KEY TERMS CHAPTER 4 bottom-up processing (p.

(p. 129) information processing beginning at the bottom with raw sensory data that are sent up to the brain for higher-level analysis; data driven processing that moves form the parts to the whole. perception (p. 128) process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting sensory information into meaningful patterns. sensation (p. 128) process of detecting, converting, and transmitting raw sensory information form the external and internal environments. top-down processing (p. 129) information processing starting at the top with higher level cognitive processes, like expectations and knowledge, and then working down; conceptually driven processing that moves form the whole to the parts. absolute threshold (p. 131) minimum amount of a stimulus that an observer can reliably detect. coding (p. 130) converting sensory inputs into different sensations. difference threshold (p. 131) minimal difference needed to notice a stimulus change; also called the just noticeable difference. gate-control theory (p. 133) theory that pain sensations are processed and altered by mechanisms within the spinal cord. psychophysics (p. 131) studies the link between the physical characteristics of stimuli and our sensory experience of them. sensory adaptation (p. 133) decreased sensitivity due to repeated or constant stimulation. sensory reduction (p. 130) filtering and analyzing incoming sensations before sending a neural message to the cortex. subliminal (p. 132) pertaining to stimuli presented below conscious awareness. synesthesia (p. 130) a mixing of sensory experiences (e.g. seeing colors when a sound is heard) transduction (p. 130) converting a receptors energy into neural impulses that are sent on to the brain. accommodation (p. 138) automatic adjustment of the eye, which occurs when muscles change the shape of the lens so that it focuses light on the retina form objects at different distances. amplitude (p. 136) height of a light or sound wave---pertaining to light, it refers to brightness; for sound, it refers to loudness. audition (p. 141) sense of hearing blind spot (p. 138) point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye; contains no receptor cells for vision---thus creating a blind spot. cochlea (p. 142) three chambered, snail-shaped structure in the inner ear containing the receptors for hearing. conduction deafness (p. 143) middle-ear deafness resulting from problems with transferring sound waves to the inner ear.

cones (p. 138) visual receptor cells, concentrated near the center of the retina, responsible for color vision and fine detail; most sensitive in brightly lit conditions. farsightedness (hyperopia) (p. 138) visual acuity problem resulting from the cornea and lens focusing an image behind the retina. fovea (p. 138) tiny put in the center of the retina filled with cones; responsible for sharp vision. frequency (p. 136) how often a light or sound wave cycles (i.e., the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time). frequency theory (p. 143) explains that pitch perception occurs when nerve impulses sent to the brain match the frequency of the sound wave. inner ear (p. 142) cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs, which generate neural signals sent to the brain. middle ear (p. 142) hammer, anvil, and stirrup, which concentrate eardrum vibrations onto the cochleas oval window. nearsightedness (myopia) (p. 138) visual acuity problem resulting from the cornea and lens focusing an image in front of the retina. nerve deafness (p. 143) inner-ear deafness resulting from ddamage to the cochlea, hair cells, or auditory nerve. opponent-process theory (p. 140) Herings theory that color perception is based on three systems of color opposites--- blue-yellow, red-green, and black-white. outer ear (p. 142) pinna, auditory canal, and eardrum, which funnel sound waves to the middle ear. place theory (p. 143) explains that pitch perception is linked to the particular spot on the cochleas basilar membrane that is most stimulated. retina (p. 138) light-sensitive inner surface of the back of the eye, which contains the receptor cells for vision (rods and cones). rods (p. 138) visual receptor cells in the retina that detect shades of gray and are responsible for peripheral vision; most important in dim light and at night. trichromatic theory (p. 139) theory stating that color perception results from three types of cones in the retina, each most sensitive to either red, green, or blue. Other colors result from a mixture of these three. wavelength (p. 136) distance between the crests (or peaks) of light or sound waves; the shorter the wavelength, the higher the frequency. gustation (p. 146) sense of taste kinesthesia (p. 149) sensory system for body posture, orientation, and bodily movement. olfaction (p. 146) sense of smell pheromones [FARE-oh-mones] (p. 146) airborne chemicals that affect behavior; including recognition of family members, aggression, territorial marking, and sexual mating. binocular cues (p. 158) visual input from two eyes that allows perception of depth or distance. convergence (p. 159) binocular depth cue in which the closer the object, the more the eyes converge, or turn inward.

