Q NO.

1
SOLUTION

WHAT IS THE DIFFERNCE BETWEEN SIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY?

Science can broadly be defined as the study of "things" such as: Chemistry, Biology, Physics, Genetics, Geology, Psychology, Sociology, and other fields of study that analyze interactions, behaviors, physical properties, effects, causes, etc. in order to rationalize or establish given properties, behaviors and interactions about such "things". The basis of Science is the conducting of experiments. Basically, a theory is made (stated), analysis and testing are performed with the use of various controls, and when a specific, measurable result occurs, and can be reproduced or proven time and time again, the theory then becomes Scientific law, or a truism of sorts. Technology, refers generally to items of use, created from "Applied Science". A good example of this is the production of Solar panels. Solar Panels are used in a variety of different technologies, but the simplest example is a Solar Powered Calculator. It was proposed long ago that the Sun emits 2 types of energy, heat energy and light energy. The Sun's heat energy is what warms the Earth's atmosphere so that life as we know it can exist, by warming the atmosphere to a tolerable temperature that the Human Body can function in. (Space is somewhere around -230 degrees Fahrenheit, and at those temperatures, plants could not grow, and the Human body would not be able to carry on normal functions such as breathing in that cold of temperature.) The sun's light energy is absorbed by Solar Panels (and Solar Cells), and converts that energy to electricity so that the calculator can perform mathematical functions. To test this, put a piece of electrical tape over your calculator for 15 minutes, and then see if you can turn it on. If you can't then you know the light energy is being converted to electricity. In brief: Science is the study of forces and interactions between different "things", both animate and inanimate. Technology can be referred to as things which we make, but were developed by applying Scientific law, knowing what such "things" are capable of doing.

Q NO. 2

DISCUSS THE ROLE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLGY IN FOLLOWING:1) 2) 3) 4) 5) GREEN REVOLUTION COMMUNICATION REVOLUTION WHITE REVOLUTION POLLUTION GLOBAL WARMING 6) OZONE DEPLETION

SOLUTION

GREEN REVOLUTION In 1798, the English economist Thomas Malthus argued that population increases geometrically, outstripping the arithmetic growth of the food supply. He promised "famine ... the last, the most dreadful resource of nature." It took another 125 years for world population to double, but only 50 more for it to redouble. By the 1940s, Mexico, China, India, Russia, and Europe were hungry. Franklin D. Roosevelt's farsighted vice president-elect, former secretary of agriculture Henry A. Wallace, believed the solution lay with technology. He was right: the Malthusian tragedy never happened, chiefly because Norman E. Borlaug transformed the breeding of wheat, which feeds more people than any other crop. From 1939 to 1942, Mexico's harvest was halved by stem rust, a fungus whose airborne spores infect stems and leaves, shriveling grains. Anxieties about wartime food shortages led the American philanthropic organization the Rockefeller Foundation to create the country's first foreign agricultural program: the Cooperative Wheat Research and Production Program, which was based in Mexico and which Borlaug joined, as its plant pathologist, in 1944. The program was prescient: rust hit the North American breadbasket in 1954, wiping out 75 percent of the durum wheat crop used for pasta.

COMMUNICATION REVOLUTION The communication arts must be reconceived for the 21st century, however.One possibility has been suggested by Robert Reich, U.S. Secretary of Labor, in his discussion of the coming global economy. The jobs of the future for educated workers, he says, involve symbolic analysis manipulations of words, data, and visual representations. Symbolic analysis is already the core of the work done by research scientists, software engineers, lawyers, investment bankers, public relations executives, management consultants, systems analysts, and others. The value in their work comes, Reich says, from the ways they identify, represent, communicate, and solve problems and persuade others to involve themselves in the process. The education of such actors for the global arena should provide not only facility with new technologies for manipulating symbols but also principled experience with the capabilities and limitations of symbols and the ways symbols affect other people. Another possibility for reconceiving the communication arts is to classify them with the arts of designto explore their similarities with such fields as mechanical engineering, urban planning, medical therapy, visual design, software engineering. All design arts combine the theoretical and the practical; all are creative, goal-directed activities; all must take account of intrinsic principles and an exterior environment of use and social effects. What would it mean for composition instructors to think of their work as more like engineering than literature? As a design art, communication would be understood as productive, innovative, and strategic; it should also be socially responsible and ethical. These qualities can provide a new agenda for instruction and research in communication.

