consists simply of two families of circles-the resistance family, and the reactance family. The resistance circles, Fig 1, are centered on the resistance axis (the only straight line on the chart), and are tangent to the outer circle at the right of the chart. Each circle is assigned a value of resistance, which is indicated at the point where the circle crosses the resistance axis. All points along any one circle have the same resistance value. The values assigned to these circles vary from zero at the left of the chart to infinity at the right, and actually represent a ratio with respect to the impedance value assigned to the center point of the chart, indicated 1.0. This center point is called prime center If prime center is assigned a value of 100 ohms, then 200 ohm resistance is represented by the 2.0 circle, 50 ohms by the 0.5 circle, 20 ohms by the 0.2 circle, and so on. If, instead, a value of 50 is assigned to prime center, the 2.0 circle now represents 100 ohms, the 0.5 circle 25 ohms, and the 0.2 circle 10 ohms. In each case, it may be seen that the value on the chart is determined by dividing the actual resistance by the number assigned to prime center.

This process is called normalizing. Conversely, values from the chart are converted back to actual resistance values by multiplying the chart value times the value assigned to prime center. This feature permits the use of the Smith Chart for any impedance values, and therefore with any type of uniform transmission line, whatever its impedance may be. As mentioned above, specialized versions of the Smith Chart may be obtained with a value of 50 ohms at prime center. These are intended for use with 50 ohm lines. Now consider the reactance circles, Fig 2, which appear as curved lines on the chart because only segments of the complete circles are drawn. These circles are tangent to the resistance axis, which itself is a member of the reactance family (with a radius of infinity). The

http://www.ycars.org/EFRA/Module%20C/TLSmith.htm

1/26/2006

REFLECTIONS AND STANDING WAVE RATIO

Page 4 of 9

centers are displaced to the top or bottom on a line tangent to the right of the chart. The large outer circle bounding the coordinate portion of the chart is the reactance axis. Each reactance circle segment is assigned a value of reactance, indicated near the point where the circle touches the reactance axis. All points along any one segment have the same reactance value. As with the resistance circles, the values assigned to each reactance circle are normalized with respect to the value assigned to prime center Values to the top of the resistance axis are positive (inductive), and those to the bottom of the resistance axis are negative (capacitive).

When the resistance family and the reactance family of circles are combined, the coordinate system of the Smith Chart results, as shown in Fig 3. Complex impedances (R +jX) can be plotted on this coordinate system.

http://www.ycars.org/EFRA/Module%20C/TLSmith.htm

1/26/2006

REFLECTIONS AND STANDING WAVE RATIO

Page 5 of 9

2. Impedance Plotting Suppose we have an impedance consisting of 50 ohms resistance and 100 ohms inductive reactance (Z = 50 +j100 ohms). If we assign a value of 100 ohms to prime center, we normalize the above impedance by dividing each component of the impedance by 100 ohms. The normalized impedance is then 50/100 +j(100/100) = 0.5 +jl .0. This impedance is plotted on the Smith Chart at the intersection of the 0.5 resistance circle and the +1.0 reactance circle, as indicated in Fig 3. Calculations may now be made from this plotted value. Now say that instead of assigning 100 ohms to prime center, we assign a value of 50 ohms. With this assignment, the 50 +jl100 ohm impedance is plotted at the intersection of the 50/50 = 1.0 resistance circle, and the 100/50 = 2.0 positive reactance circle. This value, 1 + j2, is also indicated in Fig 3. But now we have two points plotted in Fig 3 to represent the same impedance value, 50 +j100 ohms. How can this be? These examples show that the same impedance may be plotted at different points on the chart, depending upon the value assigned to prime center. But two plotted points cannot represent the same impedance at the same time! It is customary when solving transmission-line problems to assign to prime center a value equal to the characteristic impedance, or Z0, of the line being used. This value should always be recorded at the start of calculations, to avoid possible confusion later (In using the specialized charts with the value of 50 at prime center, it is, of course, not necessary to normalize impedances when working with 50 ohm line. The resistance and reactance values may he read directly from the chart coordinate system.) Prime center is a point of special significance. As just mentioned, it is customary when solving problems to assign the Z0 value of the line to this point on the chart-50 ohms for a 50 ohm line, for example. What this means is that the center point of the chart now represents 50 + j0 ohms-a pure resistance equal to the characteristic impedance of the line. If this were a load on the line, we recognize from transmission-line theory that it represents a perfect match, with no reflected power and with a 1.0 to I SWR. Thus,

http://www.ycars.org/EFRA/Module%20C/TLSmith.htm

1/26/2006

REFLECTIONS AND STANDING WAVE RATIO

Page 6 of 9

prime center also represents the 1.0 SWR circle (with a radius of zero). SWR circles are also discussed in a later section. Short and Open Circuits On the subject of plotting impedances, two special cases deserve consideration. These are short circuits and open circuits. A true short circuit has zero resistance and zero reactance, or 0 +j0 ohms). This impedance is plotted at the left of the chart, at the intersection of the resistance and the reactance axes. By contrast, an open circuit has infinite resistance, and therefore is plotted at the right of the chart, at the intersection of the resistance and reactance axes. These two special cases are sometimes used in matching stubs, described later. Standing-Wave-Ratio Circles Members of a third family of circles, which are not printed on the chart but which are added during the process of solving problems, are standing-wave-ratio or SWR circles. See Fig 4. This family is centered on prime center, and appears as concentric circles inside the reactance axis. During calculations, one or more of these circles may be added with a drawing compass. Each circle represents a value of SWR, with every point on a given circle representing the same SWR. The SWR value for a given circle may be determined directly from the chart coordinate system, by reading the resistance value where the SWR circle crosses the resistance axis to the right of prime center (The reading where the circle crosses the resistance axis to the left of prime center indicates the inverse ratio.)

Consider the situation where a load mismatch in a length of line causes a 3-to-i SWR ratio to exist. If we temporarily disregard line losses, we may state that the SWR remains constant throughout the entire length of this line. This is represented on the Smith Chart by drawing a 3:1 constant SWR circle (a circle with a radius of 3 on the resistance axis) as in Fig 5. The design of the chart is such that any impedance encountered anywhere along the length of this mismatched line will fall on the SWR circle. The impedances may be read from the coordinate system merely by the progressing around the SWR circle

http://www.ycars.org/EFRA/Module%20C/TLSmith.htm

1/26/2006

REFLECTIONS AND STANDING WAVE RATIO

Page 7 of 9

by an amount corresponding to the length of the line involved. This brings into use the wavelength scales, which appear in Fig 5 near the perimeter of the Smith Chart. These scales are calibrated in terms of portions of an electrical wavelength along a transmission line. Both scales start from 0 at the left of the chart. One scale, running counterclockwise, starts at the generator or input end of the line and progresses toward the load. The other scale starts at the load and proceeds toward the generator in a clockwise direction. The complete circle around the edge of the chart represents . Progressing once around the perimeter of these scales corresponds to progressing along a transmission line for 1/2 . Because impedances repeat themselves every along a piece of line, the chart may be used for any length of line by disregarding or subtracting from the line's total length an integral. or whole number, of half wavelengths.

