THE UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION AND EXTERNAL STUDIES SCHOOL OF EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION FOUNDATIONS
TFD 401 COMPARATIVE EDUCATION AND CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN EDUCATION The course focuses on Comparative and Critical Contemporary Issues in Education. The course examines the discipline of Comparative Education; Meaning, Aims, Rationale, Development, Comparative Methodology and Challenges facing the study of Comparative Education; Some National Systems of Education of selected Countries of the World (North America, South America, Europe, Asian and Africa) National Educational Policy objectives, Planning issues and educational innovations ; Critical contemporary issues and trends in global education especially Universal Primary Education (UPE), Education for All (EFA), Gender and Education, Dependency and Education, Equity and Education, , Human Rights, Justice and Education, Employment and Education, Information Communication Technology and Education, Teacher Education, Globalization and Education.
Definition of Comparative Education
Many scholars in comparative education do not seem to agree on a single definition of comparative education. However there is a general consensus that a good definition of the comparative discipline should contain at least the elements of content, methodology and purpose of the study. In this regard we look at some of the definitions that have been widely accepted in the study of comparative education:

Nicholas Hans, (1958) - defines comparative education as a step-by-step study of different and often contrasting educational systems with a view of understanding their differences and similarities. E.H. Epstein, (1995) - defines comparative education as a field of study that applies historical, philosophical and social science theories and methods to international problems in education. Vernon Mallinson, (1975) - defines comparative education as the analytical study of factors that influence the development of education in historical and comparative perspectives to identify the principles upon which solutions to educational problems are based. Fraser and Brickman, (1968) -they defined comparative education as the analysis of educational systems and problems of social, political, economic, cultural, ideological and other contents in order to understand the factors underlying similarities and differences in education in various countries. Beredy GZF,(1964) - defines comparative education simply as the analytical study of foreign education systems. Isaac Kandel - says that comparative education seeks to analyze and compare the forces which make for differences between national systems of education. Harold Noah and Max Eckstein-they define comparative education to be a discipline at the intersection of the social sciences education and cross national study. Peter Ragatt- defines comparative education as the cross-national study of general propositions about relationships between education and society, and within educational relationships.

In light of the above definitions it is evident that comparative educationists are primarily scholars who study education in different environments in order to discover why they are the way they are and also attempt to solve educational problems. It is also clear that comparative education is a multi-disciplinary subject that uses knowledge from other humanities and social sciences disciplines. We therefore would want at this point to give a summary of the definitions of comparative education as "a discipline through which one makes comparisons of education systems across national boundaries by examining in detail the structure, curriculum, administration, financing and participation, with the aim of understanding the factors and forces that account for the differences and similarities in these systems of education"

Defining Comparative Education

a)Define Comparative education in your own words. b) Identify and explain five aspect that comprise the definition of comparative education

Aims of Comparative Education

As a student of Comparative Education you will have different aims of studying the discipline, but the following will help you in keeping focus of the study;

To provide a picture or profile of the education systems in various countries or regions of the world. To enable one come up with a global description and classification of education in various parts of the world. To determine the relations and aspects in education and society, for example, how does family size affect education? How does social status affect education? Or what are the motivations of different social classes to participate in education? among other aspects. To distinguish the fundamental elements of educational persistence and change and relate these with philosophical laws. To facilitate practical reform and planned development of the school system, that is, improvement of education at home. In order to achieve this aims one requires to establish the correlation of aims, customs, social norms and the education system. To enable one have a greater understanding of the wider educational process. To promote the spirit of international understanding and co-operation among those who study it, by promoting friendship, understanding other people's points of view and appreciate other people's cultures.

Critically analyze the above aims of comparative education

Are the above aims achievable in light of what comparative education has been defined?

Rationale for the Study of Comparative Education.

There are various reasons that justify the study of comparative education especially for students of education teachers in the making (or to-be), practicing teachers, policy makers, education planners and managers and all interested parties. Some of the reasons include; i) Enhance one's own understanding ;To enable us understand our own education systems in a better way by knowing its routes and how it has been influenced by others to be what it is today.

ii) To generalized educational concepts ;To enable us make general statements about how education develops and also test how universally applicable existing theories in education are. iii) To know other people. ;Through comparative education one develops a reservoir of knowledge which satisfies one intellectual curiosity besides enhancing ones intellectual enlightment. Thus it broadens our thinking when dealing with educational issues and problems thus, think globally and act locally. iv) To improve education at home ;By studying other peoples systems of education we get to develop a better perspective of our own education system. We study comparative education to discover which reforms are desirable and possible and how best to implement them, and also what successes to borrow and what failures to avoid. v) To make people practical ;We study comparative education in order to get exposure to knowledge in other disciplines in humanities and social sciences that also study human affairs so as to enable us have a holistic picture of education. Education in this regard is considered to be a consumer good. It therefore must have practical utility for example, ability to read and write. The task of making education practical is the duty of the government and the educationist. Comparative Education is therefore considered very suitable for studying this problem. vi) To learn the true nature of a society ;By studying schools in other countries, comparative education opens the window through which we can understand a society for often the school reflect what the society looks like (schools are the mirrors of society). A school actually reflects or represents the national character. Michael Sadler (1900) said "In studying foreign systems of education, we should not forget that the things outside the school matter even more than the things inside the school and govern and interpret the things inside" vii) Contribute to International understanding and goodwill ;Comparative education fosters international understating, peace and co-operation among nations of the world. By discovering and appreciating what exists elsewhere it replaces national pride and prejudice with the objectivity of judgment that facilitates international harmony. viii) Humanitarian reasons ;The contemporary world is characterized by a big quest for knowledge, peace, equality and better life. The concern is how education can provide these qualities. In many countries the question of peace and equality are key issues in education. The discipline therefore satisfies our natural desire to learn more about the origins and development of such contemporary and educational issues in various countries including ours. ix) Problem solving ;All countries face educational problems that require solutions. Comparative education helps us to understand differences and similarities between our own education system and others. In this regard one is able to appreciate the fact that countries develop educational systems to serve their own national objectives, interests, values and aspirations, based on their unique contexts and hence solve problems facing them. x) International standards ;In order to achieve international standards in education, comparative education makes us aware of the international trends in education and guides countries on how to give their people or citizens a universally conscious and relevant education that fits in the global village today. xi) To expose people to innovations ;Today people are using various media to conduct education activities by use of televisions, teleconferencing, radio, e-learning and internet. By studying other system, one learns how to use such media and their benefits and this helps to bring the necessary reforms in one's own education system. xii) To understand the economic implications of education ;There is an argument that there is a correlation between education and improvements in the economy, that is, according to economic theory. Comparative education helps us to examine whether and where this is true.

The Scope of Comparative Education

There are five perspectives that capture the scope of comparative education. These are; i) The subject matter and content; this covers the essential components of educational systems such as structure, aims, content or curriculum, administration, financing, teacher education. ii) Geographical units of study; these comprises intra-national, international, regional, continental and global or world systems studies and analysis. iii) Ideological scope; this compares countries' educational systems on the basis of different political, social and economic ideologies. For example, democratic, communism, socialist, capitalist, free market and mixed economies. iv) Thematic scope; this scope focuses on educational themes, topical issues or problems and compares them within one or more geographical units. For example free primary and secondary education, universal primary education, education for all and universal higher education. v)The historical or spatial scope; this deals with the study of the historical development of the discipline from the earliest (pre-historic) phase known as the period of Travelers' Tales to the modern phase known as the period of social science perspectives.

Activity
Examine the scope of comparative education in light of the above aspects.Does this scope cover all the dimension of comparative education? Explain your answer

Forms of Comparative Education

Comparative education is also divided into four broad areas. These are; i) Comparative Pedagogy

This entails studies of classrooms dynamics in different education systems, that is, what goes on inside the classroom? How is learning? Is it teacher on pupil centered? How do teachers relate to their pupils? This area also involves studying teaching methods. For example how is mathematics taught in Kenyan schools? ii) Intracultural Analysis

This area entails examination of the various forces that impact on education. They include culture, social, economic, religions, political and philosophical issues. iii) International Education

This includes the study of multinational institutions like international schools, international efforts to harmonize curricula, text books, and development of objectives for the purpose of creating international norms. It also includes the study of international institutions like UNESCO with regard to policy matters intended to harmonize global education, standards of qualifications, promotion of educational exchanges and initiation of cultural agreements. There is a lot of work in the area of equivalences in education, for example, how does a Kenyan masters degree compare to a British masters degree? iv) Development Education

This is an effort especially by the developed world to produce information and plans so assist policy makers in the developing countries. It also involves the development of appropriate education methods and techniques for training of human resources in various programmes.

Chapter Two: DEVELOPMENT OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

Objectives
After reading this chapter you should be able to: i) Identify and explain the various developmental stages in comparative education. ii) Describe the major characteristics of each developmental stage. iii) Assess the relevance of each developmental stage in the study of comparative education.

The Genesis of Comparative Education

Many scholars of comparative education have ventured into the discovery of the genesis of comparative education. On the whole there seems to be no specific time in which the discipline of comparative education originated. However the search for the origins of comparative education has made many scholars to look back hopefully to time immemorial. For example, Fredrick Schneider and Franz Hilker of Germany sought European precedents in education. William Brickmann in the U.S.A. led the quest and search for the origin of comparative education and educators. His work includes several articles on the subject which dates back as far as to Herodotus (484-425Bc) as a competent cultural comparativist was assumed in the ancient world. For purpose of this course, the genesis of comparative education will therefore be looked at in light of phases or stages based on major characteristics activities of each phase. These phases are; i) ii) iii) War II. iv) The phase of Travelers Tales i.e. Pre-history to end of 18th century. Period of Pioneers or Phase of Selective Education Borrowing i.e. during the 19 th century. The phase of concern for Cultural Context or Period of Philosophers i.e. from 1900 to end of World

The phase of Social Science perspective i.e. from1945 to the present.