depth perception (p. 156) the ability to perceive three-dimensional space and to accurately judge distance. extrasensory perception (ESP) (p. 162) feature detectors (p. 151) specialized neurons that respond only to certain sensory information. habituation (p. 152)tendency of the brain to ignore environmental factors that remain constant. illusion (p. 150) false or misleading perception. monocular cues (p. 158) visual input from a single eye alone that contributes to perception of depth or distance. perceptual constancy (p. 156) tendency for the environment to be perceived as remaining the same even with changes in sensory input. perceptual set (p. 161) readiness to perceive in a particular manner based on expectations. retinal disparity (p. 159) binocular cue to distance in which the separation of the eyes causes different image to fall on each retina. selective attention (p. 151) filtering out and attending only to important sensory messages.

CHAPTER 5 alternate states of consciousness (ASCs) (p. 166) mental states, other than ordinary waking consciousness, found during sleep, dreaming, psychoactive drug use, hypnosis, and so on. activationsynthesis hypothesis (p. 180) Hobsons theory that dreams are byproducts of random stimulation of brain cells; the brain attempts to combine (or synthesize) this spontaneous activity into coherent patterns, known as dreams. circadian [sir-KADE-ee-un] rhythms (p. 171) biological changes that occur on a 24-hour cycle (circa= about and dies= day) evolutionary/circadian theory (p. 178) sleep evolved to conserve energy and as protection from predators; also serves as part of the circadian cycle. insomnia (p. 182) persistent problems in falling asleep, staying asleep, or awakening too early. latent content (p. 179) according to Freud, the true, unconscious meaning of a dream. manifest content (p. 179) according to Freud, the surface content of a dream, which contains dream symbols that distort and disguise the dreams true meaning. narcolepsy [NAR co-lep-see] (p. 183) sudden and irresistible onsets of sleep during normal waking hours. night terrors (p. 184) abrupt awakenings from NREM sleep accompanied by intense physiological arousal and feelings of panic.

nightmares (p. 184) anxiety-arousing dreams generally occurring near the end of the sleep cycle, during REM sleep. non-rapid-eye-movement (NREM) sleep (p. 176) stages 1 to 4 of sleep with stage 1 as the lightest level and stage 4 as the deepest level. rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep (p. 176) stage of sleep marked by rapid eye movements, high-frequency brain waves, paralysis of large muscles, and dreaming. repair/restoration theory (p. 178) sleep evolved to conserve energy and as protection from predators; also serves as part of the circadian cycle. sleep apnea (p. 183) repeated interruption of breathing during sleep because are passages to the lungs are physically blocked or the brain stops activating the diaphragm. addiction (p. 186) broad term describing a compulsion to use a specific drug or engage in a certain activity. agonist drug (p. 187) mimics a neurotransmitters effect. antagonist drug (p. 187) blocks normal neurotransmitter functioning. depressants (p. 189)drugs that act on the brain and other parts of the nervous system to decrease bodily processes and overall responsiveness. drug abuse (p. 186) drug taking that causes emotional or physical harm to the drug user or others. hallucinogens [hal LOO-sin-o-jenz] (p. 192) drugs that produce sensory or perceptual distortions called hallucinations. opiates (p. 192) drugs derived from opium that numb the senses and relive pain (opium is Greek for juice). physical dependence (p. 186) changes in bodily processes that make a drug necessary for minimal functioning. psychoactive drugs (p. 185) chemicals that change conscious awareness, mood, and or perception. psychological dependence (p. 186) desire or craving to achieve a drugs effect. stimulants (p. 189) drugs that act on the brain and other parts of the nervous system to increase overall activity and general responsiveness. tolerance (p. 186) bodily adjustment to higher and higher levels of a drug, which leads to decreased sensitivity. withdrawal (p. 186) discomfort and distress, including physical pain and intense cravings, experienced after stopping the use of addictive drugs. hypnosis (p. 196) trancelike state of heightened suggestibility, deep relaxation, and intense focus. meditation (p. 196) group of techniques designed to refocus attention, block out all distractions, and produce an alternate state of consciousness.

automatic processes (p. 170) mental activities requiring minimal attention and having little impact on other activities. consciousness (p. 166) organisms awareness of its own self and surroundings controlled processes (p. 168) mental activities requiring focused attention that generally interfere with other ongoing activities.