Also shown in Fig 5 is a means of transferring the radius of the SWR circle to the external scales of the chart, by drawing lines tangent to the circle. Another simple way to obtain information from these external scales is to transfer the radius of the SWR circle to the external scale with a drawing compass. Place the point of a drawing compass at the center or 0 line, and inscribe a short arc across the appropriate scale. It will be noted that when this is done in Fig 5, the external STANDING-WAVE VOLTAGE-RATIO scale indicates the SWR to be 3.0 (at A) our condition for initially drawing the circle on the chart (and the same as the SWR reading on the resistance axis). 3. Solving Problems with the Smith Chart

http://www.ycars.org/EFRA/Module%20C/TLSmith.htm

1/26/2006

REFLECTIONS AND STANDING WAVE RATIO

Page 8 of 9

Suppose we have a transmission line with a characteristic impedance of 50 ohms and an electrical length of 0.3 . Also, suppose we terminate this line with an impedance having a resistive component of 25 ohms and an inductive reactance of 25 ohms (Z = 25 +j25). What is the input impedance to the line? The characteristic impedance of the line is 50 ohms, so we begin by assigning this value to prime center Because the line is not terminated in its characteristic impedance, we know that standing waves will exist on the line, and that, therefore, the input impedance to the line will not be exactly 50 ohms. We proceed as follows. First, normalize the load impedance by dividing both the resistive and reactive components by 50 ohms (Z0 of the line being used). The normalized impedance in this case is 0.5 + j0.5. This is plotted on the chart at the intersection of the 0.5 resistance and the +0.5 reactance circles, as in Fig 6. Then draw a constant SWR circle passing through this point. Transfer the radius of this circle to the external scales with the drawing compass. From the external STANDINGWAVE VOLTAGE~RATIO scale, it may be seen (at A) that the voltage ratio of 2.62 exists for this radius, indicating that our line is operating with an SWR of 2.62 to 1. This figure is convened to decibels in the adjacent scale, where 8.4 dB may be read (at B), indicating that the ratio of the voltage maximum to the voltage minimum along the line is 8.4 dB. (This is mathematically equivalent to 20 times the log of the SWR value.)

Next, with a straightedge, draw a radial line from prime center through the plotted point to

http://www.ycars.org/EFRA/Module%20C/TLSmith.htm

1/26/2006

REFLECTIONS AND STANDING WAVE RATIO

Page 9 of 9

intersect the wavelengths scale. At this intersection, point C in Fig 6, read a value from the wavelengths scale. Because we are starting from the load, we use the TOWARD GENERATOR or outermost calibration, and read 0.088 . To obtain the line input impedance, we merely find the point on the SWR circle that is 0.3 A toward the generator from the plotted load impedance. This is accomplished by adding 0.3 (the length of the line in wavelengths) to the reference or starting point, 0.088, 0.3 + 0.088 = 0.388. Locate 0.388 on the TOWARD GENERATOR scale (at D). Draw a second radial line from this point to prime center. The intersection of the new radial line with the SWR circle represents the normalized line input impedance, in this case 0.6 j0.66. To find the unnormalized line impedance, multiply by 50, the value assigned to prime center. The resulting value is 30 -j33, or 30 ohms resistance and 330 capacitive reactance. This is the impedance that a transmitter must match if such a system were a combination of antenna and transmission line. This is also the impedance that would be measured on an impedance bridge if the measurement were taken at the line input. In addition to the line input impedance and the SWR, the chart reveals several other operating characteristics of the above system of line and load, if a closer look is desired. For example, the voltage reflection coefficient, both magnitude and phase angle, for this particular load is given. The phase angle is read under the radial line drawn through the plot of the load impedance, where the line intersects the ANGLE OF REFLECTION COEFFICIENT scale. This scale is not included in Fig 6, but will be found on the Smith Chart just inside the wavelengths scales. In this example, the reading is 116.6 degrees. This indicates the angle by which the reflected voltage wave leads the incident wave at the load. It will be noted that angles on the bottom half, or capacitive-reactance half, of the chart are negative angles, a negative" lead indicating that the reflected voltage wave actually tags the incident wave. The magnitude of the voltage-reflection-coefficient may be read from the external REFLECTION COEFFICIENT VOLTAGE scale, and is seen to be approximately 0.45 (at E) for this example. This means that 45 percent of the incident voltage is reflected. Adjacent to this scale on the POWER calibration, it is noted (at F) that the power reflection coefficient is 0.20, indicating that 20 percent of the incident power is reflected. (The amount of reflected power is proportional to the square of the reflected voltage.)

And yet more information on the Smith Chart

Previous Page

Index

Next Page

http://www.ycars.org/EFRA/Module%20C/TLSmith.htm

1/26/2006

Appendices

Appendix A: Appendix B: Appendix C: Appendix D: Appendix E: Appendix F: Appendix G: Appendix H: Appendix I: Appendix J:

Prexes Vector Analysis Bessel Functions Other Mathematical Results Physical Constants Conductivities for Some Materials Dielectric Constants and Loss Tangents for Some Materials Properties of Some Microwave Ferrite Materials Standard Rectangular Waveguide Data Standard Coaxial Cable Data

712

Appendix B Vector Analysis

713

APPENDIX A PREFIXES
Multiplying Factor 1012 109 106 103 102 101 101 102 103 106 109 1012 1015 Prex tera giga mega kilo hecto deka deci centi milli micro nano pico femto Symbol T G M k h da d c m n p f

APPENDIX B VECTOR ANALYSIS

Coordinate Transformations Rectangular to cylindrical:
x z cos sin 0 y sin cos 0 z 0 0 1

Rectangular to spherical:
x r sin cos cos cos sin y sin sin cos sin cos z cos sin 0

Cylindrical to spherical:
r sin cos 0 0 0 1 z cos sin 0

714

Appendices

These tables can be used to transform unit vectors as well as vector components; e.g., = x cos + y sin A = A x cos + A y sin Vector Differential Operators Rectangular coordinates: f f f +y +z x y z Ay Ax Az A= + + x y z Ay Az +y A=x y z f =x 2 f = 2 f 2 f 2 f + 2 + 2 x2 y z

Ax Az z x

+z

Ay Ax x y

2 A = x 2 A x + y 2 A y + z 2 A z Cylindrical coordinates: f = A A f 1 f + zf + z 1 A Az 1 ( A ) + + = z A 1 Az A A z + = z z 1 f +

+z

( A ) A

2 f 1 2 f + 2 2 2 z 2 A A = ( A) 2 f = Spherical coordinates: f 1 f + f + r r r sin 1 A = 1 (r 2 Ar ) + 1 (sin A ) + A 2 r r sin r sin r A 1 Ar r (A sin ) + (r A ) A= r sin r sin r Ar (r A ) + r r f =r f 1 1 r2 + 2 r r 2 r r sin 2 A = A A 2 f = sin f + 2 f r 2 sin2 2 1

Appendix C Bessel Functions

715

Vector identities: A B = |A||B| cos , where is the angle between A and B | A B| = | A||B| sin , where is the angle between A and B. A B C = A B C =C A B A B = B A ( B C) = ( A C) B ( A B)C A ( f g) = g f + f g ( f A) = A f + f A B) = ( A) B ( B) A (A ( f A) = ( f ) A + f A B) = A B B A + ( B ) A ( A ) B (A B) = ( A ) B + ( B ) A + A ( B) + B ( A) (A A = 0 ( f ) = 0 A = A 2 A Note: the term 2 A has meaning only for rectangular components of A. A dv =
V S