The phases used here are to signify changes in the historical development of comparative education and are actually retrospective and imposed ones. They do not indicate precise or sudden turning points. These changes are gradual. This means that towards the end of one phase the next phase was already evident in the work perspective observers. At the same times entry into a new phase does not mean a compete break from the previous phase. There is always an over-lap of the phases in time and space. We now look at each phase at independently;

The Phase of Travelers Tales

Historically people visited places for various reasons such as commerce, conversation, curiosity or conflict. However everyone who has ever been interested in the upbringing of children or in education in general has

always tended to find out what goes on in other communities. Studies of early writers of comparative education indicate that they drew examples from other societies that they visited or heard about. They actually tended to look for differences and similarities in respect to education of other communities and their own. This phase was marked by descriptive reports of travelers who comprised military conquerors, business expeditions and even explorers. The motives for accounts of travelers' tales were partly curiosity and the need for comparison. They gave descriptive account of features in foreign systems of educational as they saw them. Their reports on education was fragmental, generally unsystematic, exaggerated at times and understatements at other times. Although they were stimulating they were superficial and piecemeal and as such were of little comparative value but worth considering. Some of the contributors during this phase were; Herodotus (484-425 BC) - in his commentaries on the Persian wars he attempted a comparison of culture. Xenophon (430-355 BC) -An Athenian, he gave a detailed account of the education for citizenship given to the youth in Persia. He compared the aims and structure of education in Persian and Sparta. According to him, he admired the Spartan education and wished that the Athenians could copy it. Plato- A Greek philosopher compared the aims and structure of the Spartan and Greek systems. In his two books i.e. "The law" and "The Republic" he compared education system in Sparta and Athens. Like Xenophon he admired the Spartan education system which was state controlled and emphasized on discipline which was military type. He went ahead and argued that the Athenian education was likely to bring about permissiveness and lack of social order. He therefore recommended that the Athenians should copy Sparta. Julius Caesar (102-42BC) - As the Roman emperor he also described how children were educated in countries beyond Rome. He also admired especially the Spartan state controlled education system. He also commented on education of the Belgian, Acquitanians and Celts as indicated in his writings on Gallic wars. Cicero (106-43BC) - He made comparisons between Greek and Roman education. In his book "De Republica" (57BC) he explained that he favoured state controlled system as opposed to a family centered system. In his "De Oratore" he claimed that Greece was far better than every other nation in the practice of eloquence and hence in education. Tacitus (AD 55-116) - He contrasted the education in his own day with that of earlier periods, He even began the long history of the 'past versus the present" debate. Marco Polo (13th century) - He traveled to the court of Kublai Khan in China and reported about the Chinese education system. He observed that there were no quarrels in schools in China and that honesty and truthfulness were emphasized. He further observed that men and women lived together peacefully in China a fact he attributed to the education system. However in the 19th century it was noted that the Chinese education system contributed to the corrupt government system and breaking of laws such as cruelty to prisoners. Ibn Khaldun (1332-1506) -A Tunisian born scholar who made comparison between the Eastern Moslem culture and that of the west. He emphasized the need to establish similarities and differences between the present and the past. He also advocated for the need to know the causes of the similarities in certain cases and of the differences in others. Jacop Middendorp (German) -was sent by his government to find information about universities in France, Italy, Denmark, Poland and Bohemia. Erasmus (1496-1536) - a scholar during the Renaissance, he gave detailed information about education in different countries, comparing the state of education in England in his time with that of Italy. Montaigne (1533-1592) - From France he traveled widely to Germany, Italy and other European countries and gave account on the education of the people he visited.

William Petty (1623-1687) - A professor of Anatomy at Oxford University and founder of the Royal society, presented a more scholarly approach to the observation of foreign counties in his book" The methods of enquiring into the state of any country." Le Chatolais (1773) and Diderot (1776) - From Russia, they compared the Russian education with that of France. Condorcet (France) - After the French Revolution, he compared the French education system with that of England, Italy and Germany. He gave his report to the National Assembly. From the account of the scholars mentioned above, it should be noted that during ancient time, there were examples of individuals with interest in comparisons of all kind. During the (13th-15th centuries) travel of one kind or another became greater in length and more comprehensive in character. During the 16 th century cases of embryonic comparative education research became more frequent. This was partly due to the impetus of geographical exploration and discovery of the time. As such there were writings, of traveling scholars and others sent to other countries to study education. During the 17th century there was increasing and more significant international contacts as foreign travel not only became more possible, but more and more common. During this time, travelers guide books, became available and recommended that the travelers should observe school activities in the countries they toured. They were also to consider and gather information on libraries, lectures, school debate, among other key educational activities. Learning institutions especially universities during this period and after the Renaissance and Reformation in Europe also made some contributions to the development of comparative education. Is this phase relevant to the present day theory and practice of education? From the above accounts of the travelers' tales phase, the present day theory and practice can derive the following relevance; i) Features of traveler's tales still remain with us in the work of journalists and other education trippers. ii) The report of travelers' tales is an informal way of getting to know the experience of other societies. They actually form the first step of understanding education in other countries. iii) Teachers can use stories given by these travelers on their return from visits to other countries, as an addition to their learning experience in schools. The eye-witnesses accounts are still deemed as valuable and relevant in research today. In fact the novels and stories about other countries are all commendable in our present day educational practice.

Activity
Please explain whether this phase relevant to the present day theory and practice of education?

The Phase of Selective Education Borrowing (1817-1900)

Historically the 19th century Europe was characterized by the aftermath of the French Revolution, Industrial Revolution, Agrarian Revolution and the Colonization process. Education reformers at this time were concerned with the social and political conditions of these revolutions and the reaction of the masses. In education they saw the means of moral improvement and social amelioration. Education reformers were concerned that the ability of individual school system to improve themselves faced a lot of oppositions even where there were good intentions. This brought the need to share the best ideas and practices available in many countries. In this regard there was a significant change of approach that suggested a more systematic and comprehensive collection of data and in turn "selective borrowing" in education.

This phase can be said to have been characterized and motivate by two main factors. The first, being the efforts aimed at developing a methodology or a system of rules and regulations that ought to be followed when studying foreign systems of education. The second, being the drive to learn lessons from foreign systems for the sole purpose of borrowing educational ideals. These two factors resulted in journey to foreign countries by travelers with special interest in educational matters. At this time, there were serious attempts of observations and study of other systems of education. In this phase travelers no longer traveled for general curiosity and enlightment, but rather they wanted to discover what was going on in education in other countries in order to identify what aspects they would borrow for improving their own systems of education. Some of the scholar attributed to this phase and hence the development of comparative education include; Victor cousin (1792-1867) - He lived in France at time when Europe was in chaos after the Napoleonic wars. He was a professor of philosophy and head of France's normal school. After the Napoleonic wars there was need to bring reform in France. He visited Prussia and investigated its education with the aim of finding out areas of relevance for reform of education in France. In (1813) he wrote a report and recommended selective education borrowing from Prussian experience. He believed that with this borrowing rivalry and antipathies would be out of place. As such he said people of stature should not be afraid to borrow from wherever and whatever is appropriate. Horrace Mann (1796-1859) - From America, he visited Prussia, Scotland, Ireland, France, Germany, Holland and England. His experience in these foreign countries led him to conclude that history provided an explanation for the conditions which he saw. According to him he saw the role of history in comparative education studies as that of illuminating present problems. He argued that many features of Prussian education could be useful in America despite the gap he saw between the political and social ideas of the two countries. Henry Barnard (1811-1900) - From America, he visited Europe and was impressed with the Prussian education ideas on education like his colleague Horrace Mann. He actually founded the "Connecticut common school journal" where he prepared and published many of his report and details on foreign systems of education, and between 1856-1881, he edited and published a journal entitled "The American journal of Education". He also presented statistical material from various education systems in his publications as well as historical and descriptive data of a comparative nature. Mathew Arnold (1822-1888) - From England, he advocated for an expansion of state activities in education because of what he had seen for himself on tours which took him several times to the continent of Europe. He recommended that the people of England should look at what the French and other countries on the continent of Europe were doing. According to him if this was done in England or a similar thing on the same principle then he said that the English system of education would be better off. For him he advocated for the borrowing of positive points of continental systems of education. However, he cautioned on the dangers of making comparisons based on analysis of inadequate statistical data. K.D. Ushinsky (1824-1870) - From Russia, he read works of European educational reformers and attempted to introduce many views into the schools with which he was associated. He also visited foreign countries in order to observe educational institutions and so conduct educational studies. He acknowledged national differences in systems of education. As a result he emphasized the non-transferability of national traditions as they affected education. However, he suggested the possible transfer of general schemes across national boundaries. Marc Antoine Julian de Paris (1775-1848) - He was born in 1775 in Paris and as he grew up, he distinguished himself as a scholar. He lived during the time of Napoleon and the Napoleonic wars. He actually became a diplomat in Napoleon's government. In his travel, he noticed the crisis created by the Napoleonic wars. He was concerned about deterioration of the society after wars. He was further disturbed by the social and political conditions of revolution in the early 19th century in Europe. He believed that the political and business life of France was based on oneself interest. He saw educations as a provider of solution to those problems and a positive science which could be used to improve the French society through systematic and rigorous approach of comparative analysis. In 1817, he published a book entitled "Plan and Preliminary views of work in Comparative Education". His plan gave a comprehensive scheme for a comparative study of foreign systems of education. The purpose of his visits to other countries was to use foreign examples, to

stimulate the French system of education. However he was concerned that the ability of individual school system to improve themselves was limited. He actually proposed the established of an Educational commission to collect and distribute information among member educational states. The collection of facts and observations arranged in analytical charts would permit both to be related and compared. The establishment of a National Institute of Education as a demonstration centre for the best teaching methods in Europe. As a result of his recommendations Jullien is said to have impacted greatly on the development of comparative education in the following ways; i) From his works "Comparative Educational Plans and Preliminary View on Comparative Education" comparative methodologies and analytical methods emerged. These have continued to influence the development and study of comparative education to date. ii) From the recommendation that a Bureau of Education be started in Europe, which came to being, this latter culminated into the establishment of UNESCO as part of the United Nations programmes. iii) From the recommendation of collection of facts and observations arranged in analytical charts, which enable one to relate and compare issues, educational borrowing became a method in comparative education. The aim was transplanting. This kind of borrowing involves cataloguing of data and lessons on borrowing. iv) Scholars such as Victor Cousin and others used his recommendations to study foreign education system with an intention to transplant. However their studies were more descriptive and not analytical. v) Following the industrial Revolution, came Imperialism and the Missionary movements. These took their education systems and planted them in the new lands. They were actually influenced by the work of Jullien. vi) Educational administrators, reformers, politician, and experts in various field no longer traveled for general curiosity, but they did this to specifically discover what was happening in education overseas in order to improve their own systems. vii) From his recommendations also, various national agencies were established for the collection and distribution of information about education, for example, the United States Office of Education (1867), the Mussee Pedagogigue in Paris (1879), and the Office of Special Inquiring and Reports in London (1895). viii) Also by the end of the 19th century most governments were increasingly funding and encouraging studies on foreign education system and as a result promoting the development of comparative education. Does the phase of selective Education Borrowing have relevance to present day theory and practice of education? A thorough look into this phase reveals that the accounts given were both "descriptive" and "utilitarian" in purpose. In education today, descriptive studies are considered valuable and relevant. Also all educational stake holders endeavor to make education useful and hence utilitarian. People still make visits to other countries or institutions for the purpose of observing what they may consider to be of value to them and bring it back to be used at the home situation. This further implies the importance of learning from experiences of others in order to improve institutions and even on own system of education.

Activity
Explain the major characteristics of this phase.