WHITE REVOLUTION The 'White Revolution' was a far-reaching series of reforms in Iran launched in 1963 by the Shah Mohammad. Mohammad Reza Shahs reform program was built especially to strengthen those classes that supported the traditional system. The Shah advertised the White Revolution as a step towards westernization, but there is little doubt that he also had political motives; the White Revolution a name attributed to the fact it was bloodless was a way for him to legitimize the Pahlavi dynasty. Part of the reason for launching the White Revolution was that the Shah hoped to get rid of the landlords' influence and create a new base of support among the peasants and working class. The bulk of the program was aimed at Irans peasantry, a class the Shah hoped to gain as an ally to thwart the threat of the increasingly hostile middle class. Thus the White Revolution in Iran represented a new attempt to introduce reform from above and preserve traditional power patterns. Through land reform, the essence of the White Revolution, the Shah hoped to ally himself with the peasantry in the countryside, and hoped to sever their ties with the aristocracy in the city. In order to legitimize the White Revolution, the Shah called for a national referendum in early 1963 in which 5,598,711 people voted for the reforms, and 4,115 voted against the reforms. Although this figure seems to suggest that a vast majority of the country was in favor of the reforms, there was plenty of controversy over its accuracy and success, and it was quickly realized that the White Revolution lacked the technical, managerial, and organizational power it needed to succeed.

POLLUTION

Human activity greatly influences nitrogen (N) pollution in urbanized and adjacent areas. We comprehensively studied the N cycling in an urbanrural complex system, the Greater Hangzhou Area (GHA) in southeastern China. Our results indicated that subsurface N accumulation doubled, riverine N export tripled and atmospheric N pollutants increased 2.5 times within the GHA from 19802004. Agriculture was the largest N pollution source to air and water before 2000, whereas industry and human living gradually became the primary N pollution sources with the socioeconomic development. Based on the sensitivity analysis, we developed a scenario analysis to quantify the effects of technology and policy on environmental N dynamics. The fertilization reduction scenario suggested that the groundwater N pollution could decrease by 17% with less than a 5% reduction in crop production; the N effluent standard revision scenario led to a surface water N pollution reduction of 45%; the constructed wetlands implementation scenario could reduce surface water pollution by 43%64%. Lastly, the technological improvement scenario mitigated atmospheric N pollution by 65%. Technologies play a key role in atmospheric N pollution control, policies mainly contribute to groundwater N pollution control, while technology and policy both work on surface water N mitigation within an urbanrural complex. It is true to say that trees and grass help to obviate some of the dangerous consequences of pollutants and pests, but this measure is unsustainable within a culture where the pace of technological production and consumption continues at the present alarming rate. Pollutants are - doubtless - at the centre of scientific and technological advancement. They breed conflict with nature; they cause nature to invoke its laws to redress imbalances.

GLOBAL WARMING

The scientists identified 15 technologies from wind, solar and nuclear energy to conservation techniques that are ripe for largescale use and showed that each could solve a significant portion of the problem. Their analysis, published in the Aug. 13 issue of Science, indicates that many combinations of these 15 technologies could prevent global emissions of greenhouse gasses from rising for the next five decades. The finding counters the common argument that a major new technology needs to be developed before greenhouse gasses can be controlled, said professors Stephen Pascal and Robert Socolow, who conducted the study. It certainly explodes the idea that we need to do research for a long before getting started," said Pascal, a professor of ecology and evolutionary biology and co-director with Socolow of Princeton's Carbon Mitigation Initiative. If we decide to act, we will need to reduce carbon emissions across the global economy," said Socolow, a professor of mechanical and aerospace engineering. "Fortunately, we have the tools to do this, especially if we think in terms of 50-year campaigns, not instant solutions." Although the current study did not examine the costs of scaling up each of the 15 possible technologies, the authors point out that implementing the measures would likely generate economic benefits, including creating new industries, reducing the U.S. dependence on foreign oil and lessening the need for other pollution-control expenses associated with burning coal and other fossil fuels.