(B.1) (B.2) (B.3) (B.4) (B.5) (B.6) (B.7) (B.8) (B.9) (B.10) (B.11) (B.12) (B.13) (B.14)

A ds Ad
C

(divergence theorem)

((B.15))

( A) d s =
S

(Stokes theorem)

((B.16))

APPENDIX C BESSEL FUNCTIONS

Bessel functions are solutions to the differential equation, 1 d d df d + k2 n2 2 f =0 (C.1)

where k 2 is real and n is an integer. The two independent solutions to this equation are called ordinary Bessel functions of the rst and second kind, written as Jn (k) and Yn (k), and so the general solution to (C.1) is f () = A Jn (k) + BYn (k) where A and B are arbitrary constants to be determined from boundary conditions. These functions can be written in series form as

(C.2)

Jn (x) =
m=0

(1)m (x/2)n+2m m!(n + m)! 2 x

n2m

(C.3)

Yn (x) =

2 1 x + ln Jn (x) 2 1
m=0

n1 m=0

(n m 1)! m!

(1)m (x/2)n+2m m!(n + m)!

1+

1 1 1 1 1 + + + + 1 + + + 2 3 m 2 n+m (C.4)

716

Appendices

1.0

J0 J1

0.5

J2

10

0.5

0.5

Y0

Y1

Y2

10

0.5

1.0

FIGURE C.1

Bessel functions of the rst and second kind.

where = 0.5772 . . . is Eulers constant, and x = k. Note that Yn becomes innite at x = 0, due to the ln term. From these series expressions, small argument formulas can be obtained as 1 x n n! 2 2 Y0 (x) ln x 1 x (n 1)! Yn (x) 2 Jn (x) Large argument formulas can be derived as Jn (x) Yn (x) 2 n cos x x 4 2 2 n sin x x 4 2 (C.8) (C.9) (C.5) (C.6)
n

n>0

(C.7)

Figure C.1 shows graphs of a few of the lowest order Bessel functions of each type. Recurrence formulas relate Bessel functions of different orders: Z n+1 (x) = 2n Z n (x) Z n1 (x) x n Z n (x) = Z n (x) + Z n1 (x) x (C.10) (C.11)

Appendix C Bessel Functions

717

n (C.12) Z n (x) Z n+1 (x) x 1 (C.13) Z n (x) = [Z n1 (x) Z n+1 (x)] 2 where Z n = Jn or Yn . The following integral relations involving Bessel functions are useful: Z n (x) =
x 0 x 0 pnm 0 pnm 0 2 Z m (kx)x d x =

x2 2

Z n2 (kx) + 1

n2 k2x 2

2 Z n (kx)

(C.14)

Z n (kx)Z n ( x)x d x =

x [k Z n ( x)Z n+1 (kx) Z n (kx)Z n+1 ( x)] (C.15) k2 2 n2 2 p2 (C.16) Jn2 (x) + 2 Jn (x) x d x = nm Jn2 ( pnm ) 2 x Jn2 (x) + n2 2 ( p )2 n2 J (x) x d x = nm 1 J 2 ( p ) (C.17) 2 n 2 x ( pnm )2 n nm

where Jn ( pnm ) = 0, and Jn ( pnm ) = 0. The zeros of Jn (x) and Jn (x) are on the following two pages.
Zeros of Bessel Functions of First Kind: Jn (x) = 0 for 0 < x < 12 n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2.4048 3.8317 5.1356 6.3802 7.5883 8.7715 9.9361 11.0864 2 5.5201 7.0156 8.4172 9.7610 11.0647 3 8.6537 10.1735 11.6198 4 11.7915

Extrema of Bessel Functions of First Kind: d Jn (x)/d x = 0 for 0 < x < 12 n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 3.8317 1.8412 3.0542 4.2012 5.3175 6.4156 7.5013 8.5778 9.6474 10.7114 11.7709 2 7.0156 5.3314 6.7061 8.0152 9.2824 10.5199 11.7349 3 10.1735 8.5363 9.9695 11.3459 4 13.3237 11.7060

718

Appendices

APPENDIX D OTHER MATHEMATICAL RESULTS

Useful Integrals
a 0 a a 0 a

cos2

n x dx = a

sin2 sin

n x a dx = , a 2

for n 1 for m = n

(D.1) (D.2) (D.3) (D.4 )

cos
0 a

m x n x cos dx = a a m x n x sin dx = 0 a a
0

m x n x sin d x = 0, a a

cos
0

sin3 d =

4 3

Taylor Series (x x0 )2 d 2 f 2! dx2

f (x) = f (x0 ) + (x x0 ) ex = 1 + x +

df dx

+
x=x0

+
x=x0

(D.5) (D.6)

x2 x3 + + 2! 3! for |x| < 1 for |x| < 1

3

1 = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + , 1x x x2 1+x = 1+ + , 2 8 2 x 1 x 1 + ln x = 2 x +1 3 x +1 sin x = x cos x = 1 x3 x5 + + 3! 5! x4 x2 + + 2! 4!

(D.7) (D.8) (D.9) (D.10) (D.11)

+ ,

for x > 0

APPENDIX E PHYSICAL CONSTANTS

r r r r r r r r r

Permittivity of free-space = 0 = 8.854 1012 F/m Permeability of free-space = 0 = 4 107 H/m Impedance of free-space = 0 = 376.7 Velocity of light in free-space = c = 2.998 108 m/s Charge of electron = q = 1.602 1019 C Mass of electron = m = 9.107 1031 kg Boltzmanns constant = k = 1.380 1023 J/ K Plancks constant = h = 6.626 1034 J-sec Gyromagnetic ratio = = 1.759 1011 C/Kg (for g = 2)

Appendix G Dielectric Constants and Loss Tangents for Some Materials

719

APPENDIX F CONDUCTIVITIES FOR SOME MATERIALS

Material Aluminum Brass Bronze Chromium Copper Distilled water Germanium Gold Graphite Iron Mercury Lead Conductivity S/m (20 C) 3.816 107 2.564 107 1.00 107 3.846 107 5.813 107 2 104 2.2 106 4.098 107 7.0 104 1.03 107 1.04 106 4.56 106 Material Nichrome Nickel Platinum Sea water Silicon Silver Steel (silicon) Steel (stainless) Solder Tungsten Zinc Conductivity S/m (20 C) 1.0 106 1.449 107 9.52 106 35 4.4 104 6.173 107 2 106 1.1 106 7.0 106 1.825 107 1.67 107