The Phase of Cultural Context or the Period of Philosophers (1900-1945)

This phase or period is also referred to as the period of cultural analysis. There was general uneasiness by many scholars about descriptive studies. During this period emphasis in comparative education shifted from

description to analysis. Scholars at this time were mainly interested in the relations between education and the society. In practice governments were encouraging and even sponsoring studies of foreign system of education and those who got involved in these studies became more concerned with problems, of comparison. It was observed that, it was not enough to only accumulate masses of information about education practices in other countries or simply borrow practices indiscriminately. The question of interpreting observed practices in context and of judging or predicting whether a particular arrangement or practice could be transplanted successfully in the home situation had to be dealt with critically. The desire to move from the descriptive and sometimes uncritical approach of the earlier phase to a more analytical approach can be said to be the major motivation and characteristic of this phase. During this phase there was an increasing trend towards analytical studies of interrelationships between education practice and the society. This became more generally recognized and accepted. There also grew a major concern to understand some of factors which helped to shape systems of education in different countries. At this time the problem for comparative educationist was no longer one of selective educational borrowing alone, but also one of predicting the possible success of educational transplant through a thorough knowledge of cultural contexts in both the donor and the recipient country. Many comparative educationists were concerned with accounting for the features of existing systems of education in terms of the forces or factors that shaped them to be the way they were. Some of the scholars who made their contributions during these phase include; Michael Saddler (1886-1943) - From England, he noted that "in studying foreign systems of education we should not forget that the things outside the school matter even more than the things inside the schools, and in most cases they actually govern and interpret the things inside the school''. He argued that education and society are closely related and that schools must be studied in the context of the society. He further stated that comparisons cannot be made on statistics only, but that the social, political, economic and other factors should be looked into as well. He pointed out that a national system of education is a living thing. It often lays special emphasis on those parts of training which the national character particularly needs. He argued that the value of studying foreign systems of educationist often results in our being better fitted to study and understand our own system. He cautioned on the dangers of piecemeal education borrowing while maintaining the importance of the schools cultural context. His main theoretical emphasis was that schools of society must be studied in the context of the society. He used sociological and historical data to explain trends in education. William Torrey Harris (1835-1909) - From America, he cautioned on the need for care in the use of statistics in education particularly statistics of foreign systems of education. He argued that each individual state puts its own stamp on its education system. According to him, it is not possible to borrow from another system as easily and as really as one might like to, because, what may work in one social situation may not be suitable for another. He further argued that comparative studies could reveal universal relations between education and society. This is because a nation's system of education is strongly affected by its culture and consequently embodies ideals reflecting that culture and in turn it gives a basis for comparative enquiry for those who are interested in the outcome of educational policies in different countries. To a great extent, he said that education does break down the caste system and also brings democracy in society. Isaac Kandel (1881-1965) - From America, at Teachers' college in Columbia University. He published many journals and wrote numerous books. In 1933, he published a book entitled "Studies in Comparative Education" which for a long time was a standard textbook in comparative education. In 1954 he revised and published the first work and entitled it "The New era in Education: A comparative study". His main concern was on the forces and factors which shaped and account for the existing system education. To him he sought to find out why events occurred, when and as they did occur, and which characteristics occurred in the place they did. He argued that every nation has a character, which is a result of its history and philosophy. This he emphasized it should be studied because the character of the school can only be understood through understanding the country's national character. He also argued that the school cannot be understood outside society. He also observed that broad social movements and political wars across national boundaries affect national systems differently. To him he did not believe in borrowing. Nicholas Hans (England) - He worked at the University of London, King's college and he published a work on "World Year book of Education" He became a regular contributor to the annual issues of the year book of education. In 1949, he published his book entitled "Comparative Education: A study of Educational Factors and Traditions". This book has also been used as a textbook of comparative education in many institutions of

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learning. Hans, like his contemporarily Saddler and Kandel was also more concerned with accounting for the existing systems of education in terms of the force and factors which shape these systems of education of different countries. With the works of Kandel and Hans courses in comparative education became part of teacher training programmes, in many colleges and universities around the world during this period. In fact those that taught comparative education tend to follow the format, content and style of textbooks authored by scholars during this period. As more scholars and individuals got interested in the development of comparative education some national and international agencies were also formed. For example, the International Bureau of Education (IBE) was established in Geneva in (1925). Some of the main functions of these agencies included; to study education problems of international concern and dissemination of education data world-wide. Does the phase of cultural context have relevance to the present day theory and practice of education? The phase emphasized the need to understand features in systems of education in terms of factors and forces which shape these educational systems. This process does help in establishing similarities and difference in systems of education and offers explanation as to why things are as they are. As such the motivation and activities of this phase have relevance to the theory and practice of education today.

Activity
Examine the challenges experienced by scholars during this period.

The Phase of Social Science Perspectives -1945 to present

This is the period that is presumed to have just started after the Second World War. It brought about a completely new scenario. In essence there has been an increase in interest and activity in comparative education. Two main aspects stand out in this phase. The first one is the establishment of new and influential national and international agencies that are involved in educational inquiry, planning and programme implementation. Also closely related are comparative educationists who see the field of comparative education as most productive in the future in terms of more involvement in international projects in education that are potentially of a reformative kind. The second aspect is the recognition and increased activity in the study and teaching of comparative education as a discipline in colleges, universities and establishment of comparative educational centers for research. With this new emphasis, there was a shift from descriptive accounts to a social science approach. In this period, concern for the analysis of the antecedent factors became less and more emphasis lay on analyzing the relationship of the contemporary issues in society and education. In terms of methodology the mode of analysis has shifted from historical to more quantitative and empirical, using techniques such as sociology, economics, philosophy and political science approaches. Comparative educationists emphasize the need to organize and interpret facts collected so that, the collected information or data can be translated into systems that offer explanation and theories regarding the collected data. As a result, comparative educationists have been pre-occupied with debates in an effort to identify the best method of conducting comparative education studies so as to yield the most valid data and information that can be used by all stake holders in terms of education practice and reforms. With the emergencies of a new scenario in the world order, a new generation of scholars also emerged. Faced with the problem of educational reforms, the scholars and educational administrators took a new look and interest in comparative education. This has also brought in various experts who prefer to use their own techniques as they deal with comparative education issues. Among them are those scholars who still use the historians' mode of analysis, philosophers who use philosophical techniques, sociologists who use sociological techniques and even the psychologists and economists have entered into the field of comparative education and are known to use their research techniques. This therefore calls for the use of inter -disciplinary method of inquiry where social scientists collaborate with comparative educationist to analyze common problems and examine various national solutions with the intention of increasing the theoretical insight that will promote

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education reform. Some of the scholars who have made substantial effort in the development of comparative education during this phase include; Vernon Mallinson (Britain) - He uses the concept of national character as a means of explaining the similarities and differences that exist in systems of education. In 1957, he published a book entitled "An Introduction to the Study of Comparative Education" where he explains the concept of "national character" and how it determines the kind of education that a country follows. In this concept of national character he shows how differences between education systems come about. He also published several other articles that mainly emphasized aspects, of the French, Belgian, German, Dutch and Italian education systems. Joseph A. Lauwerys (Britain) - He was a professor of comparative education at the University of London, Institute of Education (1947). He is known for his devotion and contribution to the continuation of the World year book of Education period in association with Columbia University, New York, This work contributed to the support of the much needed international data collection and expansion of comparative education courses. He actually stressed the need to collect reliable data on an international scale in orders to facilitate comparisons in education. George Z. F. Beredy (1920-1983) - An American professor of comparative education at the Teachers' College, Columbia University, New York. He edited many publications including "Comparative Education Review" and "Yearbook of Education". In 1964 he published a book entitled "Comparative Methods in Education." In this book he stated clearly his beliefs about the purposes that comparative education should seek to achieve and the methods it should follow. He is actually remembered for the "Systematic Area Studies Approach" in comparative education that he popularized as a scholar. Brian Holmes (England) - He was a professor of comparative education and worked closely with Hans and Lauwerys, at the University of London, Institute of Education. His major contribution was in the search for a comparative education methodology. He eventually popularized the "Problem Solving Approaches as a Methodology in comparative education research. He published two books one in 1965, entitled "Problems in Education: A comparative Approach" and the second one in 1981, entitled "Comparative Education: Some consideration of Methods". Both books reflect his major interest in the methodology of comparative education and are major textbooks used by students of comparative education even today. Edmond J. King (England) - He was a professor of Education, at the University of London, King's college. He inherited the legacy of Nicholas Hans who was also at the King's College. He wrote several books including "Other schools and ours" (1958) and "Comparative Studies and Educational Decision" (1968). He was the general editor of the Pergamon press "Society and school Progress" series which covered a number of countries by way of area studies. He distinguished between what was appropriate for students who were beginners in the field of comparative education and those who already had some background in comparative education, and those who were engaged in research work. Harold Noah form Columbia University and Max Eckstein from the City University of New York. They advocated for methods of comparative education which they offered to be characterized by systematic, controlled, empirical and where possible apply quantitative investigations. They co-authored two books i.e. "Towards science of comparative Education'' (1969) and "Scientific Investigations in Comparative Education'' (1969), which was a collection of readings that illustrated their general approach. These works also contributed to the refinement of methodology in comparative education. Institutions of higher learning also contributed to the development of comparative education during this phase. Some of the renown universalities that established comparative education studies included among others, London, Columbia, Berlin, Chicago, Syracuse, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Hamburg, Nashville, Reading and Salzburg. In African, Asia and Latin America, many universities have also established comparative education centers and they even teach it as an academic discipline today. Other players to the development of comparative education during this phase include; International, regional and national agencies, for example, the International Bureau of Education, UNESCO, UNICEF among others. Their main functions include, collecting analyzing and disseminating educational documentation and information. These are also involved in undertaking surveys and project studies in the field of comparative Education. A number of Education Societies have also been formed by individuals, interested in the field of

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comparative education. Their main aims include; initiating and coordinating researched and also to co-operate with other persons, and organizations interested in international and comparative studies. Some of the comparative education societies that were established include comparative education society New York (1958). British and German sections of the society were also established. Canada, Korea, Japan and Africa have also established similar comparative education societies. All these societies are affiliated to the World Council of Comparative Societies. Besides the contribution of individual, and educations organizations to the development of comparative education during this phase, this phase was and is also marked by very many characteristics which include;