OZONE DEPLETION

Over 60 years ago, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were invented in the United States, and they soon found many uses throughout the world in refrigeration, air conditioning, and other industrial processes. Due to scientific evidence that CFCs and other chemicals destroy ozone in the upper atmosphere, the United States, the country which has traditionally been the largest emitter of CFCs worldwide, is rapidly scaling back the use of these chemicals and phasing out their production. The ozone (O3) layer in the stratosphere protects life on earth from exposure to dangerous levels of ultraviolet light. It does so by filtering out harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun. When CFCs and other ozone-degrading chemicals are emitted, they mix with the atmosphere and eventually rise to the stratosphere. There, the chlorine and the bromine they contain catalyze the destruction of ozone. This destruction is occurring at a more rapid rate than ozone can be created through natural processes. The degradation of the ozone layer leads to higher levels of ultraviolet radiation reaching Earth's surface. This in turn can lead to a greater incidence of skin cancer, cataracts, and impaired immune systems, and is expected also to reduce crop yields, diminish the productivity of the oceans, and possibly to contribute to the decline of amphibious populations that is occurring around the world. The chemicals most responsible for the destruction of the ozone layer are chlorofluorocarbons, carbon tetrachloride, methyl bromide, methyl chloroform, and halos. Chlorofluorocarbons have long been widely used as coolants in refrigerators and air conditioners and as foaming agents, solvents, and aerosol propellants. Carbon tetrachloride and methyl chloroform are solvents used for essential industrial applications. In the United States, carbon tetrachloride is now used almost entirely as a feedstock for the production of chlorofluorocarbons. Hydrogenated CFCs (HCFCs) have many of the same uses as CFCs and are increasingly employed as interim substitutes for CFCs. Halos have been used in fire extinguishers.
.

Q NO.3

DISCUSS ANY TWO NEW TECHNOLOGIES? WITH APPLICATION IN A SPECIFIC FIELD.

BLUE ORIGINS PAD ESCAPE SYSTEM On Friday, private spaceflight venture Blue Origin conducted a successful test of its Pad Escape system, demonstrating that its pusher escape motor system can effectively put daylight between its crew capsule and an imperiled launch vehicle (read: out-of-control rocket booster) should anything go awry during a potential future crewed space launch aboard Blue Origins technology. Today, we got our hands on the video. In it you can see the crew capsule arcing upward some 2,307 feet from a simulated launch vehicle as it travels another 1,630 feet laterally downrange, ensuring that in the case of an actual ascent emergency it not only separates from a malfunctioning rocket but also gets out of its way as well. It then safely parachutes back to down to the West Texas desert floor.

SOLUTION

The Pad Escape system is a key part of Blue Origins spaceflight scheme, which aims to field a completely reusable manned spacecraft as part of NASAS Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) program. See it bail out below.

9 ANTI SNORING AIDS FROM 1917 THAT LOOK LIKE MEDIEVAL TORTURE DEVICES Snorers are selfish, horrible people, it's true. But no one - no matter how annoying their bodily sounds are - deserves to be subjected to the terrifying devices in this gallery. In 1917, Popular Science ran a story about nine of science's most cutting-edge snoring-prevention inventions. Some of the devices are so gruesome (and potentially lethal) that it's hard to tell whether the inventor was trying to cure snoring or just punish wearer for being so irritating.

Q.NO.4

EXPLAIN BRIEFLY ABOUT. 1) DIODE 2) TRANSISTOR 3) CAPACITOR 4) RESISTOR

SOLUTION

DIODE
Introduction

There are many types of semiconductor diodes namely Selenium, Germanium and Silicon types. Selenium type is commonly used in the early days in ac power suppliers but in recent years it has been replaced by silicon type as it sometimes emit toxic fumes when it burnt out. The characteristic is that it allows current to flow in one direction as shown in the symbol below. It has a cathode and a anode which determine the flow of the current. Current can only flow from anode to cathode.

Silicon V-I characteristics are shown in the figure below. The junction barrier for silicon is about 0.7V and for Germanium is about 0.3V. It is also called forward voltage drop. Most of the diode used today are of silicon type as they are robust and reliable from DC to RF small signal applications.

The Peak Reverse Voltage (PIV) of silicon types are available up to 1000 volts or more. They can also carry up to 100A DC current. In typical applications, it is advisable to ensure that it operates within the maximum ratings specified by the manufacturer and apply the Failure Mode and Effects Analysis to the device. The temperature of the device is one of the more important parameter to consider. Heat sinks may be used where they have to handle large amount of power. When reverse voltage is applied, there will be a small leakage current usually in the region of uA. Beyond this voltage, it will breakdown and will be damaged permanently.