APPENDIX G DIELECTRIC CONSTANTS AND LOSS TANGENTS FOR

SOME MATERIALS
Material Alumina (99.5%) Barium tetratitanate Beeswax Beryllia Ceramic (A-35) Fused quartz Gallium arsenide Glass (pyrex) Glazed ceramic Lucite Nylon (610) Paran Plexiglass Polyethylene Polystyrene Porcelain (dry process) Rexolite (1422) Silicon Styrofoam (103.7) Teon Titania (D-100) Vaseline Water (distilled) Frequency 10 GHz 6 GHz 10 GHz 10 GHz 3 GHz 10 GHz 10 GHz 3 GHz 10 GHz 10 GHz 3 GHz 10 GHz 3 GHz 10 GHz 10 GHz 100 MHz 3 GHz 10 GHz 3 GHz 10 GHz 6 GHz 10 GHz 3 GHz tan (25 C) 0.0003 0.0005 0.005 0.0003 0.0041 0.0001 0.006 0.0054 0.008 0.005 0.012 0.0002 0.0057 0.0004 0.00033 0.0078 0.00048 0.004 0.0001 0.0004 0.001 0.001 0.157

9.510. 37 5% 2.35 6.4 5.60 3.78 13.0 4.82 7.2 2.56 2.84 2.24 2.60 2.25 2.54 5.04 2.54 11.9 1.03 2.08 96 5% 2.16 76.7

720

Appendices

APPENDIX H PROPERTIES OF SOME MICROWAVE FERRITE MATERIALS

Material Magnesium ferrite Magnesium ferrite Magnesium ferrite Nickel ferrite Nickel ferrite Nickel ferrite Lithium ferrite Lithium ferrite Yttrium garnet Aluminum garnet Trans-Tech Number TT1-105 TT1-390 TT1-3000 TT2-101 TT2-113 TT2-125 TT73-1700 TT73-2200 G-113 G-610 4 Ms G 1750 2150 3000 3000 500 2100 1700 2200 1780 680 H Oe 225 540 190 350 150 460 <400 <450 45 40
r

tan 0.00025 0.00025 0.0005 0.0025 0.0008 0.001 0.0025 0.0025 0.0002 0.0002

Tc C 225 320 240 585 120 560 460 520 280 185

4 Mr G 1220 1288 2000 1853 140 1426 1139 1474 1277 515

12.2 12.7 12.9 12.8 9.0 12.6 16.1 15.8 15.0 14.5

APPENDIX I STANDARD RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDE DATA

Band L R S H (G) C (J) W (H) X Ku (P) K Ka (R) Q U V E W F D G Recommended Frequency Range (GHz) 1.121.70 1.702.60 2.603.95 3.955.85 5.858.20 7.0510.0 8.2012.4 12.418.0 18.026.5 26.540.0 33.050.5 40.060.0 50.075.0 60.090.0 75.0110.0 90.0140.0 110.0170.0 140.0220.0 TE10 Cutoff Frequency (GHz) 0.908 1.372 2.078 3.152 4.301 5.259 6.557 9.486 14.047 21.081 26.342 31.357 39.863 48.350 59.010 73.840 90.854 115.750 EIA Designation WR-XX WR-650 WR-430 WR-284 WR-187 WR-137 WR-112 WR-90 WR-62 WR-42 WR-28 WR-22 WR-19 WR-15 WR-12 WR-10 WR-8 WR-6 WR-5 Inside Dimensions [Inches (cm)] 6.500 3.250 (16.51 8.255) 4.300 2.150 (10.922 5.461) 2.840 1.340 (7.214 3.404) 1.872 0.872 (4.755 2.215) 1.372 0.622 (3.485 1.580) 1.122 0.497 (2.850 1.262) 0.900 0.400 (2.286 1.016) 0.622 0.311 (1.580 0.790) 0.420 0.170 (1.07 0.43) 0.280 0.140 (0.711 0.356) 0.224 0.112 (0.57 0.28) 0.188 0.094 (0.48 0.24) 0.148 0.074 (0.38 0.19) 0.122 0.061 (0.31 0.015) 0.100 0.050 (0.254 0.127) 0.080 0.040 (0.203 0.102) 0.065 0.0325 (0.170 0.083) 0.051 0.0255 (0.130 0.0648) Outside Dimensions [Inches (cm)] 6.660 3.410 (16.916 8.661) 4.460 2.310 (11.328 5.867) 3.000 1.500 (7.620 3.810) 2.000 1.000 (5.080 2.540) 1.500 0.750 (3.810 1.905) 1.250 0.625 (3.175 1.587) 1.000 0.500 (2.540 1.270) 0.702 0.391 (1.783 0.993) 0.500 0.250 (1.27 0.635) 0.360 0.220 (0.914 0.559) 0.304 0.192 (0.772 0.488) 0.268 0.174 (0.681 0.442) 0.228 0.154 (0.579 0.391) 0.202 0.141 (0.513 0.356) 0.180 0.130 (0.458 0.330) 0.160 0.120 (0.406 0.305) 0.145 0.1125 (0.368 0.2858) 0.131 0.1055 (0.333 .2680)

Letters in parentheses denote alternative designations.

APPENDIX J STANDARD COAXIAL CABLE DATA

RG/U Type

Impedance ( )

Inner cond. Diam. (in.)

Dielectric Material

Dielectric Diam. (in.)

Cable Type

Overall Diam. (in.)

Capacitance (pF/ft)

Max. Oper. Voltage

Loss at 1 GHz (dB/100 ft)

Appendix J Standard Coaxial Cable Data 721

RG-8A/U RG-9B/U RG-55B/U RG-58B/U RG-59B/U RG-141A/U RG-142A/U RG-174/U RG-178B/U RG-179B/U RG-180B/U RG-187/U RG-188/U RG-195/U RG-213/U RG-214/U RG-223/U RG-316/U RG-401/U RG-402/U RG-405/U

52 50 54 54 75 50 50 50 50 75 95 75 50 95 50 50 50 50 50 50 50

0.0855 0.0855 0.0320 0.0320 0.0230 0.0390 0.0390 0.0189 0.0120 0.0120 0.0120 0.0120 0.0201 0.0120 0.0888 0.0888 0.0350 0.0201 0.0645 0.0360 0.0201

P P P P P T T P T T T T T T P P P T T T T

0.285 0.280 0.116 0.116 0.146 0.116 0.116 0.060 0.034 0.063 0.102 0.060 0.060 0.102 0.285 0.285 0.116 0.060 0.215 0.119 0.066

braided braided braided braided braided braided braided braided braided braided braided braided braided braided braided braided braided braided semi-rigid semi-rigid semi-rigid

0.405 0.420 0.200 0.195 0.242 0.190 0.195 0.100 0.072 0.100 0.140 0.105 0.105 0.145 0.405 0.425 0.211 0.102 0.250 0.141 0.0865

29.5 30.8 28.5 28.5 20.6 29.4 29.4 30.8 29.4 19.5 15.4 19.5 29.4 15.4 30.8 30.8 30.8 29.4 29.3 29.3 29.4

5000 5000 1900 1900 2300 1900 1900 1500 1000 1200 1500 1200 1200 1500 5000 5000 1900 1200 3000 2500 1500

9.0 9.0 16.5 17.5 11.5 13.0 13.0 31.0 45.0 25.0 16.5 25.0 30.0 16.5 9.0 9.0 16.5 30.0 13.0

Answers to Selected Problems

1.2 (a) = 236 , (b) v p = 1.88 108 m/sec, (c) = 0.0784 m, (d) 1.8 (b) t 0.017 mm 1.9 (a) Si = 46.0 W/m2 , Sr = 0.595 W/m2 , (b) Sin = 45.6 W/m2