An explosion of knowledge - the challenge of this is how this knowledge ought to be disseminated. This would imply that teachers have to acquire new roles. Drive for knowledge world wide - a common phenomenon where everybody everywhere wants education both in the developed and developing world. Drive for liberty through liberation struggles both political and ideological. Education has been at the centre of these struggles. This has also witnessed the emergence of education for the masses, for political, economic, cultural and intellectual liberalization. Rapid urbanization and Industrialization which has greatly impacted on education. Population explosion - this has led to population related problems. For example, in Kenya over 50% of the population is of school-going age. This means that their education and upkeep has to be catered for by a very small working population. Increasing concern for quality education. There has been need to emphasis on education that is relevant to the life and needs of the students and the society they are to serve. This has created a lot of interest in education worldwide. Comparative educationists have been called upon by international agencies to help solve these myriad educational challenges. Comparative education as an academic discipline has become part f the development of specialized interdisciplinary fields of study that emerged with the expansion of graduate education in North America, Europe, Asia, and Africa among others. The world power shifts. After the two world wars, there was an accelerated shift of world power from the Great Britain to the U.S.A. and U.S.SR. Communism and Capitalism took centre stage and the world was divided accordingly. This had a big effect on national systems of education. As time went by the U.S.A assuming centre place in world politics, there has been great need for American presence in and understanding of the cultures and education of other countries. In this regard many universities have established departments of comparative education. With the collapse of communism in the mid 1980s the power structure in the world changed. The new world order has the U.S.A. in a steering position with its loyal lieutenants, i.e. IMF and World Bank. Their policies have made significant impacts in education the world over. For example the Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPS) led to the freezing of employment of teachers in Kenya in 1998 among other impacts. Arising from the cold war there was a great concern for scientific and technological development especially after the launch of the Sputnik in 1957 by Russia. This concern led to massive funding of research in science education. The third world countries also experienced increased funding and as such comparative educationists were in the centre of these endeavors. In this regard many agencies such as the Ford Foundation, Carnegie foundation and many others funded research and development of comparative education as part of a wider U.S.A. foreign policy. A major issue on methodology in comparative education emerged and researchers and scholars like Beredy, Holmes and Arnold Noah were engaged in active debate on this. Today comparative education is taught in many universities at both undergraduate and graduate levels. There are also many publications i.e. books, journals and magazines on comparative education. This has been propagated by the numerous national, regional and international comparative education societies and associations that bring together scholars in comparative education.

Does the phase of social science perspective have any relevance to present-day theory and practice in education?

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This phase has been a major provider of information, data and advice in the process of reconstruction for peace through education. Comparative educationists have also been motivated to work with personnel in systems of education and international organizations with the view of providing information and other relevant data and advice as may be required. As such comparative educationists have been giving sound advice to various states and international societies for educational reforms.

Chapter Review
Having read the chapter please answer the following questions; i) Name the four phases in the development of comparative education. ii) Describe the background conditions that led to the development of each phase. iii) Describe the motivation and contributions of individuals in each of the four phases. iv) Analyze the relevance of each of the four phases to the theory and practice of education today.

Chapter Three: METHODOLOGICAL APPROACHES IN COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

Objectives
After you have read this chapter, you should be able to; i) State and explain the various methodological approaches used in the study of comparative education ii) Explain how educational reforms can be instituted using either of these methodologies. iii) Apply the various methodologies in solving educational problems faced by educational institutions.

Intoduction
There are a number of methodological approaches used by scholars in their approach to the study of comparative education. It is important to note that methodology in comparative education, as in other educational disciplines, is determined by the purpose of the study. Like other social sciences, comparative education has been studied at different times of its development with different methodological approaches. A close look at the various developmental phases reveal that, each phase has produced a different type of work, that mainly depend on the dominant views and motives for comparative education study. Starting with the simple narratives of education abroad during the phase of Travelers Tales, the methodological approaches of comparative education have progressively evolved into the current application of the sophisticated and complex methods of social sciences, which in most cases are empirically based. With a large clientele arising from its multi-disciplinary nature, comparative education scholars have not been able to agree on a single, universally accepted method of study. This view has resulted in a multiplicity of debates and opinions of what method is best suitable for use. In this regard therefore, we note that methodological approaches used in comparative education are divided into two broad categories, namely traditional approach and modern approach. Under the traditional approach we have the descriptive/statistical method and the historical approach. Under the modern approach we have sociological, analytical and synthetic approaches. We now look at each method independently:

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The statistical/ Quantitative method

This method emphasized the collection, interpretation, verification and comparison of data in education by using statistical/Quantitative analytical charts. The main aim was to facilitate borrowing of useful information or lessons from foreign countries. In this method various type of educational data are collected about a country. For example, the data about the number of students at a certain stage of education, expenditure on them, the percentage of passes and failures at various stages of education, expenses on teachers' salaries, school building and other items are all collected and the same compared with identical data of another country. Thus, the progress or decline of education in any country is statistically analyzed. Although the method is still in use today, it is faced with certain shortcomings worth mentioning such as:-

The unreliability of statistical data, particularly the inaccuracy of local record, which are compiled by officials who may exaggerate figures in order to hide any shortcomings. Generally, due care is not taken in the collection of data. Consequently, many of them are false. There is also the imprecision of certain non-standardized term, when applied in different national context. In many cases, the terms used do not connote the same sense. Therefore their statistical analysis is falsified. There is also the problem of feasibility of data interpretation without due regard to social influences and values and how they affect education. This means, through the statistical method, we cannot understand the educational characteristics that could be as a result of social, cultural, economic, political, and religions situations of a country.

The verification of data in international studies is not always possible due to cost and travel constraints. Evidently the use of the statistical method is very limited.

Limitations of this approach

Descriptive Method
This method was used in the 19th century because the main purpose then in comparative education was to incorporate the good points of another country. This approach therefore called for a detailed description of educational affairs of another country. So many comparative educationists presented detailed descriptive accounts of the educational systems of the countries they visited. Among them were Marc Antoinne Jullien de Paris, Victor cousin, Horace Man, Henry Bernard and Mathew Arnold. John Griscom of U.S.A (1918-19) visited Great Britain, France, and Holland, Switzerland and Italy and wrote a book entitled "A year in Europe'', he described their educational systems in detail. From his report, an attempt was made in U.S.A to incorporate some of the admirable characteristics of the educational system contained in his book. Victor cousin of France in (1831) published a report on the education system of France. Some of the educational characteristics of Prussia that he described in his report were emulated in Great Britain and France. However, he did not make a comparative study of educational systems of other countries in his report. This meant that his report could only be evaluated by only persons who had a good knowledge of educational systems of other countries. Mathew Arnold of Great Britain and Horace Man of U.S.A also did some work in the area of descriptive method approach. M. Arnold studied the educational system of France and Germany and published a report about France in 1859 and about Germany in 1865. In his description, he drew the attention of his readers to those factors which distinguish the educational system of one land from the other. Arnold's method was also followed by Sir Michael Sadder and Paul Monroe. From their views, the study of comparative education became better organized.

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Horace Man visited Germany, Ireland, Great Britain, France and Holland. In 1843, he published a report on the educational systems of these countries. He pointed out the special characteristics of the educational systems that he had studied and specifically pointed out the specific elements that should be imitated by others. He also paid attention to the evaluation of the educational characteristics and their utilities. As a result of his work, later educationist also paid attention to the evaluation and utilities of characteristics of educational systems of other countries. Henry Bernard published thirty one volumes of "The American Journal of Education" between 1856-1881. In these volumes, he described the educational systems of the various states of U.S.A. and many other foreign countries. He interpreted the historical background of each educational system that he described. Michael Sadder on his part emphasized the point that we should study all those national factors, which influence the education system of a country and are responsible for its development and decline. To him, he considered the study of comparative education as useful for one to understand his own system of education. Thus, we can argue here that, in the 19th century only those persons who were able to understand comparative education are those who had a good knowledge of educational systems of their own country. These few example, are accounts, that show the descriptive method of comparative education and as a method, and was advocated for by those educationists who were interested in promoting and popularize the study of comparative education.

Limiations of this approach

Critically analyze the limitations in this approach.

The Historical Method Approach:

In this approach we study the modern educational problems. The method reveals the basis on which the modern education system is based. Knowledge gained at this point may help us in eliminating undesirable elements in the system and further strengthening of the desirable ones. It is important to note that, we employ historical method not only to know the past in order do to understand the present better, but so that we may improve the future by hinting at those factors which may be more useful. In this approach we also try to understand all those geographical, social, racial, political, religious and linguistic factors which influence the educational system of a country. Scholars such as Nicholas Hans, Isaac Kandel, Schneider and Michael Sadler are known for popularizing this method. They basically agreed that selective cultural borrowing was possible and also emphasized that educational policies and practices have both cause and effect which is found in each society's unique historical experience, that Horace man called the national character. Most of these scholars suggested the development of a science of comparative education in which one could use to discover the universal causes or determinants of educational practices and also to establish terms of education. Although the scholars who advocated for this approach did not offer a definite procedure to be followed, it is generally agreed that three things, stand out;

One should study each national system separately in its historical context, taking note of differences in terminologies and methods of collecting and classifying data. One should also analyze the forces, and factors responsible for the noted differences that are grouped into four categories i.e. natural, religious, social- economic and political. One should also adopt only those ideas and practices that best approximate and can be adapted to the recipient country's historical context.

This approach however is faced by the following short comings;

The data on which we base one study may not be reliable because in the collection of the same, due care is often not observed. As such the conclusions derived may not be very useful. One should therefore keep in mind that historical materials about education systems of various countries are generally not very reliable. This in turn limits the utility of historical data. Hence it suggests the need for more research do make the data more reliable.

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The other shortcoming is that, historians are generally not impartial in their accounts. In most cases they want to conceal undesirable elements about the history of their own country and look on facts relating to other countries with some perceived prejudice. In this scenario the truth is not known. Consequently we cannot reach the right conclusions using this approach. The third limitation of this approach is that, the past is unduly emphasized. Consequently the study of comparative education can be said to be unbalanced.

Activity
How would you use this approach in tackling educational problems in your country?

The Analytical Method Approach

This approach brings together the relationship that exists between the educational system of a country and its social, political and economical conditions. In any comparative study we have to use analysis. This is because through analysis one can separate the various elements and understand the importance of each independently. The analytical method is considered useful only when the social and educational organizations are compared. The analytical method therefore follows the four main aspects of analysis. i) Collect Educational Data: -This is where all educational information is gathered through descriptive and statistical methods and this forms the basis for the analytical method. ii) Interpretation of related data: - This involves interpreting social, political, economic and historical data which is necessary in order to understand similarities and differences found in the educational systems of various countries. iii) Determining standard for comparison: -In order for us to compare the educational systems fairly, we need to do so by having a certain standard. This standard will help us compare the similarities and differences of the various educational systems. The analytical method often formulates these standards. For example, the political philosophy, aims of education and the method of control of education are good examples of standards, for comparison. It is on the basis of these standards that one can analyze and understand the similarities and differences of the various educational systems of various countries. On the basis of these standards, for example, one can say that since there is a difference between the political philosophies of Kenya and Tanzania, then, we find differences in their educational systems iv) Interpretation and conclusion; -From the above three aspects of analysis, we are able to interpret the collected data and make certain conclusions on the basis of comparison of the various educational systems of various countries. However, the analytical method approach is also faced with the following two limitations; i) This method does not pay adequate attention to the totality of the educational systems. ii)The method is also prone to ignoring the inherent similarity, which exists in educational systems in spite of the differences in educational systems of the various countries.

