5.

CONSTRUCTION PROCESS OF LAND RECLAMATION

Basically reclamation is returning the land to the way it was or better than before.

Land reclamation process is usually ready with the land and carried out by earthwork such as leveled, backfill and etc. Also, land reclamation or coastal reclamation is an activity that involves filling a sea area with fill material such as stone, sand, and soil to get new land surface. There are three type of land reclaimed which are derelict land, wetland and reclaiming land from sea. The construction process of three type of land reclaimed are following below:

5.1 DERELICT LAND Derelict land is land that has become damaged by industrial or other development and beyond beneficial use without treatment. Treatment may include demolition and leveling. The land may have been abandoned or have unoccupied buildings in an advanced state of poor condition.

Figure 18 : Derelict Land

There are four type of process to the derelict land which is following:

5.1.1

Vibro-replacement (stone columns) Stone columns were developed independently for use in variable ground conditions,

usually soft clays and silts, but later filled ground. A large volume of low-pressure water, or compressed air, assists penetration of the vibrating poker and removes soil debris during the construction process. The construction process using vibro-replacement has two type which are following below: a. Dry Process i. ii. Void is formed as vibrator displaces the ground Stone backfill is placed into the void during withdrawal of vibrator iii. Continuous stones column formed

b. Wet process i. ii. Void is formed as vibrator displaces the ground Stones backfill is placed into the void during withdrawal of vibrator, water assists in stabilising the hole iii. Continuous stones column formed

Figure 19 : Vibro Top Feed Stone Column

Figure 20 : Vibro Wet Bottom Feed Stone Column

The wet process is used in soft to very soft ground and fills, while compressed air is applicable where the ground is soft to firm, producing a stones column of slightly smaller diameter than wet process. Columns are typically 0/6-0.8 m in diameter and can be up to 30m deep. Typical spacing, on a triangular or square grid, are 1-2m for isolated loads, and 2-3m for spread loads such as ground slab. In a weak soils and alternative to the use of water is the bottom-feed vibrator, in which compressed air feeds stones to the tip of the vibrator as the column are formed. The method is applicable to weak fills and very soft clay below the water table.

Figure 21 : The use of water in the bottom-feed vibrator

Constraints on the use of the vibro-replacement (stones column) process are following below: 1. In soft clay with cohesion 2. Through a layer of peat thicker than about 0.6m or stone column diameter, or through several layers of peat. 3. In voided filled ground, e.g. old water tanks, pottery, concrete rubble, shallow mine working, bricks fill 4. In chalk and clay fill subject to collapse settlement due to inundation, or rising or fluctuating groundwater levels. 5. In filled ground still setting under self-weight, e.g. with high organic content and decay continuing 6. In contaminated ground or toxic waste, or where methane generated 7. Across edges of pits or quarries 8. Where site level to be raised after treatment, surcharge can cause additional settlement 9. Where site to be reduced in level 10. Adjacent to crest of slope or cutting 11. Near soak away or drainage run 12. On sites with obstructions or hard ground 13. Near trees 14. Where only small structural settlement permitted 15. Where the structure is intolerant to stone columns out of position

5.1.2

Vibro compacted The vibro compaction technique is most suitable for medium to coarse grained sand with fines content (material passing sieve size of 0.074mm) of less than 10%, and clay content of less than 2%. Cohesive soils consisting of silt and clay material will not respond well to the vibratory compaction process. Vibro-compacted is also a technique was developed to penetrate loose saturated fine sands or deep hydraulic fills. Compaction was achieved through the application of horizontal vibration. The process is similar to that of vibro-replacement. These processes are following below: i. ii. Void is formed as vibrator displaces the ground Stone backfill is placed into the void during withdrawal of vibrator iii. Continuous stones column formed

(A)

(B)

(C)

(A)

Penetration The Vibroprobe penetrates by vibration and aid of compressed air and water to the required depth.

(B)

Compaction The Vibroprobe is retracted from the maxiumum depth in 0.5m intervals. The in situsand or gravel is flowing towards the Vibroprobe.

(C)

Backfill The compaction is achieved either with backfill from the top or with in situ soil only.

Constraints on the use of dynamic compaction: 1) In soft clay with cohesion 2) Through a layer of peat thicker than about 0.6m or stone column diameter, or through several layers of peat. 3) In voided filled ground, e.g. old water tanks, pottery, concrete rubble, shallow mine working, bricks fill 4) In chalk and clay fill subject to collapse settlement due to inundation, or rising or fluctuating groundwater levels. 5) In filled ground still setting under self-weight, e.g. with high organic content and decay continuing 6) In contaminated ground or toxic waste, or where methane generated 7) Across edges of pits or quarries 8) Where site level to be raised after treatment, surcharge can cause additional settlement 9) Where site to be reduced in level 10) Adjacent to crest of slope or cutting 11) Near soak away or drainage run 12) On sites with obstructions or hard ground 13) Near trees 14) Where only small structural settlement permitted 15) Where the structure is intolerant to stone columns out of position

Treatment points are typically at 1.8-3.0 m spacing. Vibro-compaction cannot be employed if the fines content which are silt and clay exceeds 20%.