= 229.5

2.1 (a) f = 600 MHz, (b) v p = 2.08 108 m/sec, (c) = 0.346 m, (d) r = 2.08, (e) I (z) = 1.8e jz , (f) v (t, z) = 0.135 cos (t z) 2.3 = 0.38 dB/m 2.8 Z in = 203. j5.2 2.9 Z in = 19.0 j20.6 , L = 0.62 83 2.11 = 2.147 cm, = 3.324 cm 2.12 Z 0 = 66.7 or 150.0 2.16 PL = 0.681 W 2.18 Pinc = 0.250 W, Pref = 0.010 W, Ptrans = 0.240 W 2.20 (d) Z in = 24.5 + j20.3 , (e) min = 0.325, (f) max = 0.075 2.23 Z L = 99 j46 2.29 Ps = 0.600 W, Ploss = 0.0631 W, PL = 0.1706 W 3.5 3.6 3.9 3.13 3.15 3.19 3.20 3.21 3.27 4.4 4.14 4.18 4.20 4.24 4.30 loss = 0.45dB, = 2331 10.3 cm f c = 5.06 GHz f c (TE11 ) = 17.94 GHz, f c (TE01 ) = 37.35 GHz kc a = 3.12 W = 0.217 mm, g = 4.045 cm W = 0.457 mm, g = 4.525 cm = 2.0754 cm, Z in = 0.27 j12.82 v p = 2.37 108 m/sec, vg = 1.83 108 m/sec V1+ = 10 90 , V1 = 0, Z in = 50 90 (d) IL = 10.5 dB, delay = 45 , (e) = 0.018 90 IL = 8.0 dB, delay = 90 PL = 1.0 W VL = 1 90 = 0.082 cm
(2)

5.1 (a) C = 0.0568 pF, L = 9.44 nH or L = 7.10 nH, C = 0.298 pF 5.3 d = 0.2276, = 0.3776 or d = 0.4059, = 0.1224 5.6 d = 0.174, = 0.353 or d = 0.481, = 0.147
722

Answers to Selected Problems

723

5.9 5.14 5.17 5.21 5.24 6.1 6.5 6.9 6.14 6.18 6.21 7.3 7.8 7.13 7.19 7.22 7.32 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.10 8.16 8.18 8.19 8.23 9.1 9.4 9.6 9.8 9.12 9.15 9.17 9.18 10.1 10.4 10.7 10.14 10.15 10.17 10.18

1 = 0.086, 2 = 0.198 or 1 = 0.375, error = 4% Z 1 = 1.1067Z 0 , Z 2 = 1.3554Z 0 Z 1 = 1.095Z 0 , Z 2 = 1.363Z 0 RL < 6.4 dB

= 0.375

f 0 = 800 MHz, Q 0 = 100, Q L = 50 Q 0 = 138 f 101 = 9.965 GHz, Q 101 = 6349 a = 2.107 cm, d = 2.479 cm, Q 0 = 1692 f 0 = 7.11 GHz (c) f 0 = 93.8 GHz, Q c = 92, 500 RL = 20 dB, C = 15 dB, D = 30 dB, L = 0.5 dB change = 1.2 dB s = 5.28 mm, r0 = 3.77 mm s = 0.20 mm, w = 0.6 mm s = 1.15 mm, w = 1.92 mm, = 6.32 mm V1 = V3 = V4 = 0, V2 = V5 = j0.707 R = 2.66, C = 0.685, L = 1.822 N =5 L 1 = L 5 = 1.143 nH, C2 = C4 = 0.928 pF, L 3 = 0.877 nH attenuation = 11 dB 1 = 5 = 29.3 , 2 = 4 = 29.4 , 3 = 43.7 attenuation = 30 dB bandwidth about 1.9:1 N =3 (b) = 6.550 , = 4.950 Ha = 500 Oe L = 1.403 cm 229 Oe < H0 < 950 Oe (a) H0 = 2204 Oe, (b) H0 = 2857 Oe L = 23.5 mm L = 44.5 cm L = 9.2 cm F = 7.0 dB Fcas = 4.3 dB (a) F = 6 dB, (b) F = 1.76 dB, (c) F = 3 dB ratio = 6 dB OIP3 = 20.8 dBm (coherent) LDR = 74.5 dB LDR = 86.7 dB, SFDR = 57.8 dB

11.2 ON: IL = 0.42 dB, OFF: IL = 11.4 dB 11.3 ON: IL = 0.044 dB, OFF: IL= 18.6 dB 11.7 Ri = 12.2 , Cgs = 0.84 pF, Rds = 213 12.1 12.4 12.6 12.9 (b) GA = 0.5, G T = 0.444, G = 0.457 C L = 4.00 96 , R L = 3.60, K = 0.275 A and C are unconditionally stable G T = 10.5 dB

, Cds = 0.51 pF, gm = 54 mS

724

Answers to Selected Problems

12.13 2.9 dB < G T G TU < 4.3 dB 12.15 G T = 19.4 dB 12.21 Nopt = 8.4 13.3 13.8 13.9 13.12 13.17 14.2 14.4 14.6 14.8 14.11 14.13 14.17 14.23 Q min = 14 L = 2.5 nH results in = 0.931 (a) L = 181 dBc/Hz, (b) L = 153 dBc/Hz L = 121 dBc/Hz f IM = 1974 MHz or 1626 MHz D = 5.7 dB D = 33.6 dB rad = 65% G/T = 9.7 dB/K R = 15.2 km R = 1.9 109 m (for SNR = 0 dB) 801600 Hz |E| = 990 V/m

Index

A ABCD parameters, 188191 table for basic circuits, 190 table for conversions, 192 Admittance inverter, 421422 Admittance matrix, 174178 table for conversions, 192 AM modulation, 528 Amperes law, 8 Amplier design, 571601 balanced, 586588 differential, 593596 distributed, 588593 low-noise, 580585 maximum gain, 571575 maximum stable gain, 572 power, 596601 specied gain, 575579 stability, 564570 Amplitude shift keying (ASK), 681684 Anisotropic media, 1112 Antenna aperture efciency, 665 directivity, 663 effective aperture area, 665666 gain, 664665 G/T, 671 noise temperature, 669671 pattern, 662664 radiation efciency, 664 types, 659660 Aperture efciency, 665 Aperture coupling, 215221, 302305 Attenuation atmospheric, 702703 transmission line, 7885 Attenuation constant for circular waveguide, 125, 126128

coaxial line, 80 dielectric loss, 101102 microstrip line, 149150 parallel plate waveguide, 107, 108109 plane wave in lossy dielectric, 1718 rectangular waveguide, 115, 116 stripline, 143144 Attenuator, 179180 Available power gain, 559562 B Background noise temperature, 666668 Balanced ampliers, 586588 Balun, 594 Bandpass lters coupled line, 426436 coupled resonator, 437447 lumped element, 411415 Bandstop lters coupled resonator, 437441 lumped element, 411414 BARITT diode, 539 Bessel functions, 715717 zeroes of, 123, 126, 717 Bethe hole coupler, 334338 Binary phase shift keying (BPSK), 682683 Binomial coefcients, 253 Binomial lter response, 400, 402404 Binomial matching transformer, 252256 Biological effects, 706708 Bit error rate, 681684 Bipolar junction transistor (BJT), 540543 Black body, 697 Bloch impedance, 384 Bode-Fano criterion, 267269 Boltzmanns constant, 498 Bounce diagram, 8789 Boundary conditions, 1215 725