Challenges of this approach

How would you address the challenges in this approach?

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The Synthesis Method Approach

This method has been largely advocated for by Edmond King a renowned comparative educationist in his look "World Perspective in Education''. In this approach, the study of comparative education from an international point of view is considered to be of great significance. In this approach the problems of education are considered and studied on an international frame. This is evidenced by the fact that, when we study the problems of education in various countries, we find some universal truths in their inherent differences the main reason being that, there is much similarities in the needs and aspirations of the people of the globe. For example the United Nations organization, like UNESCO has contributed much towards the consciousness of this similarity. It is important to note that, the method of synthesis has not been fully developed, since it is at its infancy stage and comparative educationists need to develop it further. However an attempt to use it as a comparative study approach is still significant in comparative education. The Scientific Method Approach The scientific method approach emerged in the current phase of the development of comparative education. Its time frame dates, back from 1960s. However during this period intense methodological debate centered on the following:

The feasibility of relying on a particular method as opposed to a multi-dimensional approach. The feasibility of the nation- state as the dominant research framework as opposed to intra-national, regional, continental and world systems analyses. The over reliance on quantitative (statistical) as opposed to qualitative and descriptive research, and finally The range of research concerns that have traditionally dominated studies in comparative education.

The results of the methodological debate culminated in new approaches to the study of comparative education. Some of the scholars have engaged in developing new approaches to comparative education study, while bearing in mind the dynamic nature of the discipline. In fact, some scholars have demanded and attempted to develop a science of comparative education that would finally place comparative education in the family of social sciences and at the same time maintain its distinctive position from them. As such, the methods considered to be scientific that have seen developed, differ in their procedures and focus. Some of these methods include; The Systematic Area Studies Method Approach; This method was developed and popularized by G.Z.F. Beredy in his book "Comparative Method in Education "(1964). He used the interdisciplinary approach to systematically survey and analyzes education in different countries. The aim is to understand differences and similarities before borrowing and making any predictions. He argues that, since the study has to make sense out of similarities and differences among different educational systems, it is possible to seek assistance from other fields of study such as History, Sociology and Philosophy. In fact educational facts are so enmeshed in a matrix of other social sciences that comparative education cannot be studied in isolation. According to Beredy, the following steps are to be followed; i) Description of aspects of Education; - This involves identification of the problem by clearly describing the problem from eye witness accounts, observations or even reading. ii) Interpretation and explanation using the interdisciplinary approach; This involves giving explanation of the data collected, of the way things are in each country. Some of the reasons could be historical, social, cultural or religious.

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iii) Juxtaposition or classification of data; - This involves putting the information into groups in categories of contrasting and comparable features. In this way similarities and differences can be easily and clearly seen. iv) Comparison; - This involves comparing features in one system with those of another system. This helps in the formulation of possible hypotheses. v) Conclusions and generalization; -This involves testing of the hypotheses generated, drawing of valid conclusions and recommendations while focusing on the causes of similarities and differences. The Problem Solving Method Approach. This method was developed and popularized by Brian Holmes in (1964) in his look entitled "Problems in Education: A comparative Approach". He borrowed the ideas of John Dewey ( a famous American Educator) based on the five stages of reflective or critical thinking which Brian applied to the study of comparative education to solve educational problems. The stages are; i) Problem Identification ii) Problem Analysis iii) Proposed problem solutions iv) Specification of the context - this involves looking at the factors, and conditions that are likely to influence the outcomes of the proposed solution; such as, conservative mental states like traditions, morals and beliefs. Also it involves prediction of anticipated results - i.e. making informed guesses about expected outcomes. v) Comparison and conclusion; - This involves comparing the predicted outcomes (based on the proposed policy solutions) with the actual observable practices. It is more of an evaluation stage (i.e. have things worked out as anticipated?). It also involves making recommendations and conclusions from the observations, and then new lines of action are made. According to Brian Holmes, he argued that, in the face of a problematic situation, possible solution may spring to mind. On further reflection the problem is better formulated. This further directs the solution to a certain kind of data out of which emerge refined possible solutions, which are then put forward as a hypotheses, which are then tested one after the other and a solution is arrived at. The Scientific Method Approach This method was developed and population by Harold Noah and Marc Eckstein in 1960, when they wrote a book entitled "Toward, a Science of Comparative Education". In this approach, they recommended the following procedure; i) Problem identification and review of literature ii) Definitions of central concepts, terms and indicators iii) Selection/sampling of units of study or cases o be studied iv) Data collection v) Data Analysis and manipulation vi) Interpretation of data -finding & results

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vii) Drawing of conclusions and recommendations As already mentioned earlier, comparative education uses different methodological approaches in its study. For example, some of the scholars in the 1980s such as Robert Arnove, Edmond King and Philip Altbach also wrote on methodology in comparative education. To them they questioned some of the assumptions on which the scientific methods developed earlier were based. However, instead of recommending any particular method for comparative education study, they proposed a combination of methods approach (an eclectic). To them, they argued that the method to be used should largely be determined by the purpose and design of each study. They were indeed skeptical about the possibility of developing an exact science that would allow where possible accurate predictions as had been suggest by the scholars of the scientific method approach (i.e. Noah and Eckstein). In this regard, it is important to note that methodological debate continues to date, which is a sign of a continued evolving and development of a dynamic discipline that deals with the equally ever-changing and complex field of education i.e. study of comparative education discipline.

Comparing the synthesis apprach

Compare and contrast the Scientific Method Approach and the Problem Solving Method Approach.

Chapter Review
Chapter Review
i) Identify the various methodological study approaches used in comparative education and describe the main features of each of the methods identified. ii) Identify an educational problem in your country and show how you would use any of the methods discussed to carry out a comparative study to solve it. iii) Critically discuss the merits and demerits of the problem solving approach as advocated for by Brian Holmes. iv) Assess the practicability of a multi-dimensional approach in the study of comparative education.

Chapter Four: Challenges facing the Study of Comparative Education

Objectives
After you have read this chapter, you should be able to; i) Identify and explain the major challenges facing the study of comparative education in teacher education today. ii) Suggest possible solutions on how to overcome these challenges.

Introduction As it is with all other disciplines of study, comparative education is also faced with some challenges in the process of studying it both to the learner and the teacher. These challenges are worth considering exposing the learner to them and allowing the learner to have an opportunity to suggest possible solutions, to these challenges. It is worth noting that the challenges are not exhaustive in themselves, taking into account the

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dynamics of the discipline at each and every stage. We therefore look at some of the predominant challenges to the study of comparative education. i) Challenge of Definition; The first challenge relate to the definition of comparative education as an area of study. As noted earlier various scholars define comparative education differently depending on their orientation. One big challenge among the scholars in relation to defining comparative education has been whether it should be defined by its content or method. Indeed to date scholars are still divided on whether comparative education is a field of study or just a method of researching on educational issues. In many universities in the developing world, the subject is seen just as a subset of history of education or sociology of education and is often taught by educational historians or sociologists. However the University of Nairobi has endeavored to train comparative educationist of which the author of this book is the first graduate. Other students are currently studying comparative education at the post graduate level and with time there will be scholars of comparative education trained in Africa. It is worth noting that, today many universities in Africa are offering comparative education as a core unit in graduate teacher education training as recognition of the fact that comparative education is a discipline in its own right, whether defined from the point of view of its content or its method. ii) Challenge of Comparability Most issues in comparative education are linked to the social, cultural, political, and economic realities of particular countries. These are further related to issues like equal opportunity, curriculum relevance among other issues which are all interpreted differently in different cultures and educational systems. In consideration of these different interpretations it becomes tricky and sometimes misleading affair to make comparisons of educational system and issues across national boundaries. For an effective comparison to be made, it calls for an understanding of all the parameters to be considered in comparison to have where possible one meaning and interpretation. This is only possible if one understands the various cultural and social contexts of the educational system. iii) The challenge related to Method. Over the years, some of the analytical tools used in the study of comparative education have been in most cases considered to be primitive as compared with the tools currently being used in other social inquires. For example, the use of questionnaires sent through post office prove to be unsatisfactory in that unreliable data is likely to be provided because of different interpretation given do different levels of education and the understanding of the purpose for which the data are collected. In other instance some of the social inquiries are difficult to use because of time and expanses involved. Also in comparative education different issues require unique methods to address them. As is with other social sciences, each study will require a specific method of study and as such comparative education faces the challenge of choice of method of approach in addressing educational issues and process being studied. A scholar in comparative education has a wide variety of methods from which to choose from and making the right choice often proves to be a big challenge in the study of comparative education. iv) Challenge related to Subjectivity of Analysis. In many studies, there is a human tendency to view issues with ones social background. Since we all come from various social backgrounds, some from the primitive, conservative and sometimes rigid, while others come from the modern, open minded and move receptive to changes. The social background brings with itself divergent views that are of comparative nature. As such, when people are not natives of the countries where the study is being taken, they tend to have biases and this poses challenges in comparative education since it results in subjectivity of analysis of the educational issues. All studies ought to be objective rather than subjective for that is the essence of every study even in comparative education.

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v) Challenge related to Culture and Language. Quite often than not, ones social background is greatly influenced by ones culture and language. Every country or regional of the world has its own culture and language. These in themselves pose as challenges in comparative education study since there is always a need for fresh studies as one moves from one cultural language group to another. In order for one to have a very good understanding of the issue of study, it will require him or her to employ a thorough examination of the terminology to be employed and used in the study. This is because any terminology used need to be clear to make the study meaningful and useful to the stake holders. Any ambiguity of terminologies may render the study useless and meaningless. Clarity of terminologies in terms of culture and language is of uttermost importance in comparative education studies. (vi) Challenge related to the Dynamic Character of Education. The character of education is often said to be dynamic because of the parameters that influence it. For example, it is impossible to find two different communities or societies or even countries which are at the same stage of development. The difference in stages of development of various countries of the world makes it almost impossible to compare two different systems of education. In regard to the time aspect, it is sometimes difficult to access the collected data on good time and this result in outdated data that is collected even before comparisons can be made. New discoveries are also made on daily basis and this influence the type of education offered in different parts of the world. In the so called first world or developed countries, new knowledge that is discovered is disseminated easily and quickly because of the development in technology. While in the so called third world or the developing countries they tend to lag behind in terms of embracing new knowledge. All these and others which influence the character of education, remains as a challenge in comparative education. (vii) The Challenge of National Character Just as education has its own character, so does each country have its own national character. In education theory and practice, we cannot understand the education system of a country without sufficient knowledge of the physical and social context, within which the educational system operates. The character of a nation remains a challenge to comparative education because it influences the educational aims and content of that particular system. Many studies in many countries show that the national character is determined to a large extent by both physical and social environment. According to Michael Sadler a renown comparative education scholar said that "things outside the school often influences things inside the school''. When he talks of things outside the school system he has in mind, geographical, social-economic, historical, religion, technological and cultural environment. These aspects are the ones which shape the national character. As issues, they become important for our understanding of our educational system because they are what determine the national character which in turn influence or determine the education cum school system of country. (viii) The challenge of Cost and Time. Comparative studies by and large require substantial amounts of money and more real time. In conducting comparative studies, one requires relevant equipment, traveling, and assembling data from foreign sources. Obtaining the relevant equipment as well as traveling costs to collect reliable first hand data often prove to be enormous. This is why most comparative studies are done either through correspondence or through documentary analysis. This also is not assumed to be cheap. Because of these challenges and others, most universities and especially in developing countries find it increasingly difficult to allocate adequate funds for comparative research. This therefore remains a big challenge to scholars in comparative education.

