Computer data processing -is any process that a computer program does to enter data and summarize, analyze

or otherwise convert data into usable information. The process may be automated and run on a computer. It involves recording, analyzing, sorting, summarizing, calculating, disseminating and storing data. Because data are most useful when well-presented and actually informative, data-processing systems are often referred to as information systems. Nevertheless, the terms are roughly synonymous, performing similar conversions; data-processing systems typically manipulate raw data into information, and likewise information systems typically take raw data as input to produce information as output.

The data processing is divided into three categories or levels. 1. Manual Data Processing In manual data processing, data is processed manually without using any machine or tool to get required result. In manual data processing, all the calculations and logical operations are manually performed on the data. Similarly, data is manually transferred from one place to another. This method of data processing is very slow and errors may occur in the output. In Pakistan, data is still processed manually in many small business firms as well as government offices & institutions. 2. Mechanical Data Processing In mechanical data processing, data is processed by using different tools like calculators or other mechanical devices. This method of data processing is faster and more accurate than manual data processing. 3. Electronic Data Processing It is the modern technique to process data. The data is processed through computer. Data and set of instructions are given to the computer as input and the computer automatically processes the data according to the given set of instructions. The computer is also known as electronic data processing machine. This method of processing data is very fast and accurate. Now-a-days, the data is processed and analyzed through computers. For example, the results of students are prepared through computer; in banks accounts of customers are processed through computers etc.

Data processing cycle: Regardless of the kind of data processed or the kind of device or equipment used, all data processing systems involve at least three basic steps: Input, Processing, and Output. These three steps constitute the data processing cycle. 1. INPUT- in these steps, the initial data, or input data, are prepared in some convenient form of processing. The form will defend on the processing machine. 2. PROCESSING- in this step, the input data are changed, and usually combined with other information, to produce data is more useful form. Thus, paychecks may be calculated from the time cards, or a summary of sales for the month maybe calculated from the sales orders. The processing step usually involves a sequence of certain basic processing operations. 3. OUTPUT- Here the results of the preceding processing steps are collected. The particular form of the output data depends on the use of data.

Data Processing Operations: 1. Recording - refers to the transfer of data into some form or document. It relates to the documentation of intermediate figures and facts resulting from calculations. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Verifying - refers to the careful checking of the recorded data for any errors. Duplicating - refers to the reproduction of the data into many forms or documents. Classifying - refers to identifying and arranging items with like characteristics into groups or classes. Sorting - refers to arranging or rearranging data in a predetermined sequence to facilitate processing. Sorting is done in alphabetic or a numeric order. Calculating - refers to arithmetic manipulation of the data. Summarizing and Reporting - it is here where a collection of data is condensed and certain conclusions form the data are represented in a meaningful format that is clear, concise and effective. Merging - this operation takes two or more sets of data, all sets having been sorted by the same key, and puts them together to form a single sorted set of data. Storing - refers to placing similar data into files for future reference

10. Retrieving - refers to recovering stored data and/or information when needed. 11. Feedback - refers to the comparison of the output(s) and the goalset in advance, any discrepancy is analyzed, corrected, and fed back to proper stage in the processing operation.

Areas of Data processing: 1. Business Data processing (BDP). Business data processing is characterized by the need to establish, retain, and process files of data for producing useful information. Generally, it involves a large volume of input data, limited arithmetical operations, and a relatively large volume of output. For example, a large retail store must maintain a record for each customer who purchases on account, update the balance owned on each account, and a periodically present a bill to the customer for merchandise purchased. This type of record keeping requires reading a customers account number, name, address, and previous balance. The bill involves a few basic calculations and the result are printed and mailed to the customer for collection. Tens of thousands of similar bills are commonly handled in the same way. 2. Scientific Data Processing (SDP). In science, data processing involves a limited volume of input and many logical or arithmetic calculations. Unlike business problems, most of the scientific problems are non-repetitive, requiring a one-time solution. For example, in cancer research, data on cancer patients (collected over a period of time) are analyzed by a computer to produce a possible cure. Although a final cure is unavailable, computer analysis of the hundreds of man-years of computations. It has also brought us a step closer to the final answer to the cancer horror. Although scientific data may differ from business data, the processing pattern is quite similar.

Types of Computer According to Purpose

1. General-Purpose Computers- This machines have the capability of dealing with variety of different problems, and are able to act in response to programs created to meet different needs. A general-purpose computer is one that has the ability to store different programs of instruction and thus to perform a variety of operations. 2. Special-Purpose Computers- as to the name implies, is designed to perform one specific tasks. The program of instructions is built into, or permanently stored in the machine. Specialization results in the given task being preformed very quickly and efficiently. Most special purpose computers have the capability of performing just one task. They are frequently referred to us "dedicated," because of their limitations to the specific task at hand.