CHAPTER 6 conditioning (p. 204) process of learning associations between environmental stimuli and behavioral responses. learning (p. 204) relatively permanent change in behavior or mental processes due to experience. cognitive map (p. 224) mental image of a three-dimensional space that organism has navigated. cognitive-social theory (p. 223) emphasizes the roles of thinking and social learning in behavior. insight (p. 224) sudden understanding of problem that implies the solution. latent learning (p. 224) hidden learning that exists without behavioral signs. classical conditioning (p. 205)learning that occurs when a previously neutral stimulus (NS) is paired (associated) with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to elicit a conditioned response. observational learning (p. 229) learning new behvoirs or information by watching and imitating others (also known as social learning or modeling). conditioned emotional response (CER) (p. 207) classically conditioned emotional response to a preciously neutral stimulus (NS). conditioned response (CR) (p. 205) learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus (CS) that occurs because of precious repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) conditioned stimulus (CS) (p. 205) preciously neutral stimulus that, through repeated pairings with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), now causes a conditioned response (CR). extinction (p. 209) repeatedly presenting the CS without the UCS, which gradually weakens the CR. biological preparedness (p. 230) built-in (innate) readiness to form associations between certain stimuli and responses. higher-order conditioning (p. 210) neutral stimulus (NS) becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) through repeated pairings with a previously condition stimulus. instinctive drift (p. 230) conditioned responses shift (or drift) back toward innate response patterns.

neutral stimulus (NS) (p. 205) stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest. taste aversion (p. 230) classically conditioned negative reaction to a particular taste that has been associated with nausea or other illness. spontaneous recovery (p. 210) sudden reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response (CR). stimulus discrimination (p. 209) only the CS elicits the CR. stimulus generalization (p. 209) stimuli similar to the original CS elicit a CR. unconditioned response (UCR) (p. 205) unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that occurs without previous conditioning. biofeedback (p. 236) involuntary bodily process (such as blood pressure or heart rate) is recorded, and the information is fed back to an organism to increase voluntary control over the bodily function. unconditioned stimulus (UCS) (p. 205) stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response (UCR) without previous conditioning continuous reinforcement (p. 215) every correct response is reinforced. discriminative stimulus (p. 222) cue signaling when a specific response will lead to the expected reinforcement. fixed interval (FI) schedule (p. 215) reinforcement occurs after a predetermined time has elapsed; the interval (time) is fixed. fixed ratio (FR) schedule (p. 215) reinforcement occurs after a predetermined set of responses; the ratio (number of amount) is fixed. law of effect (p. 212) Thorndikes rule that the probability of an action being repeated is strengthened when it is followed by a pleasant or satisfying consequence. negative punishment (p. 217) taking away (or removing) a stimulus that weakens a response and makes it less likely to recur. negative reinforcement (p. 214) taking away (or removing) a stimulus that strengthens a response and makes it more likely to recur. operant conditioning (p. 212) learning through the consequences of voluntary behavior; also known as instrumental or Skinnerian conditioning. partial (intermittent) reinforcement (p. 215) some, but not all, correct responses are reinforced. positive punishment (p. 217) adding (or presenting) a stimulus that weakens a response and makes it less likely to recur. positive reinforcement (p. 214) adding (or presenting) a stimulus, which strengthens a response and makes it more likely to recur. Premack principle (p. 214) using a naturally high-frequency response to reinforce and increase low-frequency responses.

primary reinforcers (p. 213) stimuli that increase the probability of a response because they satisfy an unlearned, biological need (e.g., food, water, and sex). punishment (p. 212) weakens a response and makes it less likely to recur. reinforcement (p. 212) strengthens a response and makes it more likely to recur. secondary reinforcers (p. 213) stimuli that increases the probability of a response because of their learned value (e.g., money and material possessions). shaping (p. 216) reinforcement delivered for successive approximations of the desired response. variable interval (VI) schedule (p. 215) reinforcement occurs unpredictability; the interval (time) varies. variable ratio (VR) schedule (p. 215) reinforcement occurs unpredictably; the ratio (number or amount) varies.