Chapter Review
Please attempt the following questions; i) Identify the challenges discussed above that affect the study of comparative education in your own country. ii) What suggestions would you give to overcome these challenges?

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Section Two: NATIONAL SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION

In this section the following chapters will be considered; Chapter Five: Factors that Shape National Systems of Education. Chapter Six: Education in Kenya Chapter Seven: Education in U.S.A. Chapter Eight:Education in Germany Chapter Nine:Education in Cuba Chapter Ten:Education Brazil Chapter Eleven: Education in Tanzania. Chapter Twelve:Education in Uganda Chapter Thirteen:Education in Burundi Chapter Fourteen:Education South Africa Chapter Fifteen: Education in Japan Chapter Sixteen: Education in Malaysia
Chapter Five: FACTORS INFLUENCING NATIONAL SYASTEMS OF EDUCATION
Objectives
After you have read this chapter you should be able to; i) Identify the factors that influence National Systems of Education. ii) Analyze the factors that influence National System of Education. iii) Evaluate how these factors impact on the educational system of your country.

Introduction

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A national system of education is often defined from the perspective of formal education system. This includes institutionalized formal education from early childhood education, primary education, secondary education, tertiary education and university education. The informal and non-formal education subsets are often assumed to be part of the formal education and if not ignored altogether, they are given little attention. However, it is important the national educational system should be wholly inclusive of all the subsets of the educational system, that is, formal, informal and non-formal education. In light of this simple understanding of a national system of education, it is important to note that, behind every system of education, there are factors or features that determine or influence and hence shape each one of the system. However, the national character of a given system of education is never determined by one factor, but rather a combination and interweaving of several factors. Some factors are dominant in one particular system while in another system, they would be less dominant. Consequently national factors of a country are closely related with nationalism and national system of education. As such, in the study of comparative education we should study the factors which make the education of a country national. These factors include geographical, economic, social, cultural, historical, religions, political, language and technological. In this chapter we shall study some such factors; 1) Geographical Factors. The geography of any particular place is often natural, which means that it is undefined by man. Man in this respect ought to behave in accordance with the geography and nature in particular. In this regard the education system cum school system is influenced by the geography of the particular region. By and large the geography of a particular area dictates the type of building and equipment, means and methods of transporting children to school, school going age of pupils among others. However, there are three major geographical aspects that influence the educational system directly. These are, climatic conditions, population distribution and land configuration. In regard to climatic conditions they influence the system of education in terms of ,content of education depend on the continental climate, for example, training of doctors in the tropics is likely to emphasize more on tropical disease like malaria. Extreme low temperatures in Continental Europe, affects accessibility to school by young children. Temperatures also affect the time at which schools can reasonably begin in the morning and when they end. In Norway, for example, the sun does not rise during winter until ten o'clock in the morning and often temperatures fall to negative 20 degrees. Thus in the Scandinavian countries there are no infant schools or early childhood education departments in some schools because of extreme temperatures. Climatic conditions also influence the education system in relation to time of vacations. In North America and many countries in Europe take school vacations during cold winter and others during hot summer. In hot climatic conditions especially experienced in arid and semi-arid areas, learning often takes place during morning hours when it is cool. When it is hot in the afternoon very little learning takes place due to excessive heat. In regard to population distribution, which is often as a result of geographical influence also affects the educational system. Generally worldwide, population is either concentrated in the urban centers, or scattered in the country side. For example Australia has two systems of education, that is, one for the urban areas and the other for rural areas. In the urban areas there are well-equipped schools with adequately qualified teachers and administrative personnel. While in the rural areas, schools are small with one teacher for ten up to forty students. This is because farms are far from the nearest schools and daily attendance is difficult. Therefore the central government is responsible for their administration and financing. The government also provides the means and organization of correspondence, tuition and traveling teachers. As such most students receive education through correspondence and occasional visits by the traveling education inspectors. In regard to land configuration, this also influences the education system in terms of architectural structure of farm houses, school buildings, village location and also the whole way of life and thinking of people because of the rigours of the climate, in some cases, because of closeness of family ties, boarding schools for children are non-existence, except for the few who come from far and inaccessible places on daily basis. By and large land configuration determines settlement and location of schools. 2) Economic Factors.

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The type of education largely depends on the economic strength of any country. Also the economic factor determines the content and method of an education system. It is important to note that formal education is often possible where production exceeds consumption. In indigenous traditional education people were trained depending on the economic conditions and needs of the community. From an economic perspective, expenditure on education refers to the amount or percentage of national revenue spent on education by both individuals and the government. If the economic condition is poor, education becomes backward in many aspects while if the economy of a country is strong, then educational aims and the curriculum are given a special direction for making the country prosperous. For example, in the USA and Japan, education system is patterned so as to make the individual graduate, strong and capable enough to stand on his or her own feet after having received education. While in India, college and university graduate do not know where to go after completing their education and most of the students continue to stay on in the university as long as they can so that one can post pone for a few years the problem of the educated - unemployed. Another economic influence on education is that, the poorer classes in communities tend to be content with minimum education for their children, and the richer classes are known to be able to keep their children longest at school because they can afford to meet the costs. In a subsistence economy, that is, one is which people are just able to make ends meet, educational systems tend to be informal occurring on the job. On the contrary, where there are enough grants in systems of education, minimum requirements are met and thus the quality of education is often high. For example, Britain, France, Japan and the USA among other strong economy countries, they provide enough grants that are allocated to their systems of education; actually they have enough funds to support all educational programmes in their education systems. Unlike the case of developing countries, where funds are very scarce, which affects even payment of teachers salaries, essential resource materials such as textbooks are not adequate and in some cases not even available. As such, this greatly affects the nature of the systems of education in terms of the content and methods in learning institutions and in essence the whole system of education. In this regard, the growth of the capacities of individual citizens and national development is of great importance. In fact, the education system should be such that, it provides opportunities for the maximum development of each citizen. The aim here is to ensure that the wealth of the nation is not concentrated in the hands of a few capitalists who manage to attain some level of education. It is actually by developing individuals that the overall growth of the nation can be guaranteed. At the same time, there should be no-class distinction in the planning of education that should be permitted, because this results in neglect of the education of other more capable citizens. If this happens it often results in social disparities and in the long run weakens the nation. Proper planning of the education system also calls for the establishment of a proper national character, which if it lacks, then the necessary leadership and co-operation of the people will also be lacking. Lack of a proper national character, means that the national education system will not be able to realize its objectives. Consequently, with good leadership and people's cooperation, there is much that can be achieved even when adequate economic resources are wanting. Thus, there is evidence to show that there is a very close relationship between economic security and the national system of education of any country. 3) The Social and Cultural Factor. Schools at large often and closely reflect the social patterns prevailing in a particular country. As such the education system is usually seen as a social factor which must reflect the ethos of the people that it serves. In this regard, it is the prime aim of education to ensure cultural continuity through fostering the growth and development of national characteristics that often act as stabilizing forces. In its simplest definition a culture of a society is the total way of life of the society. Every society consist of human beings and in whatever state they find themselves they always have some kind of educational system. This form of education of the society will always strive to perpetuate and protect its traditions and aspirations. As such a close study and analysis of each education system will always reveal the cultural concept and pattern of the community in question. Also the social patterns of the people in any particular community or country are reflected in its system of education. It is important to realize that the culture of the people often changes at a slow pace. In each culture, there are certain values which are not affected by time and place, for example, faith in God, love for truth and nonviolence and the ideal of universal motherhood and justice are the permanent values of many cultures of the world. However, radical reforms in a society may be slowed down or blocked at the level of implementation because of the cultural lag. In African the various projects for educational reform does indicate that there has

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been basic cultural charges in the life of a people from the colonial period into the post independence period. In many countries of the world today, changes have occurred in the attitude of the youngsters towards their elders, for example students do not show due respect to their teacher as students did some twenty five or thirty years ago. The teachers also now care more for the increments, in their salaries and other allowances then for teaching. In many meetings of teachers, there is more talk of groupism, backbiting and salaries, than of students' welfare. In some circles, guardians and parents also do not respect teachers as they did before. All these and others are a clear indication that the relations between parents and children, sisters and brothers, husband and wife, masters and servants and between many other units of society have undergone great changes. Thus, we have begun to discard many old mores and modes and are adopting more liberal attitudes. As such time and place have been changing many elements of culture and as a result it is being reflected in the education system in various ways. Another view of cultural and social change is in the reshaping of the educational machinery to make for equality of educational opportunity for all. This has led to the widening of the school curriculum and increased emphasis on the importance of the right kind of technical educational for the new technological age. As a result, the old dichotomy between a liberal and a technical education is slowly broken down and the social distinctions which existed mainly because of that divide have become of no consequence and has been minimized with time. In this regard therefore, it is necessary to develop love for one's own culture through the education system because it strengthens nationalism. In order to make the country strong and prosperous, the spirit of nationalism must be nurtured. In each country there are various types of communities, classes, castes, and interests and due to the lack of national feelings many people ignore national interests. In many cases minorities are suspicious about the majority and in certain contexts this may be true of the majority as well. This makes it necessary to inculcate love for the country's culture and especially through the adoption of a national system of education. 4) The Historical Factor. Each country of the world has its own history that shapes the nations aims, aspirations, activities and destiny. This is often reflected through the educational system. Colonialism has been an important historical factor that can be said to have shaped the education system of many African countries and others in the world. For example, the Berlin conference in 1815 was dabbed the scramble for Africa. At this conference the European powers shared African states like a cake. This latter meant that; the colonies had to take up much of what was in their colonial masters homeland and to date features in education of these former colonial master are reflected in their former colonies. The missionary factor also contributed a great deal in shaping the systems of education in most African countries. Christian missionaries in particular from Britain, France, Holland, Germany, Switzerland, and USA among others, have largely influenced the development of the education system in Africa. In this regard, the present systems of education in many countries of Africa, Asia, North and South America are actual products of past colonial influence. As such, most of these countries in their present endeavors in education represent in most cases, heroic efforts of their colonial heritage. Another historical element is manifest between periods in history when attempts were made to try and bring together groups within close geographical boundaries, for example, East Africa, South Africa, West Africa and North Africa. A close look at these groups reflects features in their systems of education that tend to have similarities. While on the other hand, historically there have been struggles for the creation of national states, with each state wanting to have its own unique national identity. The national factors of these countries often show differences that are reflected in their education system. As such, similarities and differences of education systems all over the world have a history behind them. 5. Political Factor The political philosophy which controls the government of a country often has its inevitable impact on education. The political factor dictates the kind of administration the system of education will have. They also underlie the features in education system and the functioning of the same. For example, the fundamental ideas of socialism as a political philosophy were about the exploitation of labour by capital and this resulted in class mass. As a political philosophy, socialism recognizes property as the basis of the economic structure of the