Figure 22 : Vibro Compaction - Sand Fill Reclamation

An electrically driven vibrator is utilized for vibro improvement works. The vibrator is suspended by a track mounted crawler crane and lowered by its own weight and vibration with the aid of jetting water at the bottom nozzles and the wash pipes above the vibrator.

5.1.3

Dynamic Compaction Dynamic compaction consists of a large weight being dropped from a great height on

to the ground to form an imprint or crater. The process of dynamic compaction below: 1. Typically weights of 5-20 t are used with drops of up to 20m. to treat ground to about 15m depth. 2. Weights are often of concrete, or steel plates welded together and are usually about 2 m2. 3. Typically 1 m layer of granular fills is placed first, and then the weight is dropped on a square grid of about 5-10 m. In each pass of weight 5-10 blows are applied to each imprint. 4. The ultimate aim is to form a crater about 0.5-2.0 m deep. 5. Groundwater may have to be lowered to ensure that it does not enter the imprints. 6. Craters are backfilled and the process is repeated until the required induced settlement of the site is achieved. This can be vary between 0.5 m and 2 m.

7. The process can be applied economically to sites of 5000m2 or greater and has been used mainly to compact sands, silty sands, hydraulic fills, and silty clay fills. 8. More recently dynamic compaction has been applied to refuse and colliery waste fills.

Figure 23 : The difference between Dynamic Compaction and Vibro Compaction

5.1.4

Precompression Precompression is deliberate act of compressing the ground prior to the

application of structural load. It is economical on moderate to large sites and for full economy the fill should reused, but an area larger than the proposed site needs to be loaded. Precompression takes two forms which are: I. Preloading: the placement and removal of filling similar in weight to structural load II. Surcharging: the placement and removal of filling greater than the structural load.

Constraints on the use of dynamic compaction: 1. Soft clay with cohesion 2. Karstic rock or voided ground below treated ground. E.g. old mine workings 3. Vibration effects, minimum distance 0m to closet structure, effects worst where groundwater is high, also ejection of missiles to more than 100m distance

4. Clay working surface, a granular surface is essential for operating equipment 5. Groundwater: water table should be at least 4m below ground level, otherwise dewatering is required, after treatment of dewatered cause clay to swell or could collapse

site, rising ground could settlement

6. Regeneration of biological action For cohesive soils, the challenge is to provide an economical means to consolidate the soils and resist long term residual settlement for surcharge areas of fill. For granular soils, the primary objective is to use improvement techniques that stabilize the fill for shortterm and long-term performance.

Figure 24 : The deference method of precompression between the cohesive and granular soil

5.2

WETLAND

The used of constructed wetland for water quality improvement is being recognized all over the world due to the demand for reuse and the need to compensate for the loss of natural wetlands. Constructed wetlands are engineered wetlands that are built to emulate the functions of natural wetlands for human needs. In addition to water purification, constructed wetlands also serve as a bird sanctuary and provide habitat for wildlife. The system has aesthetics value which supports ecotourism potential. Man-made wetlands have a high biodiversity and can also serve as venues for public involvement in wetland education and research.

Figure 25 : Wetland

There are two type of reclaimed wetland can be used for recreation which are free water surfaces wetland (FWS) and subsurface flow (SF) wetlands.

Figure 26 : Free Water Surface Constructed Wetlands

Figure 27 : Subsurface Constructed Wetlands

To construct wetlands, three basic engineering problems must be addressed: 1) Determination of the size of the system based on rational design criteria 2) Engineering of liners and earthen dikes 3) Distribution and collection of wastewater within the wetland cell

5.2.1

Structural Components Constructed wetlands are very simple structures with only a few components

requiring the attention of the designer which are: 1. Liners and berms 2. Flow distribution structures 3. Level adjust structures 4. Distribution and collection piping All of structural components and materials have been used in wastewater stabilization or aerated lagoons. Frequently, the designer can provide solutions that are free of moving parts. Wetlands systems have flow monitoring requirements perhaps a pump station for recirculation. The structures normally used for these function can be included in the design.