CHAPER 7 chunking (p. 248) grouping separate pieces of information into a single unit (or chunk) Alzheimers [ALTS-high-merz] disease(AD) (p. 266) progressive mental deterioration characterized by severe memory loss. constructive process (p. 244) organizing and shaping of information during processing, storage, and retrieval of memories. anterograde amnesia (p. 266) inability to form new memories after a brain injury; forward-acting amnesia. elaborative rehearsal (p. 252) linking new information to previously stored material (also known as deeper levels of processing). consolidation (p. 266) process by which neural changes associated with recent learning become durable and stable. encoding (p. 244) processing information into the memory system. long-term potentiation (LTP) (p. 263) long-lasting increase in neural excitability, which may be a biological mechanism for learning and memory. encoding specificity principle (p. 255) retrieval of information is improved when conditions of recovery are similar to the conditions when information was encoded. retrograde amnesia (p. 266) loss of memory for events before a brain injury; backward-acting amnesia. episodic memory (p. 251) subsystem of explicit/declarative memory that stores memories of personality experienced events; a mental diary of a persons life. explicit (declarative) memory (p. 251) subsystem within long-term memory that consciously stores facts, information, and personal life experiences.

implicit (nondeclarative) memory (p. 252) subsystem within long-term memory consisting of unconscious procedural skills and simple classically conditioned responses. levels of processing (p. 252) degree or depth of mental processing occurring when material is initially encountered; determines how well material is later remembered. long-term memory (LTM) (p. 249) third stage of memory that stores information for long periods of time; its capacity is virtually limitless, and its duration is relatively permanent. mnemonic [nih-MON-ik] device (p. 272) memory-improvement technique based on encoding items in a special way. maintenance rehearsal (p. 248) repeating information over and over to maintain it in short-term memory (STM) memory (p. 244) internal record or representation of some prior event or experience. parallel distributed processing (PDP) (p. 246) memory results from weblike connections among interacting processing units operating simultaneously, rather than sequentially (also known as the connectionist model) priming (p. 255) prior exposure to a stimulus (or prime) facilitates or inhibits the processing of new information, even when one has no conscious memory of the initial learning and storage. recall (p. 254) retrieving a memory using a general cue. recognition (p. 254) retrieving a memory using a specific cue. retrieval (p. 244) recovering information from memory storage. retrieval cue (p. 254) clue or prompt that helps stimulate recall or retrieval of a stored piece of information from long-term memory. serial-position effect (p. 254) information at the beginning and end of a list is remembered better than material in the middle. semantic memory (p. 251) subsystem of explicit/declarative memory that stores general knowledge; a mental encyclopedia or dictionary. sensory memory (p. 247) first memory stage that holds sensory information; relatively large capacity, but duration is only a few seconds. short-term memory (STM) (p. 248) second memory stage that temporarily stores sensory information and decides whether to send it on to long-term memory (LTM); capacity is limited to five to nine items and duration is about 30 seconds. storage (p. 244) retraining information over time distributed practice (p. 260) practice (or study) sessions are interspersed with rest periods.

massed practice (p. 260) time spent learning is grouped (or massed) into long, unbroken intervals (also known as cramming). misinformation effect (p. 260) distortion of a memory by misleading post-event information. proactive interference (p. 259) old information interferes with remembering new information; forward-acting interference. relearning (p. 257) learning material a second time, which usually takes less time than original learning (also called savings method). retroactive interference (p. 259) new information interferes with remembering old information; backward- acting interference. sleeper effect (p. 260) information from an unreliable source, which was initially discounted, later gains credibility because the source is forgotten. source amnesia (p. 260) forgetting the true source of a memory (also called source confusion or source misattribution). tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon(p. 259) feeling that specific information is stored in long-term memory but of being temporarily unable to retrieve it.