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state which results in the concentration of civil and legal power in the hands of the property owning class. Socialism advocates for the nationalization of the means of production; where owners of means of production do not work and workers who produce do not own anything. A change of such a social order can only be achieved with reform in education. This would be through a state mechanism with full control of education and the curriculum and this means that the citizens must be trained by the state, for the state and in state institutions. In such cases, the details of the curriculum are often decided by the state authorities and involve functional training of citizens. The curriculum may also involve scientific training for social utilization purposes. Good examples of countries that have introduced a socialist system of education are Mexico, Bulgaria and Cuba. The common features of their education system include monopoly of the state control on education, secularism, physical and military training political indoctrination in and out of school and also more emphasis on science subjects. In these states, freedom of individuals and the idea of tolerance are not accepted. Unlike these countries, France has a centralized system of education based on its political philosophy. In France, everything to do with education is controlled from the centre (metropole) which is the central government. In the case of USA and Japan, their education systems are highly decentralized, and are often based on the democratic influence and the capitalistic political philosophy of these countries. There is also a close relationship between the national character and the national system of education. For example, the national character of USA is democratic as such its education system is democratic in most of its aspects. Nationalism also as a political ideology influences the system of education in a country. Nationalism could be defined as a psychological feeling within a group which believes they have common outlook and traditions based on myth of common ancestry. These common ancestries include race, language, religion and territory and often strengthen the consciousness of nationality. The racial aspect which is often within the political ideology of a country may play a significant role in determining features in the education system. Race refers to a tribe, a nation or a group of nations. Modern population includes people of different racial origins. The British colonial policy was based on the principle of decentralization and on the building up of a commonwealth of nations each of which should be free to develop its own culture and national character. Hence there is a close relationship between national character and national system of education and the former has been universally accepted as an important basis of national system of education. Thus the political system of a country is closely related with its educational programme. 6) Language Factor Many languages may be spoken in a country, but only one enjoys the status of a national language. In every country the national language occupies a special place. Also every government tries to ensure that every one acquires the capacity to express himself through the national language. Without one's own national language, no country can be said to be strong. Language in itself is a symbol of the people. Each community or group has an original language of its own which often suits its environment and stage of cultural development. It is through language that individuals become members of a community and this is important in building the national character. Through the native language, the child has the first expression of himself/herself and the world. However, in the modern world today, there is increasing use of foreign language especially in the school system. This requires a child before entering school to learn the foreign language. In most cases, before entering school the child acquires proficiency in mother tongue or native language and in so doing builds up vocabulary covering most of the objects of sense, impression and daily activities. This means using a different and a foreign language in school system means superimposing on this basis a language of ideas expressed entirely in a foreign medium and this often poses a problem to the learners. In East Africa, Kiswahili has slowly influenced features in the education systems in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda and Burundi. Kiswahili is a compulsory subject in primary schools in Kenya and Tanzania. In Tanzania Kiswahili is used as a medium of instruction in all primary schools. In South Africa, there are two linguistic groups, the English speaking and the Africans speaking groups. After the colonization by the British, English was enacted as a medium of instruction in schools. The inhabitants spoke Afrikaans and had been used to the Dutch school system. The use of English failed and in 1914 Afrikaans was recognized also as a medium of instruction in school for African speaking children. As such, in a South Africa, a bilingual system of education came into being, where some schools use English, while others use Afrikaans or even both.

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French as a language is also used in former French colonies like Cameroon, Tunisia, Madagascar, Senegal, Rwanda and Burundi. Cameroon also emerges as a bilingual country with two official languages and two systems of education, that is, the Anglophone to the West and Francophone to the East. Although the Cameroon government has been trying to put the two zones together it has proved to remain difficult. Interestingly the ex-British Anglophone system of education continues to produce local syllabuses with the aim of making secondary school examination; the ex-French francophone system still clings firmly on the old and move formal baccalaureate. By end large in Africa colonialism influenced the language of instruction in schools. In the former British colonies, pupils were taught in their vernacular in the lower elementary or primary school curriculum. The French colonies put more emphasis on French as a medium of instruction. To date most of the inherited systems of education still suffer from the effect of the colonial masters in the school system and at large in the education system. Thus the place of national language in the development of a national feeling cannot be overemphasized. As such in a national system of education, special emphasis is placed on the study of national language. 7) Religious Factor Religious loyalties also dictate aims, content and even methods of instruction in education. Indeed, religion and beliefs have also been known to influence and shape aspects in education system. In Africa, European Christian Missionaries did influence and continue to influence the education system. The initiative taken by the Christian churches to extend education and their power to control development often explains many of the common elements which can be discerned in education systems in countries that were colonized by the Europeans. For examples schools days are from Monday to Friday and resting days are Saturday and Sunday. This is more so because some people have their worship days as Saturday and others on Sunday. Religious organizations have also been and are still involved in educational development through building of educational institutions. For example, the catholic Jesuits succeeded in building up some of the greatest systems of secondary and higher education institution known in history. There is currently a catholic university establish in Kenya besides many catholic sponsored primary and secondary schools. The Muslim faithful also have their own establish institutions of learning as well as other religious groups such as the Hindus, Buddhists. In Africa, the present systems of education have been influenced by the work which was initiated by European Christian missionaries who included Catholics, Protestant and Muslim. All these have influenced features in the education system in the areas, they occupied. Most current is that the primary and secondary curriculums have religious subjects being taught in schools in Kenya. 8) Technological Factors Technological changes cannot also be ignored in education. Technology and especially modern technology also influence the education system of the country. Historically, emphasis on industrial and technical education followed the industrial revolution. Technology affects the type of education as well as the means of instruction. With the emergence of computer technology, internet technology, this has revolutionalised the whole education system especially in the developed countries. Through information communication technology, home learning has been made possible. Universities are also adopting projects like AUV and e-learning. Today the influence of technology in education cannot be ignored. Indeed the challenge is for the educational administrators and policy makers to see to it that the right infrastructure is in place in order to allow the use of information communication technology fully and be able to reap its maximum benefits in the education system especially in the developing world.

Chapter Review
i) Identify factors that shape and influence education systems of the world. ii) Explain how any of these factors have shaped the education system of your country.

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Chapter Six: EDUCATION IN KENYA

Objectives
After you have read this chapter, you should be able to ; i) Describe the educational system in Kenya. ii) Identify the challenges facing educational system in Kenya. iii) Suggest ways of addressing the challenges facing educational system in Kenya iv) Suggest educational reforms in the educational system in Kenya that would make it more relevant to the job market.

Background information Kenya became independent in 1963. Since 1991, the country has been operating a multi-party democracy. The government of the National Rainbow Coalition (NARC) came to power in 2003. Currently, the country has a population of over 35 million people, with about 60 percent being youth under 30 years. The country is divided into eight provinces namely Coast, Central, Eastern, Nairobi, Nyanza, North Eastern, Rift Valley and Western. Both English and Kiswahili are used as official languages. The economy grew by 5.8 per cent in 2005. The main economic stay is agriculture. The other main sources of the country's incomes are tourism, manufacturing especially of agricultural products and trade. Since 2003, the country's economy has been improving due to improved governance, macro-economic stability, and expansion in world trade, higher demand for commodities and improved prices. Education in Kenya Vision Quality Education for Development. This can be translated to Swahili to mean "Elimu Bora kwa Maendeleo". Mission To provide, promote and co-ordinate lifelong education, training and research for Kenya's sustainable development. To focus on priority areas within overall education goals to achieve EFA by 2015. Objectives:

Achieve EFA by 2015. Achieve transition rate of 70 per cent from primary to secondary from the current rate of 57 per cent by 2008. Enhance access, equity and quality in primary and secondary education. Develop a national strategy for technical and vocational education and training, leading to the rehabilitation of physical facilities and equipment and making sure that vocational and technical institutions are appropriately equipped by 2010.

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Expand public universities and increase the number and the proportion of all students studying science subjects to 50 per cent, with at least a third being women by 2010. Achieve 50 per cent improvement of levels of adult literacy by 2015.

Overview of the education system Kenya's education system consists of early childhood education, primary, secondary and tertiary. Early childhood education takes at least one year, primary eight years, secondary four and university four or six years depending on the course. Pre-schooling, which targets children from age four to five, is an integral component of the education system and is a key requirement for admission to Standard One (First Grade). At the end of primary education, pupils sit the Kenya Certificate of Primary Education (KCPE), which determines those who proceed to secondary school or vocational training. Primary school age is 6-13 years. For those who proceed to secondary level, there is a national examination at the end of Form Four - the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE), which determines those proceeding to the universities, other professional training or employment. The Joint Admission Board (JAB) is responsible for selecting students joining the public universities. The minimum university entry grade is C+ at KCSE. However, due to stiff competition, only those with higher grades such as B+ and above are guaranteed admission. Private universities admit students on their own but are guided by the rules and regulations provided by the Commission for Higher Education. Other than the public schools, there are many private schools in the country, mainly in urban areas. Similarly, there are a number of international schools catering for various educational systems such as American, British, French, German, Japanese and Swedish, Table 1 presents the type and number of educational institutions in Kenya.

Table 1: Summary of Kenya's Educational institutions, 2001 - 2005 Category 2001 2002 Schools Pre-primary 27,573 28,279 Primary Public 17,544 17,589 Private 1,357 1,441 Total 18,901 19,030 Secondary Public 3,241 3,247 Private 416 437 Total 3,657 3,684 Training Colleges Primary 29 29 Secondary 3 3 Total 32 32 University Public 6 6 Private 11 13 Total 17 19 TOTAL 50,180 51,044 Source: Economic Survey 2006.