Figure 28 : The structural component in wetlands

5.2.2

Construction process of wetland

The construction processes of wetland are following below: 1. Subgrade preparation a. Preparation of the subgrade is crucial part of the construction process.

b. It extremely important that the subgrade be properly compacted, and if the subgrade be properly compacted, and if the subgrade contains rocks or rocks larger than 1 inches, geotextiles should be placed on the subgrade if liners are used. c. Larger rocks must be removed, or sand placed on the subgrade to prevent bridging of the liner. d. When excavated from undisturbed soil, should be compacted to a minimum of 85 percent modified Proctor density. This will reduce settling under the liner and avoid the consequent stress. e. Some soils will not support the weight without deformation and this should be considered when locating the wetland. f. It is essential to include some grading tolerance specifications. g. Before placement of liner materials, rough grades should be graded level or have a uniform gradient that is 0.1 foot. h. Heavy construction equipment must be kept off rough grades if the compacted subgrade is unable to support the vehiles weight without deformation. i. Finish grades, gravel, or soil should be graded to within 0.5 foot.

2. Berms and Liners Berms and liners provide the basic containment structure of the reactor volume that is constructed wetland. The structural and watertight integrity of the linerand surrounding berm is essential. Failure of either will result in loss of water, potential water pollution, and potential loss of plants as the water level declines. Most of the difficulties encountered in the installation of liners in constructed wetlands occur because of the requirement to place soil and or gravel on top of the liner without destroying the integrity of the liner.

Berms Berms are a common element in wetlands construction. The height of the berm will not exceed 1-2 feet above the surrounding terrain on the upslope side. Upslope berms are used to divert surface runoff. Downslope berms are designed to retain the gravel bed and or maintain the level of the wetland. Berms are constructed to prevent flood damages to the wetland. Berms then become flood control levees and should be designed accordingly, with rip-rap protection, vehicle access for inspection (10foot width on top), and erosion control planting berm stabilization. The minimum width on top should be 24 inches for foot traffic.

Figure 29 : Berms

Liners The use of synthetic liners or clay has become a general requirement for the construction of wetlands in most states. The purpose is to protect the ground water and ensure that the wastewater receives the required treatment before discharge into the groundwater, streams, or land application site. Materials that are generally used include, but are not limited to, the following: i. ii. iii. iv. v. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Polyethylene (PE) Polypropylene (PPE) Soil Compacted clay and clay (bentonite) with scrim

These materials can include a scrim, which is a woven net of nylon of PPE embedded in the plastics material or enclosing the clay. Scrims provide extra strength and resistance to tears in material. Liners with scrims will cost more. The installation and testing of liners is an important element of a successful wetland project. Designers should become familiar with the installation process, the range of liner materials, and the different sets of specifications associated with each materials.

Figure 30 : Liners

Figure 31 : Vertical Flow of Constructed Wetland

5.3 RECLAMAINING LAND FROM SEA

The boundaries between sea and land are perennially changing. In many sheltered bay and estuaries, the sea is receding, while in other portions of the sea-coast it is continuously encroaching. The process of reclamation includes maintaining water and air quality, minimizing flooding, erosion and damage to land properties, wildlife and aquatic habitats caused by surface mining. The final step in this process is often topsoil replacement and revegetation with suitable plant species. Reclamation can occur both on land and on sea. Land may either be reclaimed for reasons of rising the level of existing physical ground or fill purposes of land being mined for resource extractions. The most common form of reclamation practises is reclamation practises is reclamation occurring in the sea or most simply put, reclamation is the forming of land by filling the sea. The main objective of reclaiming land from the sea is to increase the area of ground available for establishing various physical purposes. These may range from residential and cultivation purposes to development project such as tourism, individual or commercial business ventures, and other infrastructural improvement.

Figure 32 : World Dubai is one of the mega project that use of reclaiming from the sea

5.3.1

Sequence of work

a. Carry out site clearing works b. Piloting & demarcation of buried / submerged gas pipelines & other encumbrances. c. Carry out pre-dredging hydrographic and topographic survey works of the proposed fill areas. d. Concurrently, Carry out pre-dredging hydrographic survey works of the proposed borrows area. e. Identify Dredger accessibility points and suitable alignment for submerged / floating pipeline connecting the site to the dredger accessibility point. f. Mobilize and lay submerged / floating and land pipelines.

g. Construct mitigating bunds/ Seawall for hydraulic sand fills. h. Mobilization of Trailer Suction Hopper Dredger; i. Carry out of winning, transport and placing of marine sand from suitable off-shore sources by hydraulic filling method. j. Concurrent with the Hydraulic filling, spreading and leveling of the sand fill shall be carried out using suitable land machineries such as excavator and etc.

k. Demobilization of Trailer Suction Hopper Dredger; and dismantling & removal of all the pipelines and equipment. l. Post Hydrographic and topographic survey works and survey / as built drawings.

Figure 33: The use of Trailer Suction Hopper Dredger for transport and placing of marine sand

Figure 34 : use of land machine to spread and level the backfill

Figure 35 : Mega projects of reclamaining land from sea situated at Dubai