CHAPTER 9 developmental psychology (p. 316) study of age-related changes in behavior and mental processes from conception to death. critical period (p. 317) a period of special sensitivity to specific types of learning that shapes the capacity for future development. cross-sectional method (p. 318) measures individuals of various ages at one point in time and gives information about the age differences. longitudinal method (p. 318) measures a single individual or group of individuals over an extended period and gives information about age changes maturation (p. 317) development governed by automatic, genetically predetermined signals. ageism (p. 329) prejudice or discrimination based on physical age embryonic period (p. 323) second stage of prenatal development, which begins after uterine implantation and lasts through the eighth week. fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) (p. 324) combination of birth defects, including organ deformities and mental, motor, and/or growth retardation, that results from maternal alcohol abuse. fetal period (p. 323) third, and final, stage of prenatal development (eight weeks to birth), which is characterized by rapid weight gain in the fetus and the fine detailing of bodily organs and systems. germinal period (p. 323) first stage of prenatal development, which begins with conception and ends with implantation in the uterus (the first two weeks).

puberty (p. 327) biological changes during adolescence that lead to an adultsized body and sexual maturity. teratogen [Tuh-RAT-uh-jen] (p. 322) environmental agent that causes damage during prenatal development; the term comes from the Greek word teras, meaning malformation. accommodation (p. 332) in Piagets theory, adjusting old schemas or developing new ones to better fit with new information. assimilation (p. 332) in Piagets theory, absorbing new information into existing schemas. concrete operational stage (p. 335) Piagets third stage (roughly age 7 to 11); the child can perform mental operations on concrete objects and understand reversibility and conservation, but abstract thinking is not yet present. conservation (p. 335) understanding that certain physical characteristics (such as volume) remain unchanged, even when their outward appearance changes. egocentrism (p. 335) the inability to consider anothers point of view, which Piaget considered a hallmark of the preoperational stage formal operational stage (p. 335) Piagets fourth stage (around age 11 and beyond), characterized by abstract and hypothetical thinking. object permanence (p. 333) Piagetian term for an infants understanding that objects (or people) continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched directly. preoperational stage (p. 333) Piagets second state (roughly 2 to 7), characterized by the ability to employ significant language and to think symbolically, but the child lacks operations (reversible mental processes), and thinking is egocentric and animistic. schema (p. 332) cognitive structures or patterns consisting of a number of organized ideas that grow and differentiate with experience. sensorimotor stage (p. 333) Piagets first stage (birth to 2) in which schemas are developed through sensory and motor activities. attachment (p. 340) strong affectional bond with special others that endures over time. imprinting (p. 340) innate form of learning within a critical period that involves attachment to the first large moving object seen.

CHAPTER 10 conventional level (p. 352) Kohlbergs second level of moral development, in which moral judgments are based on compliance with the rules and value of society.

postconventional level (p. 352) Kohlbergs highest level of moral development, in which individuals develop personal standards for right and wrong and define morality in terms of abstract principles and values that apply to all situations and societies. preconventional level (p. 352) Kohlbergs first level of moral development, in which mortality is based on rewards, punishment, and exchange of favors. psychosocial stages (p. 355) Eriksons theory that individuals pass through eight developmental stages, each involving a crisis that must be successfully resolved. temperament (p. 354) an individuals innate behavioral style and characteristic emotional response. activity theory (p. 364) successful aging is fostered by a fully and active commitment to life collectivistic cultures (p. 357) needs and goals of the group are emphasized over the needs and goals of the individual. disengagement theory (p. 364) successful aging is characterized by mutual withdrawal between the elderly and society. individualistic cultures (p. 357) needs and goals of the individual are emphasized over the needs and goal of the group. resiliency (p. 363) ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats. socioemotional selectivity theory (p. 364) a natural decline in social contact occurs as older adults become more selective with their time. thanatology [than-uh-TALL-uh-gee] (p. 369) the study of death and dying; the term comes from thanatus, the Greek name for the mythical personification of death, and was borrowed by Freud to represent the death instinct.