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Dr.

Adel Gastli

Electromechanical Systems & Actuators

TRANSFORMERS

CONTENTS
Introduction Types of Transformers Ideal Transformer Practical Transformer Voltage Regulation Efficiency Autotransformer Three-phase transformer Per-Unit System
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INTRODUCTION
It is a static AC machine that changes Ac electric power at one voltage level into AC electric power at another voltage level through the action of a magnetic field. It consists of two (or more) magnetically coupled windings. One of the transformer windings is connected to a source of AC electric power and the second (and perhaps third) winding supplies electric power to loads.

Dr. Adel Gastli

Transformers

TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS
Two types of core constructions are normally used, as shown in Fig. 1. In core type (Fig.1a), the windings are wound around two legs of a magnetic core of rectangular shape. In the shell type (Fig. 1b), the windings are wound around the center leg of a three-legged magnetic core.

Fig. 1 a
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Fig. 1 b
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Ideal Transformer
A schematic representation of a two-winding transformer is shown in Fig. 2. One winding is connected to an ac supply and is referred to as the primary winding. The other winding is connected to an electrical load and is referred as the secondary winding
i1 v1
e1

N1

N2

c + e2 _ d

v2

Load

Fig. 2
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Ideal Transformer (Contd)


Let us consider an ideal transformer that has the following properties:
The winding resistances are negligible. The core losses and the leakage flux are negligible. The exciting current required to establish the flux is very small 0.

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Transformers

Fig. 2

Ideal Transformer (Contd)


At no load
When the primary winding is connected to a time-varying voltage v1, a time varying flux is established in the core.

v1 e1 & e2 v 2
v 1 = e1 = N 1 d dt

v 2 = e2 = N 2

d dt

v1 N1 = = a v2 N2
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(turns ratio)

Transformers

Ideal Transformer (Contd)


At Load
If a load is connected to the secondary winding, A current i2 will flow in the secondary winding, and the secondary winding will provide an mmf N2i2 for the core. This will make a primary winding current i1 flow so that a counter mmf N1i1 can oppose N2i2 otherwise N2i2 would make the core flux change and the balance between v1 and e1 would be disturbed.

N1i1 = N 2i2
a =

i1 N 2 1 = = i2 N1 a
Input power = Output power For an ideal transformer ( losses=0)
Transformers 8

v1 i = 2 v 1 i1 = v 2 i2 v2 i1

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IMPEDANCE TRANSFER
Consider the case of a sinusoidal applied voltage and a secondary impedance , as shown in Fig. 3.

V1

V2 N1 N2

Z2

V1

Z2

Fig. 3
Secondary impedance = Z 2 =

V2 I2

Primary impedance =

Z1 =

V1 aV2 V = = a2 2 = a2Z2 = Z2 I1 ( I 2 / a ) I2
Transformers 9

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PRACTICAL TRNSFORMER
In practical transformer the winding has a resistance; this resistance can be shown as a lumped quantity in series with the winding.
m R1 V1 I1 l1 l2 I2 R2 V2

N1

N2

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Transformers

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PRACTICAL TRNSFORMER (cont.)


In practical transformer, when currents flow through its windings, they establish a resultant mutual flux m that is confined to the magnetic core. However, a small amount of flux known as leakage flux, links only one winding and does not links the other winding. The effect of the leakage flux can be accounted for by an inductance, called leakage inductance.
R1 I1 V1 Xl1 Xl2 I2 V2
Tightly Coupled Transformer

R2

N 1: N 2
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PRACTICAL TRNSFORMER (cont.)