726

Index Brewster angle, 37 Brightness temperature, 666668 C Cavity resonators cylindrical cavity, 288293 dielectric resonator, 293297 rectangular cavity, 284288 Cellular telephone systems, 23, 684686 Characteristic impedance, 5051, 171 coaxial line, 56 microstrip line, 148 parallel plate line, 100 stripline, 142 Chebyshev lter response, 400401, 404405 matching transformers, 256261 polynomials, 257258 Chip capacitor, resistor, 233234 Choke bias, 531, 542, 545 ange, 121 Circular cavity (see Cavity resonators) Circular polarization, 2425, 458460 Circular waveguide, 121130 attenuation, 125, 126128 cutoff frequency, 124, 126128 propagation constant, 124, 126, 128 table for, 128 Circulator ferrite junction, 487493 general properties, 318319, 487488 Complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS), 543 Coaxial connectors, 134 Coaxial line attenuation constant, 80, 8283 characteristic impedance, 56 data for standard lines, 721 distributed line parameters, 5354 eld analysis, 5456, 130133 higher-order modes, 131133 power capacity, 160 propagation constant, 56 Common Mode Rejection Ratio, 596 Composite lters, 396399 Compression point, 512513 Computer aided design (CAD), 202 Conductivity, 10 table for metals, 719 Conductor loss, 2628 Conjugate matching, 7778, 187, 571575 Connectors, coaxial, 134 Constant gain circles, 575579 Constant-k lters, 390393, 397 Constant noise gure circles, 580582 Conversion loss, mixer, 639 Coplanar waveguide, 159160 Coupled lines, 347351 characteristic impedance, 348351 couplers, 351362 lters, 426436 Couplers (see Directional couplers) Coupling aperture, 215221, 302305 coefcient, 298299, 619 critical, 299 resonator, 297305 Crossed-guide coupler, 371372 Current displacement, 7 electric, magnetic, 6, 89 Cutoff frequency circular waveguide, 124, 126128 parallel plate waveguide, 105, 108 rectangular waveguide, 113, 116 Cutoff wavelength, 105, 109, 117, 128 D DC block, 530531, 642643 Decibel notation, 6263 Demagnetization factor, 462463 Detector, 525529 sensitivity, 528 Dicke radiometer, 700701 Dielectric constant, table, 719 Dielectric loaded waveguide, 119120, 153154 Dielectric loss, 2627 Dielectric loss tangent, table, 719 Dielectric resonator oscillators, 617622 Dielectric resonators, 293297 Dielectric strength for air, 160161 Dielectric waveguide, 159 Differential amplier, 593596 Differential mixer, 650652 Digital modulation, 681684 Diode BARITT, 539 detectors, 525529 Gunn, 538 IMPATT, 539 I-V curve, 526, 538 mixer, 642643 multipliers, 628633 PIN, 530531 Schottky, 525529 switches, 531534 Varactor, 537

Index Directional couplers, 320323 Bethe hole, 334338 coupled line, 351362 Lange, 359362 Moreno crossed-guide, 372 multihole waveguide, 338343 quadrature, 343346 Riblet short slot, 373 ring hybrid, 362367 Schwinger reversed phase, 372373 tapered line, 367371 Directivity antenna, 663 coupler, 322324 Discontinuities, 203205, 209210 microstrip, 205, 209210 waveguide, 204 Dispersion, 80, 150, 155 Distortionless line, 8081 Double sideband modulation (DSB), 638 Dynamic range, 497, 511, 519521 E Effective aperture area, 665666 Effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP), 674 Effective permittivity, microstrip, 148 Efciency aperture, 665 power added, 597 radiation, 664 Electric energy, 25 Electric eld, 6 Electric ux density, 7 Electric polarizability, 217 Electric potential, 9899 Electric susceptibility, 10 Electric wall, 1415 Electromagnetic spectrum, 2 Elliptic lter, 401 Emissivity, 697 Energy, electric, magnetic, 25 Energy transmission, 705706 E-plane T-junction, 325 Equal ripple lter response, 400401, 404405 Equivalent voltages and currents, 166170 Even-odd mode characteristic impedance, 348351 Exponential tapered line, 262263 Extraordinary wave, 470471 F Fabry-Perot resonator, 315 Fade margin, 675 Far eld, 661 Faraday rotation, 465469 Faradays law, 8 Ferrite devices circulators, 487493 gyrator, 486487 isolators, 475482 loaded waveguide, 471475 phase shifters, 482486 Ferrites, 451 loss in, 460462 permeability tensor for, 457 plane wave propagation in, 465471 table of properties, 720 Field effect transistor (FET), 543547 Filters bandpass, 411415, 426447 bandstop, 411414, 437441 composite, 396399 constant-k, 390393, 397 coupled line, 426436 elliptic, 401 high pass, 397, 410 high-Z, low-Z, 422426 implementation, 415422 linear phase, 401, 406408 low pass, 390399, 410412 m-derived, 393396, 397 scaling, 408411 transformations, 410415 Flanges, waveguide, 120121 Flow graph, 194198 Frequency bands, 2, 685 Frequency multipliers, 627636 Frequency shift keying (FSK), 681683 Friis power transmission formula, 673674 G Gain (also see Power gain) amplier, 562564 antenna, 664665 compression, 512513 two-port power, 558564 Gilbert cell mixer, 652 Global Positioning System (GPS), 687688 Group delay, 401 Group velocity, 155157 for periodic structures, 386 for waveguide, 157 G/T, 671 Gunn diode, 538 Gyrator, 486487 Gyromagnetic ratio, 453 Gyrotropic medium (see Ferrites) H Helmholtz equations, 1516 High electron mobility transistor (HEMT), 546547