Types of Commercially Available Diodes

In small signal application of which the current requirement is less than 100mA, 1N4148 is a typical choice. It has a forward voltage drop of 0.7V and is made from Silicon type. In recifier circuit applications, the typical ones used are 1N4001 to 1N4007 for current rating of 1A and 1N5401-1N5408 for current rating up to 3A. The table below shows the devices and their maximum reverse voltage ratings.

Applications
There are various applications for diodes. Among the popular use of them are as highlighted below.

Diodes as Switches
They can be used in series switching or shunt switching in place of relays or mechanical switches. They can be used in applications from DC up to audio frequencies. Its recovery time must be taken into account when chosen for the frequency of peration. The higher the operating frequency is, the faster the switching speed is required. In audio and DC applications, normal power supply recifier types can be used.

Diodes as Voltage References

Zener diodes can be used as voltage regulators. When used as voltage regulators in power supplies, they provide a near constant DC output voltage even though there are changes in load impedance or the input voltage. They use the reverse breakdown voltage characteristics of the devices to maintain a fixed voltage across them. One example of the circuit as voltage reference is as shown below. The various zener ratings ranges from 2.4 V to 200 V. Its power ratings range from 0.25W to 50W.

Diodes as Bridge Rectifiers

There are many ways to connect them to make a rectifier to convert AC voltage to DC voltage in typical 5V-24V DC power suppliers. The rectifier connection can be half load or full load. In half load rectifier, 2 of them are used and in full load rectifier, 4 are used. In selecting the ratings of the devices, ensure that the maximum current and voltage

is adhered to. Use the Failure Mode and Effects Analysis derating factor to ensure reliability of the components in the long run.

Diodes as back EMF Protection

When relay coil is switched off by a transistor, the inductance of the coil will create a back EMF that may be high enough to damage the transistor. In most circuits, one can see a diode connected across the relay coil to conduct when this happens. In this way, the relay coil is protected from the high voltage that is induced by the swiching off of the coil. In normal operation, it will not conduct. Without it, no current could flow and the coil will create a high voltage pulse to keep the coil current flowing.

TRANSISTOR
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current flowing through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated circuits. The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and is ubiquitous in modern electronic systems. Following its development in the early 1950s the transistor revolutionized the field of electronics, and paved the way for smaller and cheaper radios calculators, and computers, among other things.

Transistor as a switch

BJT used as an electronic switch, in grounded-emitter configuration.

Transistors are commonly used as electronic switches, both for high-power applications such as switched and for low-power applications such as logic gates. In a grounded-emitter transistor circuit, such as the light-switch circuit shown, as the base voltage rises, the emitter and collector currents rise exponentially. The collector voltage drops because of the collector load resistance (in this example, the resistance of the light bulb). If the collector voltage were zero, the collector current would be limited only by the light bulb resistance and the supply voltage. The transistor is then said to be saturated - it will have a very small voltage from collector to emitter. Providing sufficient base drive current is a key problem in the use of bipolar transistors as switches. The transistor provides current gain, allowing a relatively large current in the collector to be switched by a much smaller current into the base terminal. The ratio of these currents varies depending on the type of transistor, and even for a particular type, varies depending on the collector current. In the example light-switch circuit shown, the resistor is chosen to provide enough base current to ensure the transistor will be saturated.

In any switching circuit, values of input voltage would be chosen such that the output is either completely off,[21] or completely on. The transistor is acting as a switch, and this type of operation is common in digital circuits where only "on" and "off" values are relevant.

Transistor as an amplifier

Amplifier circuit, common-emitter configuration with a voltage-divider bias circuit.

The common-emitter amplifier is designed so that a small change in voltage (V in) changes the small current through the base of the transistor; the transistor's current amplification combined with the properties of the circuit mean that small swings in V in produce large changes in V out. Various configurations of single transistor amplifier are possible, with some providing current gain, some voltage gain, and some both. From mobile phones to televisions, vast numbers of products include amplifiers for sound reproduction, radio transmission, and signal processing. The first discrete transistor audio amplifiers barely supplied a few hundred mili watts, but power and audio fidelity gradually increased as better transistors became available and amplifier architecture evolved. Modern transistor audio amplifiers of up to a few hundred watts are common and relatively inexpensive.