In a practical transformer a magnetizing current Im1 is required to establish a flux in the core. This effect can be represented by a magnetizing reactance Xm1 . Also the core loss in the magnetic material can be represented by a resistance Rc1. Therefore the practical transformer equivalent circuit is as shown:
R1 I1 V1 Xl1 I1 Ic1 Rc1 Im1 Xm1 E1 E2 I2 Xl2 I2 V2 R2

N 1: N 2
Ideal Transformer
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REFERRED EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS


1- Exact equivalent circuit referred to primary side
R1 I1 V1 Xl1 Ic1 Rc1 I2 I1 Im1 Xm1 I2 E1=E2 V2 Z2 Load Xl2 R2

Transformer Equivalent Circuit

Where V2 = a V2 , I2 = I2 /a , R2 = a2 R2 , Xl2 = a2 Xl2 , and , Z2 = a2 Z2

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Transformers

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REFERRED EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS


Approximate equivalent circuit referred to primary side
R1 I1 V1 I1 Ic1 Im1 Xm1 R2 Req1 Zeq1 Xl1 Xl2 I2 V2

Xeq1

Rc1

I 1 0.05 I rated the excitation branch could be removed


I1 V1 R1eq Z1eq X1eq I2 V2 I1 V1 Req2 Zeq2
Referred to Secondary
Transformers 14

Xeq2

I2 V2

Referred to Primary
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DETERMINATION OF THE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT PARAMETERS


1. No-Load Test (or Open-Circuit Test)
A

W Ic1
V

I1 V1 Rc1 Im1 Xm1

Measured values Vo = V1 , I1 , and Po


cos(o ) = Po V1 I1 I c1 = I1 cos(o ) I m1 = I1 sin( o )

Rc1 =

V1 I c1

X m1 =

V1 I m1
Transformers 15

Dr. Adel Gastli

DETERMINATION OF THE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT PARAMETERS (cont.)


2. Short-Circuit Test
Isc Req
V A

Xeq Zeq

Vsc

Measured values Vsc , Isc , and Psc


Z sc = Z eq = Vsc I sc Rsc = Req = Psc 2 I sc
2 2 X sc = X eq = Z sc Rsc

cos( sc ) =

Psc Vsc I sc
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Dr. Adel Gastli

Transformers

Phasor Diagram
From the approximate equivalent circuit referred to primary side, the voltage equation can be written as:
' ' V1 = V2' + I 2 Req 1 + jI 2 X eq 1

This equation can be represented by the following phasor diagram: V1 V


1

I2

2 I2

V2

I2 Xeq1 I2 Req1

I2 Xeq1 I2 Req1

V2

Lagging power factor


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Leading power factor


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VOLTAGE REGULATION
Voltage regulation is defined as the change in magnitude of the secondary voltage as the load current changes from the no-load to the loaded condition. This expressed as follows: Voltage regulation = = ' '

But (V2 )NL = V1


'

(V 2 ) NL (V 2 ) L (V 2 ) L

(V2 ) NL (V2 ) L (V2' ) L

% Voltage regulation =

V1 (V2' ) L 100 ' (V2 ) L


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Dr. Adel Gastli

Transformers

VOLTAGE REGULATION (cont)


Since the angle is usually small < 5 then V1 (V2) ac = ab bc = I R
2 eq1

cos( ) I 2 X eq1 sin( )

and the % voltage regulation

I 2 Req1 IX cos( ) 100 2 eq1 sin( ) 100 (V2) L (V2) L

NB: The positive sign is for lagging pf and the negative sign is for Leading pf
I 2 X eq1 I 2 Req1 ( 100 ) & ( 100 ) are (V2 ) L (V2 ) L

known as % resistance & reactance drops


I2
I2Xeq1

V1

2 I2

V1 V2

I2 Xeq1 I2 Req1 c a b
19

a b
I2Req1

V2

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Lagging power factor

Transformers

Leading power factor

EFFICIENCY
=
Pout Pout Pout = = Pin Pout + losses Pout + PC + PCu

Output Power = Copper loss =

POut = V2 I 2 cos(2 ) = V2I 2 cos(2 ) = S2 cos(2 )

P = I12 R1 + I22 R2 = I12 Req = I22 Req cu

The core loss Pc is almost constant and can be obtained from the noload test of a transformer.