727

728

Index Hertz, H., 4 Heterojunction bipolar transistor (HBT), 542543 High pass lters constant-k, 392, 397 m-derived, 397 transformation to, 410 High-Z, low-Z lters, 422426 History, of microwave engineering, 46 H-plane T-junction, 325 Hybrid junctions coupled line, 351359 quadrature, 343346 ring (rat-race), 363367 scattering matrix, 313314, 343, 363 tapered coupled line, 367371 waveguide magic-T, 361 I Image frequency, 638639 Image impedance, 388390 Image parameters, lter design using, 390399 Image theory, 4244 IMPATT diode, 539 Impedance characteristic, 5051, 171 concept of, 170171 image, 388390 intrinsic, 17 wave, 17, 18, 99, 100, 101 waveguide, 100, 101 Impedance inverter, 421422 Impedance matching, 228229 Bode-Fano criterion, 267269 double stub, 241246 L-section, 229233 multisection transformer, 251261 quarter wave transformer, 7275, 246249 single stub, 234241 tapered line, 261267 Impedance matrix, 174178 table for conversions, 192 Impedance transformers (see Impedance matching) Incremental inductance rule, Wheeler, 8385 Inductive degeneration, 583 Insertion loss, 62 Insertion loss method for lter design, 399408 Intermodulation distortion, 513519 Inverters, admittance, impedance, 421422 Iris, waveguide, 203 Isolators eld displacement, 479482 resonance, 476479 J Junction circulator, 487493 K Kittels equation, 464 Klopfenstein tapered line, 264265 Klystron, 553554 Kuroda identities, 416419 L Lange coupler, 359362 Linearly polarized plane waves, 1523 Linear dynamic range, 519521 Linear phase lter, 401, 406408 Line parameters (per unit length), 5153 Linewidth, gyromagnetic resonance, 460 Link budget, 674676 Link margin, 675 Load pull contours, 598 Loaded Q, 277 Loaded waveguide dielectric loading, 119120, 153154 ferrite loading, 471475 Loss (see also Attenuation constant) conductor, 2628 dielectric, 2627 ferrite, 460462 insertion, 62 return, 58 Loss tangent, 11 table, 719 Lossy transmission lines, 7982 Low pass lters constant-k, 390393, 397 high-Z, low-Z, 422426 m-derived, 393396, 397 prototype, 401408 L-section matching, 229233 M Magic-T, 323, 371 Magnetic energy, 25 Magnetic eld, 6 Magnetic ux density, 7 Magnetic polarizability, 217 Magnetic susceptibility, 11 Magnetic wall, 15 Manley-Rowe relations, 628631 Matched line, 57 Matching (see Impedance matching) Material constants table of conductivities, 719 table of dielectric constants and loss tangents, 719 table of ferrite properties, 720

Index Maximally at lter response, 400, 402404 Maximum power capacity, 134, 160161 Maximum stable gain, 572 Maxwell, J., 45 Maxwells equations, 4, 610 m-derived lters, 393396, 397 MEMs, 551552 Metal semiconductor FET (MESFET), 543, 544546 Microstrip, 147153 attenuation, 148149 characteristic impedance, 148 coupled, 350 discontinuities, 205, 209210 effective permittivity, 148 higher order modes, 150152 propagation constant, 147148 Microwave heating, 705 Microwave integrated circuits (MIC), 547550 hybrid, 548 monolithic (MMIC), 548550 Microwave oven, 705 Microwave sources, 538540, 552556 Gunn diode, 538 IMPATT diode, 539 oscillators, 605622 tubes, 552556 Microwave tubes, 552556 backward wave oscillator, 554 crossed-eld amplier, 555 extended interaction oscillator, 554 gyratron, 555 klystron, 553554 magnetron, 552, 554 traveling wave tube, 554 Mixers, 526, 637654 antiparallel diode, 653 balanced, 646649 conversion loss, 639 differential FET, 650652 diode, 642643 double balanced, 652653 FET, 643645 Gilbert cell, 652 image rejection, 649650 image response, 638639 Modal analysis, 203209 Modes cavity modes, 284287, 288292 circular waveguide, 121128 parallel plate waveguide, 102110 rectangular waveguide, 110120 Modulation, 528529, 681684 Metal oxide semiconductor FET (MOSFET), 543, 546 Multiple reections, on quarter wave transformer, 7475 Multipliers (see Frequency multipliers) N Negative resistance oscillators, 613615 Neper, 6263 Network analyzer, 188 Noise, 496511 gure, 502511 phase, 622627 sources, 497498 temperature, 498502 Noise gure, 502511 circles, 557561 of cascade, 504505 of lossy line, 503504, 508509 of mismatched amplier, 510511 of mixer, 640641 of passive network, 506508 of transistor amplier, 580582 O Ohms law for elds, 1011 Open circuit stub, impedance, 6061 Oscillators crystal, 612613 dielectric resonator, 617622 negative resistance, 613615 transistor, 605613, 615622 P Passive intermodulation (PIM), 519 Parallel plate waveguide, 102110 attenuation, 107, 108109 characteristic impedance (TEM), 104 table for, 109 Periodic structures analysis, 382385 k- diagram, 385386 phase and group velocities, 386 Permanent magnets, 464465 Permeability, 7, 12 tensor, for ferrite, 457 Permittivity, 7, 11 of atmosphere, 701 Perturbation theory for attenuation, 8283 cavity resonance, 306312 ferrite loaded waveguide, 474 Phase constant (see Propagation constant) Phase matching, 36 Phase noise, 622627

729

730

Index Phase shifters Faraday rotation, 485 loaded line, 535536 reection, 536537 Reggia-Spencer, 486 remanent (latching), 482485 switched line, 534535 Phase velocity plane wave, 16 transmission line, 51 waveguide, 104, 105, 109, 113, 117, 128 Phasor notation, 89 Physical constants, table, 718 PIN diodes, 530531 phase shifters, 534537 switches, 531534 Plane waves, 1625 in conducting media, 19 in ferrites, 465471 in general lossy media, 1718 in lossless dielectric, 1617 reection, 2840 Plasma, 704 Polarizability, 217 Polarization, wave, 24 Power, 2528 Power added efciency (PAE), 597 Power ampliers, 596601 Power loss, 2627, 3132 Power capacity of transmission line, 160161 Power divider (see also Directional coupler) resistive, 326328 T-junction, 324326 Wilkinson, 328333 Power gain, 558564 Power waves, 185188 Poyntings theorem, 2425 Poynting vector, 26 Precession, magnetic dipole, 453456 Probe coupling, 214215 Propagation atmospheric effects, 701702 ground effects, 703704 plasma effects, 704 Propagation constant for circular waveguide, 124, 126, 128 coaxial line, 56 microstrip line, 147148 parallel plate guide, 98, 104, 108, 109 plane waves in a good conductor, 19, 20 plane waves in lossless dielectric, 16, 20 rectangular waveguide, 112, 115, 117 stripline, 142 TEM modes, 98 TM or TE modes, 100101 Q Q, 274, 277278 for circular cavity, 291292 for dielectric resonator, 297 for rectangular cavity, 286287 for RLC circuit, 274, 276, 278 for transmission line resonator, 280, 282, 283 from resonator measurements, 305306 Quadrature hybrid, 343346 Quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK), 682 Quarter-wave transformers multiple reection viewpoint, 7475 multisection, 251261 single-section, 7275, 246249 R Radar systems, 690695 Radar cross section, 695696 Radiation condition, 15 efciency, 664 hazards, 706707 patterns, 662663 Radiometer systems, 696701 Rat-race (ring hybrid), 363367 Receivers, 676680 Reciprocal networks, 175176, 181182 Reciprocity theorem, 4042 Rectangular cavity (see Cavity resonators) Rectangular waveguide, 110120 attenuation, 115, 116 cutoff frequency, 113, 116 group velocity, 157 maximum power capacity, 160161 phase velocity, 113, 117 propagation constant, 112, 115, 117 table for, 117 table of standard sizes, 720 Rectication, 525528 Reection coefcient, 29, 57 Reectometer, 374375 Remanent magnetization, 464, 483 Resonant circuits, 272277 Return loss, 58 Richards transformation, 416 Ridge waveguide, 158159 Root-nding algorithms, 139140 S Saturation magnetization, 455 Scattering matrix, 178185 for circulator, 318319, 487488 for directional coupler, 320323 generalized, 185188 for gyrator, 486 for quadrature hybrid, 343