CAPACITOR
An electronic component is any basic discrete device or physical entity in an electronic system used to affect electrons or their associated fields. Electronic components are mostly industrial products, available in a singular form and are not to be confused with electrical elements, which are conceptual abstractions representing idealized electronic components. Electronic components have two or more electrical terminals(or leads). These leads connect, usually soldered to a printed circuit board, to create an electronic circuit (a discrete circuit) with a particular function (for example an amplifier, radio receiver, or oscillator). Basic electronic components may be packaged discretely, as arrays or networks of like components, or integrated inside of packages such as semiconductor integrated circuits, hybrid integrated circuits, or thick film devices. The following list of electronic components focuses on the discrete version of these components, treating such packages as components in their own right.

Energy of electric field

Work must be done by an external influence to "move" charge between the conductors in a capacitor. When the external influence is removed the charge separation persists in the electric field and energy is stored to be released when the charge is allowed to return to its equilibrium position. The work done in establishing the electric field, and hence the amount of energy stored, is given by:

Current-voltage relation
The current i(t) through any component in an electric circuit is defined as the rate of flow of a charge q(t) passing through it, but actual charges, electrons, cannot pass through the dielectric layer of a capacitor, rather an electron accumulates on the negative plate for each one that leaves the positive plate, resulting in an electron depletion and consequent positive charge on one electrode that is equal and opposite to the accumulated negative charge on the other. Thus the charge on the electrodes is equal to the integral of the current as well as proportional to the voltage as discussed above. As with any antiderivative, a constant of integration is added to represent the initial voltage v (t0). This is the integral form of the capacitor equation

Taking the derivative of this, and multiplying by C, yields the derivative form

The dual of the capacitor is the inductor, which stores energy in a magnetic field rather than an electric field. Its current-voltage relation is obtained by exchanging current and voltage in the capacitor equations and replacing C with the inductance L.

DC circuits

A simple resistor-capacitor circuit demonstrates charging of a capacitor.

A series circuit containing only a resistor, a capacitor, a switch and a constant DC source of voltage V0 is known as a charging circuit.[15] If the capacitor is initially uncharged while the switch is open, and the switch is closed at t = 0, it follows from Kirchhoff's voltage law that

Taking the derivative differential equation,

and

multiplying

by C,

gives

a first-order

At t = 0, the voltage across the capacitor is zero and the voltage across the resistor is V0. The initial current is then i (0) =V0 /R. With this assumption, the differential equation yields

where

is the time constant of the system.

As the capacitor reaches equilibrium with the source voltage, the Voltages across the resistor and the current through the entire circuitdecay exponentially. The case of discharging a charged capacitor likewise demonstrates exponential decay, but with the initial capacitor voltage replacing V0 and the final voltage being zero.

AC circuits
Impedance, the vector sum of reactance and resistance, describes the phase difference and the ratio of amplitudes between sinusoidally varying voltage and sinusoidally varying current at a given frequency. Fourier analysis allows any signal to be constructed from a spectrum of frequencies, whence the circuit's reaction to the various frequencies may be found. The reactance and impedance of a capacitor are respectively

where j is the imaginary unit and is the angular frequency of the sinusoidal signal. The - j phase indicates that the AC voltage V = Z Ilags the AC current by 90: the positive current phase corresponds to increasing voltage as the capacitor charges; zero current corresponds to instantaneous constant voltage, etc. Impedance decreases with increasing capacitance and increasing frequency. This implies that a higher-frequency signal or a larger capacitor results in a lower voltage amplitude per current amplitude an AC "short circuit" or AC coupling. Conversely, for very low frequencies, the reactance will be high, so that a capacitor is nearly an open circuit in AC analysisthose frequencies have been "filtered out".

Capacitors are different from resistors and inductors in that the impedance is inversely proportional to the defining characteristic; i.e., capacitance.

Laplace circuit analysis (s-domain)

When using the Laplace transform in circuit analysis, the capacitance of an ideal capacitor with no initial charge is represented in the sdomain by:

Parallel-plate model

ation of d

The simplest capacitor consists of two parallel conductive plates separated by a dielectric with permittivity (such as air). The model may also be used to make qualitative predictions for other device geometries. The plates are considered to extend uniformly over an area A and a charge density = Q/A exists on their surface. Assuming that the width of the plates is much greater than their separation d, the electric field near the centre of the device will be uniform with the magnitude E = /. The voltage is defined as the line integral of the electric field between the plates

Solving this for C = Q/V reveals that capacitance increases with area and decreases with separation

The capacitance is therefore greatest in devices made from materials with a high permittivity, large plate area, and small distance between plates. However solving for maximum energy storage using Ud as the dielectric strength per distance and capacitor voltage at the capacitor's breakdown voltage limit V = Vbd = Udd.

we see that the maximum energy is a function of dielectric volume, permittivity, and dielectric strength per distance. So increasing the plate area while decreasing the separation between the plates while maintaining the same volume has no change on the amount of energy the capacitor can store. Care must be taken when increasing the plate separation so that the above assumption of the distance between plates being much smaller than the area of the plates is still valid for these equations to be accurate.