According to data handled 1. Analog Computers- the name analog comes from the word "analogous", meaning similar. Analog computers are used for scientific, engineering, and process control purposes. Because they deal with quantities that are continuously variable, they give only approximate results. This type of computer provides an analog or simulation of the object or system it represents. It is especially useful for solving problems that involve relationships between variable quantities in systems that change with time. The analog compute may express changing relationships in output in the form of graphs. It is able to create such pictures because it responds to changes in electrical voltages that match changes in variable quantities.

2. Digital Computers- Is a machine that specializes in counting. It operates by counting values that are discrete, or separate and distinct, unlike the continuous quantities that can be measured by the analog computer. Digital Computers are used for both business data processing and accuracy. The basic operation performed by a digital computer is addition. It can store the sums of addition problems as they accumulate, and can complete a single calculation in a fraction of a nanosecond. The digital computer is capable of storing data as long as needed, performing logical operations, editing input data, and printing out the results of its processing at high speed.

3. Hybrid Computers- Although both analog and digital computers are extremely used in widely accepted in various industries, manufacturers have to attempted to designed a computer that combines the best features of both types. This special-purpose machine called a hybrid, computer, combines the measuring capabilities of the analog computer and the logical and control capabilities of the digital computer. It offers an efficient and economical method of working out special types of problems in science and various areas of engineering. Some Hybrid machines contain special equipment to convert analog voltages into digital voltages, and vice-versa.

Classification of computers according to capacity The term "capacity" refers to the volume of work or the data processing capacity a computer can handle. Their performance is judged by the: 1. Amount of data that can be stored in memory 2. Speed of internal operation of the computer 3. Number and type of peripheral devices. 4. Amount and type of software available for use with the computer

1. MICROCOMPUTERS= The mass production of silicon chips since 1971 has made it possible to put a "brain" into all sorts of machines. One such machine is the microcomputer. This machines has takes fullest advantage of the use of large-scale integration on silicon chips. The microprocessors literally contain a computer on a chip that can pass through the eye of needle. Microcomputers memories are generally made of semiconductors fabricated on silicons chips. It is a digital computer system under the control of a stored program that uses a microprocessor, a programmable read-only memory (ROM), and a random-access memory (RAM), The ROM defines the instructions to be executed by the computer while RAM is the functional equivalent of computer memory. 2. MINICOMPUTERS= Technological advances in the 1960's enabled manufactures to respond to the growing demand for a similar stand-alone machine, the minicomputer, to handle task that large computers could not perform economically. Minicomputer system (or small mainframe computers) provides faster operating speeds and larger storage capacities than microcomputers systems. They can support a large number of high-speed input/output devices. Several desk drives can be used to provide online access to large data files as required for direct- access processing. Operating system developed for minicomputer systems generally support both multiprogramming and virtual storage. This means that many programs can be run concurrently. This type of computer system is very flexible and can be expanded to meet the needs of users. Minicomputers usually have from 8k to 256K memory storage locations, and a relatively established applications software. Although the minicomputer is not as powerful as the medium or large-size computer, it is quite close. 3. MEDIUM-SIZE COMPUTERS= it provide faster operating speeds and larger storage capabilities than small computer systems. They can support a large number of high-speed input-output devices, and several disk drives can be used to provide online access processing. Also support both multiprogramming and virtual storage. This allows the running of a variety of programs concurrently. Medium-size computer systems are very flexible; they can be expanded to meet the needs of users. The possibility of increasing the data processing capability of a computer by adding devices, such additional memory, and other peripheral devices, is called expandability. 4. LARGE COMPUTERS=are the ultimate in system sophistication, flexibility, and speed. They usually contain full control systems with minimal operator intervention. Large computer systems range from single-processing configurations to nationwide computer based networks involving general large computers. Large computers have storage capacities from 512K to 819K, and these computers have internal operating speeds measured in terms of nanoseconds, as a compared to smaller computers where speed in terms of microseconds. 5. SUPERCOMPUTERS= The biggest and fastest machines today are the supercomputers that are used when billions or even trillions of calculations are needed. These machines are essential for applications ranging from nuclear weapon to accurate weather forecasting. Supercomputers are machines that have capabilities far beyond even the traditional large scale systems. Their speed is in the 100-million-