=
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V2I 2 cos(2 ) S 2 cos(2 ) = 2 2 V2I 2 cos(2 ) + I 2 Req1 + Pc S 2 cos(2 ) + I 2 Req1 + Pc


Transformers 20

Maximum Efficiency
Efficiency at Full Load

FL =

S2 FL cos(2 ) S2 FL cos(2 ) = 2 S2 FL cos(2 ) + I 2 FL Req1 + Pc S2 FL cos(2 ) + PcuFL + Pc

Efficiency at x Full Load

xFL =

xS2 FL cos(2 ) xS2 FL cos(2 ) + x 2 PcuFL + Pc


Copper loss = Core loss
max =
xm S 2 FL cos(2 ) xm S 2 FL cos(2 ) + 2 Pc
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For maximum efficiency (with constant power factor)

d = 0 x 2 PcuFL = Pc dx
xm = Pc P cuFL

and

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Transformers

All-Day Efficiency
The "all-day" or "energy" efficiency of the distribution transformer is defined as:

AD =
=

Energy output over 24 hours Energy input over 24 hours Energy output over 24 hours Energy output over 24 hours+ losses over 24 hours

Dr. Adel Gastli

Transformers

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AUTOTRANSFORMER
A common winding is mounted on a core and the secondary is taken from a tap on the winding. In contrast to the two-winding transformer, the primary and secondary of an autotransformer are physically connected as shown:
I1
a

V1

N1

I2 N2 V2

r Same as a two winding transforme V1 N1 = =a & V2 N 2 I1 1 = I2 a

I2 -I1

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Transformers

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AUTOTRANSFORMER (cont.)
Advantages of Autotransformers
Lower leakage reactances Cheaper (saving in cupper) Lower losses (higher efficiency) Variable voltage output when a sliding contact is used for the secondary

Disadvantages of Autotransformers
The direct connection between the primary & secondary side.

Dr. Adel Gastli

Transformers

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THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER
A set of three similar single-phase transformers may be connected to form a three-phase transformer. The primary and secondary windings may be connected in either star (Y) or delta () configurations. There are therefore four possible connections for a 3-phase transformer: Y-, -Y, -,Y-Y.
aI

Vph1 Vph2

N = 1 =a N2

V N 3
1

N
2

V 3a

V a

Y-Y
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THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER (cont.)


I N2
V

aI 3

N1

I 3

V a

3V a

- Y
I V
V N1 3

a 3I

N2

aI a

Y-
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THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER (cont.)


A three phase transformer can be constructed by having three primary and three secondary windings on a common magnetic core as shown in the following Figure.
a c a b c
a + b + c = 0

c a b b

Advantages
A a B b C c

Weight less, Cost less, Required less space Disadvantages Magnetic current imbalance

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Transformers

27

PER-UNIT SYSTEM
Computation using the actual values of parameters may be timeconsuming. However, if the quantities are expressed in a per-unit (pu) system, computations are much simplified. The pu quantity is define as:

Quantity in pu =

actual quantity base value of quantity

The advantages of using the per-unit system: The parameters fall in a narrow numerical range; this simplifies computations and makes it possible to check the correctness of the computed values. It makes it unnecessary to refer quantities on the high or low side of transformers.

Dr. Adel Gastli

Transformers

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Per-Unit System (cont.)


To establish a per-unit system it is necessary to select power and voltage base values as follows: Pbase = Sbase= rated volt amper (VA) , Vbase= rated voltage (V). then base current and base impedance can be calculated as follows: 2 Vbase Vbase S basse Z base = = I base = Vbase I base Sbase Z eq 1 Z eq 1 , pu = per-unit value of Z eq 1 = Z base 1 Z eq 2 Z eq 2 , pu = per-unit value of Z eq 2 = Z base 2

Z eq 2 , pu =

( Z eq 1 a 2 ) ( Z base 1 a 2 )

Z eq 1 Z base 1

= Z eq 1 , pu

The per-unit impedance is the same referred to either side of the transformer
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Dr. Adel Gastli

Transformers

Per-Unit System (cont.)


Full Load Copper Losses The full load copper losses is : PcuFL= I1FL2Req1 In per unit value

(PcuFL) pu =

I12FL Req1 Pbase

I12FL Req1 VbaseI base

since I1FL = Ibase , therefore

( PcuFL ) pu =

2 I base Req1

Vbase I base

I base Req1 Vbase

Req1 Req1 = = = ( Req1 ) PU Vbase Z base I base

Hence the transformer resistance in per unit form also represents the full load copper losses in per unit form.

Dr. Adel Gastli

Transformers

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