Index for ring hybrid, 363 shift in reference planes, 184185 table for conversions, 192 Schwinger reversed phase coupler, 372373 Separation of variables, 2021, 111112, 119120, 122123, 130131, 132 Short circuit stub impedance, 59 Signal ow graphs, 194198 Single sideband modulation, 638 Skin depth, 19 Slotline, 159 Slotted line, 6872 Small reection theory, 250252 Smith chart, 6368 Snells law, 36 Sources (see Microwave sources) Scattering parameters (see Scattering matrix) Specic Absorption Ratio (SAR), 707 Spectrum analyzer, 529530 Spurious free dynamic range, 519520 Stability amplier, 564570 circles, 564567 Standing wave ratio (SWR), 58 Stepped impedance lters, 422426 Stripline, 141147 approximate analysis, 144147 attenuation, 143 characteristic impedance, 141 coupled, 349350 propagation constant, 142 Surface current, 910, 1314 Surface impedance, 3334 Surface resistance, 28, 33 Surface waves at dielectric interface, 3840 of dielectric slab, 135139 Switches, PIN diode, 531534 T Tapered coupled line hybrid, 367371 Tapered transmission lines exponential taper, 262263 Klopfenstein taper, 264265 triangular taper, 263264 Telegrapher equations, 49, 55 TEM waves and modes attenuation due to dielectric loss, 98 plane waves, 1625 propagation constant, 16, 18, 19, 98 transmission lines, 5456 wave impedance, 17, 18, 56, 99 TE, TM modes attenuation due to dielectric loss, 101102 propagation constant, 9697 wave impedance, 9697

731

Terminated transmission line, 5662 input impedance, 59 reection coefcient, 57 voltage maxima and minima, 58 Third-order intercept, 515518 T-junction, 324326 Total reection, plane wave, 3840 Transducer power gain, 559561 Transistor amplier, 571601 characteristics, 540547 mixer, 643645, 650652 models, 541, 544 multipliers, 633636 oscillator, 605613, 615622 types, 540547 Transmission coefcient, 29, 62 Transmission line equations, 49 input impedance, 59 junctions, 62 parameters, 5154 Transmission line resonators, 278284 Transmission lines coaxial, 5356, 130133 microstrip, 147153 parallel plate, 54, 102110 stripline, 141147 transients on, 8689 two-wire, 54 Transverse resonance method, 153154 Traveling wave amplier (see Amplier design) Traveling waves plane waves, 16 on transmission lines, 50 Through-Reect-Line (TRL) calibration, 197202 Two-port networks, equivalent circuits, 191194 Two-port power gains (see Power gain) U Unilateral device, 541 Unilateral gure of merit, 576 Unilateral transducer power gain, 561, 563 Unitary matrix, 181 Unit element, 417 Unit matrix, 180 Unloaded Q, 274 V Varactor diode, 537 Velocity (see Wave velocities) Voltage standing wave ratio (see Standing wave ratio)

732

Index W Wave equation, 16, 18, 20 Waveguide (see Rectangular waveguide; Circular waveguide; Loaded waveguide; Parallel plate waveguide) Waveguide components, 111 directional couplers, 334343, 372272 discontinuities, 204 isolators, 476482 magic-T, 323, 371 phase shifters, 482486 T-junctions, 325 Waveguide excitation by apertures, 215221 arbitrary sources, 212214 current sheets, 210212 Waveguide anges, 120121 Waveguide impedance, 100, 101 Wavelength in free-space, 1617 on transmission line, 51 for waveguide, 105, 109, 113, 117, 128 Wave velocities group, 155157, 386 phase, 16, 51, 104, 105, 109, 113, 117, 128 Wheeler incremental inductance rule, 8385 Wilkinson power divider, 328333 Wireless systems, 671672, 684690 Y YIG-tuned oscillator, 605 Y-parameters (see Admittance matrix) Z Z-parameters (see Impedance matrix)

USEFUL RESULTS

Maxwells equations: E = j H M H = j E + J Surface resistance and skin depth: Rs = 2 s = 2 D= B=0

Input impedance of terminated lossless transmission lines: Z in = Z 0 Z L + j Z 0 tan Z 0 + j Z L tan (arbitrary load) (short-circuited line) (open-circuited line)

Z in = j Z 0 tan Z in = j Z 0 cot Relations between load impedance and reection coefcient: = Z L Z0 Z L + Z0

Z L = Z0

1+ 1

Denitions of return loss, insertion loss and SWR: RL = 20 log | |, Conversion between dB and nepers: 1 neper = 8.686 dB Elements of the ferrite permeability tensor: = 0 1 + 0 m 2 0 2 0 = 0 H0 m = 0 Ms = 0 m 2 0 2 (or 2.8 MHz/Oersted) IL = 20 log |T |, SWR = 1+| | 1| |

Conversion between some values of reection coefcient, SWR, and return loss: | | SWR RL (dB) 0.024 1.05 32.3 0.032 1.07 30.0 0.048 1.10 26.4 0.050 1.11 26.0 0.056 1.12 25.0 0.10 1.22 20.0 0.178 1.43 15.0 0.200 1.50 14.0 0.316 1.92 10.0 0.33 2.00 9.6

The ABCD Parameters of Some Useful Two-Port Circuits.

Circuit
Z

ABCD Parameters A=1 C=0 B= Z D= 1

A=1 C=Y

B=0 D=1

Z0,

A = cos C = jY0 sin

B = j Z 0 sin D = cos

N:1

A= N C=0 Y A = 1+ 2 Y3
Y2

B=0 1 D= N B= 1 Y3

Y3 Y1

Z1 Z3

Z2

Y Y C = Y1 + Y2 + 1 2 Y3 Z A = 1+ 1 Z3 1 C= Z3

Y D = 1+ 1 Y3 B = Z1 + Z2 + D = 1+ Z2 Z3 Z1 Z2 Z3

VECTOR ANALYSIS

Coordinate Transformations
Rectangular to cylindrical:
x z cos sin 0 y sin cos 0 z 0 0 1

Rectangular to spherical:
x r sin cos cos cos sin y sin sin cos sin cos z cos sin 0

Cylindrical to spherical:
r sin cos 0 0 0 1 z cos sin 0

These tables can be used to transform unit vectors as well as vector components; e.g., = x cos + y sin A = A x cos + A y sin

Vector Differential Operators

Rectangular coordinates: f =x f f f +y +z x y z

Ay Az Ax + + A= x y z A=x Ay Az y z 2 f = +y Ax Az z x +z Ay Ax x y

2 f 2 f 2 f + 2 + 2 x2 y z

2 A = x 2 A x + y 2 A y + z 2 A z Cylindrical coordinates: f = f 1 f f + +z z

1 1 A Az A= ( A ) + + z A= A 1 Az z 2 f = + A Az z f + +z 1 ( A ) A

2 f 1 2 f + 2 2 2 z

2 A = ( A) A Spherical coordinates: f =r 1 f f f + + r r r sin

1 2 1 A 1 A= 2 r Ar + (sin A ) + r sin r sin r r A= r r sin A (A sin ) 1 r 2 r r2 f r + + 1 Ar (r A ) + r sin r r sin f + 1 Ar (r A ) r

2 f =

1 2 sin r

2 f r 2 sin2 2

2 A = A A