RESISTOR
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. component that

The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage across the resistor's terminals. This relationship is represented by Ohm's law:

where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential difference measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms. The ratio of the voltage applied across a resistor's terminals to the intensity of current in the circuit is called its resistance, and this can be assumed to be a constant (independent of the voltage) for ordinary resistors working within their ratings. Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome). Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits. The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. When specifying that resistance in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may require attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor, according to its specific application. The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some precision applications. Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is mainly of concern in power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are physically larger and may require heat sinks. In a highvoltage circuit, attention must sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of the resistor. Practical resistors have a series inductance and a small parallel capacitance; these specifications can be important in highfrequency applications. In a low-noise amplifier or pre-amp, the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an issue. The unwanted inductance, excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent on the technology used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified individually for a particular family of

resistors manufactured using a particular technology.[1] A family of discrete resistors is also characterized according to its form factor, that is, the size of the device and the position of its leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the practical manufacturing of circuits using them.

Units
The ohm (symbol: ) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after George Simon Ohm. An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured over a very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 m = 103 ), kilo ohm (1 k = 103 ), and mega ohm (1 M = 106 ) are also in common usage. The reciprocal of resistance R is called conductance G = 1/R and is measured in siemens (SI unit), sometimes referred to as a mho. Hence, siemens is the reciprocal of an ohm: . Although the concept of conductance is often used in circuit analysis, practical resistors are always specified in terms of their resistance (ohms) rather than conductance.

Electronic symbols and notation

The symbol used for a resistor in a circuit diagram varies from standard to standard and country to country. Two typical symbols are as follows.

American-style symbols. (a) resistor, (b) rheostat (variable resistor), and (c) potentiometer

The notation to state a resistor's value in a circuit diagram varies, too. The European notation avoids using a decimal separator, and replaces the decimal separator with the SI prefix symbol for the particular value. For example, 8k2 in a circuit diagram indicates a resistor value of 8.2 k. Additional zeros imply tighter tolerance, for example 15M0. When the value can be expressed without the need for an SI prefix, an 'R' is used instead of the decimal separator. For example, 1R2 indicates 1.2 , and 18R indicates 18 . The use of a SI prefix symbol or the letter 'R' circumvents the problem that decimal separators tend to 'disappear' when photocopying a printed circuit diagram.

Series and parallel resistors

In a series configuration, the current through all of the resistors is the same, but the voltage across each resistor will be in proportion to its resistance. The potential difference (voltage) seen across the network is the sum of those voltages, thus the total resistance can be found as the sum of those resistances:

As a special case, the resistance of N resistors connected in series, each of the same resistance R, is given by NR. Resistors in a parallel configuration are each subject to the same potential difference (voltage), however the currents through them add. The conductances of the resistors then add to determine the conductance of the network. Thus the equivalent resistance (Req) of the network can be computed:

The parallel equivalent resistance can be represented in equations by two vertical lines "||" (as in geometry) as a simplified notation. Occasionally two slashes "//" are used instead of "||", in case the keyboard or font lacks the vertical line symbol. For the case of two resistors in parallel, this can be calculated using:

As a special case, the resistance of N resistors connected in parallel, each of the same resistance R, is given by R/N. A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series connections can be broken up into smaller parts that are either one or the other. For instance,

However, some complex networks of resistors cannot be resolved in this manner, requiring more sophisticated circuit analysis. For instance, consider a cube, each edge of which has been replaced by a resistor. What then is the resistance that would be measured between two opposite vertices? In the case of 12 equivalent resistors, it can be shown that the corner-to-corner resistance is 56 of the individual resistance. More generally, the Y- transform, or matrix methods can be used to solve such a problem.[2][3][4] One practical application of these relationships is that a non-standard value of resistance can generally be synthesized by connecting a number of standard values in series or parallel. This can also be used to obtain a resistance with a higher power rating than that of the individual resistors used. In the special case of N identical resistors all connected in series or all connected in parallel, the power rating of the individual resistors is thereby multiplied by N.

Power dissipation
The as: The first form is a restatement of Joule's first law. Using Ohm's law, the two other forms can be derived. The total amount of heat energy released over a period of time can be determined from the integral of the power over that period of time: power P dissipated by a resistor is calculated

Resistors are rated according to their maximum power dissipation. Most discrete resistors in solid-state electronic systems absorb much less than a watt of electrical power and require no attention to their power rating. Such resistors in their discrete form, including most of the packages detailed below, are typically rated as 1/10, 1/8, or 1/4 watt.

Resistors required to dissipate substantial amounts of power, particularly used in power supplies, power conversion circuits, and power amplifiers, are generally referred to as power resistors; this designation is loosely applied to resistors with power ratings of 1 watt or greater. Power resistors are physically larger and may not use the preferred values, color codes, and external packages described below. If the average power dissipated by a resistor is more than its power rating, damage to the resistor may occur, permanently altering its resistance; this is distinct from the reversible change in resistance due to its temperature coefficient when it warms. Excessive power dissipation may raise the temperature of the resistor to a point where it can burn the circuit board or adjacent components, or even cause a fire. There are flameproof resistors that fail (open circuit) before they overheat dangerously.

Q. NO.1 SOLUTION

WHAT IS THE ROLE OF ISO? WHAT IS ISO 9000? The International Organization for Standardization widely known as ISO, is an international standard-setting body composed of representatives from various national standards organizations. Founded on February 23, 1947, the organization promulgates worldwide proprietary, industrial, and commercial standards. It has its headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland. History

The organization today known as ISO began in 1926 as the International Federation of the National Standardizing Associations (ISA), whose focus was mainly mechanical engineering. It was disbanded in 1942 during World War II but was reorganized under its current name, ISO, in 1946, when delegates from 25 countries met at the Institute of Civil Engineers in London; the new organization officially began operations in February 1947. ISO is a voluntary organization whose members are recognized authorities on standards, each one representing one country. The bulk of the work of ISO is done by the 2,700 technical committees, subcommittees, and working groups. Each committee and subcommittee is headed by a Secretariat from one of the member organizations. Financing ISO is funded by a combination of
1.

that manage the specific projects or loan experts to participate in the technical work. 1.1. Subscriptions from member bodies ("the national body most representative of standardization in its country").[9] These subscriptions are in proportion to each country's gross national product and trade figures. 1.2. Sale of standards.

International Standards and other publications ISO's main products are international standards. ISO also publishes technical reports, technical specifications, publicly available specifications, technical corrigenda, and guides. International standards are designated with the format ISO[/IEC] [/ASTM] [IS] nnnnn[-p]:[yyyy] Title, where nnnnn is the number of the standard, p is an optional part number, yyyy is the year published, and Title describes the subject. IEC for International Electro technical Commission is included if the standard results from the work of ISO/IEC JTC1 (the ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee). ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) is used for standards developed in cooperation with ASTM International. The date and ISare not used for an incomplete or unpublished standard and may under some circumstances be left off the title of a published work. Technical reports are issued when a technical committee or subcommittee has collected data of a different kind from that normally published as an International Standard. Such as references and explanations. The naming conventions for these are the same as for standards, except TR pretended instead of IS in the report's name. Examples: ISO/IEC TR 17799:2000 Code of Practice for Information Security Management

ISO/TR 19033:2000 Technical product documentation Metadata for construction documentation

Technical specifications can be produced when "the subject in question is still under development or where for any other reason there is the future but not immediate possibility of an agreement to publish an International Standard". Publicly Available Specifications may be "an intermediate specification, published prior to the development of a full International Standard, or, in IEC may be a 'dual logo' publication published in collaboration with an external organization".[10] Both are named by convention similar to Technical Reports. ISO sometimes issues technical corrigenda. Corrigenda (plural of corrigendum) are amendments to existing standards because of minor technical flaws, usability improvements, or limited applicability extensions. Generally, these are issued with the expectation that the affected standard will be updated or withdrawn at its next scheduled review.[10] ISO Guides are meta-standards covering "matters related to international standardization".[10] They are named in the format "ISO [/IEC] Guide N: yyyy: Title", for example:

ISO/IEC Guide 2:2004 Standardization and related activities General vocabulary ISO/IEC Guide 65:1996 General requirements for bodies operating product certification