2003 29,455 17,697 1,857 19,554 3,583 488 4,071 29 3 32 6 17 23 53,135

2004 31,879 17,804 1,909 19,713 3,621 490 4,111 30 3 33 7 17 24 55,760

2005 32,043 17,864 1,985 19,849 3,676 521 4,197 30 3 33 7 17 24 56,146

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Early childhood education Early Children Education (ECE) lays foundation for development and future education of children. Kenya's early childhood education programme caters for children aged between four to five years. On average, about 35 per cent of the eligible population is enrolled in early childhood education programmes, with the majority being in urban centers. ECE is largely provided by the private sector, local authorities, NGOs and faith-based groups and the communities. The government provides policy, develops curriculum and offers training for teachers. In 2005, there were 1,643,175 pupils enrolled in ECE with 72,182 teachers. Table 2 shows enrolment and number of teachers in early childhood education in Kenya. Some of the challenges facing ECE include inadequate funding from government, lack of inspection, low participation of eligible age group, low remuneration for teachers, lack of relevant teaching and learning materials and variations in the curriculum used by the various centers.

Table 2: Enrolment and number of teachers in early childhood development centers in Kenya, 2001 - 2005 2001 2002 2003 Enrolment Boys 674,578 742,764 816,577 Girls 648,876 712,863 785,655 TOTAL 1,323,454 1,455,627 1,602,232 Number of teachers Male trained 1,452 1,650 2,378 Female trained 20,876 23,595 38,637 Sub-total 22,311 25,244 41,015 Male untrained 1,452 1,429 2,456 Female untrained 23,356 23,216 20,179 Sub total 24,808 24,645 22,635 TOTAL 47,119 49,889 63,650 Source: Economic Survey 2006

2004 823,417 804,304 1,627,721 4,786 44,272 49,058 4,068 16,932 21,000 70,058

2005 830,828 812,347 1,643,175 4,930 46,043 50,972 4,109 17,101 21,210 72,182

Primary Education Primary education targets children aged between six and 13 years. The goal of the sub-sector is to provide access to quality education to all eligible children on an equal basis and prepare them for secondary education and training. Primary education has witnessed phenomenal growth since the NARC government abolished levies as it introduced free schooling in 2003. The number of primary school pupils rose dramatically, from 5.9 million in2002 to 7.2 million, in 2003 to 7.4 million, in 2004 to about 7.6 million in 2005. Table 3 shows enrolments in primary schools in Kenya between 2001 - 2005. Although the national figures have gone up exponentially, there are regional imbalances. Some regions like the North Eastern Province, parts of Coast, Rift Valley and Eastern provinces and urban slums have generally lower enrolments, which is even worse for girls. Some of the challenges facing primary education are large numbers of pupils in classrooms, inadequate facilities in schools to meet the needs of increased enrolments, shortage of teachers and inadequate places in secondary for primary school leavers.

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Table 3: Enrolment in primary by class and gender, 2001-2005 (in thousands) 2001 2002 2003 2004 Class Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Std 1 482.1 456.8 488.8 469.0 679.0 632.7 646.2 Std 2 447.7 426.3 434.6 416.1 526.4 526.4 588.3 Std 3 423.6 404.8 415.0 397.4 490.8 490.8 493.9 Std 4 392.6 390.6 408.9 400.2 475.7 475.7 477.7 Std 5 366.5 364.5 369.3 317.8 436.0 436.0 444.0 Std 6 327.5 333.6 338.8 353.3 400.9 400.9 418.8 Std 7 307.3 321.1 328.3 336.2 383.2 383.2 412.6 Std 8 255.1 241.4 290.3 244.5 282.4 282.4 334.0 Sub total 3,002.5 2,939.1 3,073.9 2,988.8 3,674.4 3,674.4 3,815.5 GRAND 5,941.6 6,062.7 7,159.5 7,394.8 TOTAL Source: Economic Survey 2006 Secondary Education

Girls 606.2 551.1 459.8 445.7 402.5 399.9 404.9 309.1 3,579.3

2005 Boys 620.4 575.8 549.2 493.7 449.1 429.3 443.0 342.1 3,902.7 7,591.5

Girls 585.8 551.6 517.5 469.9 410.0 413.6 430.0 309.6 3,688.8

Secondary education is the third level in Kenya's education system and caters for students aged between 14 and 17 years and runs for four years - Form One to Four. Secondary education prepares students for university and tertiary education and vocational training. Enrolment at the secondary school level stood at 928,149 in 2005, consisting of 491,157 boys and 436,992 girls with 47,435 teachers. The details of enrolment are contained in Table 4. A characteristic feature of secondary education system is low access. Slightly more than half of those who complete primary school transit to secondary education. Table 4: Enrolment in secondary schools by class and gender, 2001 - 2005 2001 2002 2003 2004 Form Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Form 1 107,442 98,892 110,965 99,501 128,887 122,935 145,145 Form 2 102,222 91,399 105,576 97,836 121,279 117,500 124,585 Form 3 98,879 86,391 100,423 88,282 106,262 98,239 117,975 Form 4 94,747 83,174 94,813 81,205 102,322 85,089 101,301 Sub-total 403,390 359,855 411,777 366,824 458,750 423,763 489,006 GRAND 763,245 778,601 882,513 923,134 TOTAL Source: Economic Survey 2006 Among the interventions to enhance retention at secondary level is the provision of bursary funds to students from needy backgrounds. Also the government has provided guidelines on fees to control schools from imposing heavy levies on parents. Some of the issues on secondary education are: insufficient teaching and learning resources; teacher shortage, regional and gender disparities in terms of access and performance in national examination; and low transition to university and tertiary levels. Non-Formal Education Programme The Kenya government has been working on non-formal education (NFE) programmes, which are expected to provide comprehensive and complementary delivery channels of quality basic education to children, especially those living in difficult circumstances, including those in urban slums and hardship areas. Among others, the government has published a policy that guides the provision of quality education at the NFE centers.

Girls 125,542 114,053 105,118 89,416 434,128

2005 Boys 124,469 132,867 122,912 110,909 491,157 928,149

Girls 111,384 119,471 107,770 98,367 436,992

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A key feature of the NFE programmes is that they are flexible as they take cognizance of the difficult conditions under which the children live and operate. To strengthen the non-formal programmes, the government plans to give legal recognition to the NFE centers through the Education Act so that they can benefit from the services that those in the formal education get. In particular, the government plans to provide professional support in curriculum development, teacher training, monitoring and evaluation and resources. Challenges facing NFE

Lack of clear policy framework to guide and regulate various players in the sub-sector. Lack of qualified and competent teachers. Inadequate and quite often substandard teaching/learning materials and physical facilities. Negative social attitudes towards, NFE. Lack of (assessment) monitoring and evaluation mechanisms ( and capacity) Lack of clear accreditation procedures. Lack of reliable data on out-of-school children and those attending NFE programmes.

Technical and Vocational Education and Training Technical and vocational training is offered at the national polytechnics, technical training institutes and institutes of technology. Training in technical and vocational skills is also done by various government ministries and department. Others are also offered at commercial colleges largely run by private investors. In 2005, there were four national polytechnics with an enrolment of 18,116 students, 18 technical training institutes and 17 institutes of technology with a combined enrolment of 27,377 students, the youth polytechnics enrolled 22,887 students, comprising 8,691 males and 14,196 females. A significant development has revived the once moribund youth polytechnics to provide skills training to postprimary pupils by proving some selected ones with resources to improve their facilities and training programmes. This has seen their enrolments rise from 17,003 in 2001 to 22,887 in 2005 representing an increase of 35 per cent. Table 5 shows enrolments in technical and vocational training institutions in Kenya. Table 5: Student enrolment in technical training institutions by gender, 2001 - 2005 INSTITUTION 2001 2002 2003 2004 Male Female Male Female Male Female Make National polytechnics Kenya polytechnic 4,523 1,385 4,586 1,984 4,488 2016 4937 Mombasa 3,567 1,092 3,149 1,401 2,647 1390 2778 polytechnic Kisumu polytechnic 785 240 947 410 937 421 1124 Eldoret polytechnic 647 515 1,527 660 1,523 684 1675 Total 7,283 2,989 9,604 4,155 9,595 4511 10514 Other technical training institutions Technical training 5,295 4,160 5,539 4,539 7436 5648 9653 institutes Institutes of 4,674 3,672 4,898 4,007 4799 3927 4715 technology Total 9,969 7,832 10,445 8,546 12235 9575 14368 Youth polytechnics 4,980 12,023 5,975 12,624 7171 13255 8605 Total 22,232 22,844 26,024 25,325 2901 27341 33487 GRAND TOTAL 45,076 52,349 56,342 65,392 Source: Economic Survey 2006

Female 2218 2436 476 752 5883 8350 3755 12105 13918 31906

2005 Male 5430 3111 1349 1759 11650 9846 4904

female 2395 2631 619 820 6466 8684 3943

14750 12627 8691 14196 35090 33289 68,379

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The pertinent issues on technical and vocational training are: low enrolment; gender disparities; lack of modern equipment and facilities; non-marketable courses and curriculum, low funding and shortage of qualified teachers. Teacher Training Teacher training programmes are offered at certificate, diploma and degree level. There were 29 public teacher training colleges and eight private school teachers in 2005. In addition, there were three diploma awarding colleges training secondary school teachers. Enrolment to the teachers college is open to Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE) candidates who attain a minimum of C grade for certificate courses and C+ for diploma programme. Certificate courses run for two years while the diploma ones go for three years. In 2005, there were 20,200 students enrolled in primary teachers colleges while 2,080 were enrolled in the diploma colleges. Other than the certificate and diploma courses, there are degree programmes in education offered at the public and private universities. Graduate teachers are deployed to secondary schools, teacher training colleges and technical and vocational training institutions. With parallel degree programmes offered at the public universities, a number of graduate teachers are also deployed in primary schools. Enrolments in the teacher training colleges are represented in Table 6.

Table 6: Enrolment in teacher training institutions by year and gender, 2001 - 2005 Type Of 2001 2002 2003 2004 Certificate Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Public primary teachers colleges (P1) Year 1 4,358 4,018 4,269 4,122 4,316 4,210 3,931 4,508 Year 2 3,952 3,381 3,871 3,468 3,963 4,305 4,449 4,730 8,310 7,399 8,140 7,590 8,279 8,515 8,380 9,238 Sub-total Private 1,243 1,268 1,089 1,133 1,044 1,178 1,117 1,213 primary teachers (P1) Diploma teachers Year 1 365 294 438 294 434 331 231 193 Year 2 485 324 401 297 399 300 411 331 Year 3 363 298 475 321 352 305 421 304 Sub-total 1,213 916 1,314 912 1,185 936 1,063 828 TOTAL 10,766 9,583 10,543 9,635 10,508 10,629 10,560 11,279 Grand 20,349 20,177 21,137 21,839 Total

2005 Male 4,589 3,951 8,540 1,340 Female 4,334 4,530 8,864 1,456

254 452 463 1,169 11,049 22,279

212 364 334 910 11,230

Source: Economic Survey 2006

Adult and Continuing Education Adult and continuing education (ACE) is considered very important for national development. ACE is provided by the government, faith-based organizations and NGOs. The Board of Adult Education, which is established by an Act of Parliament, coordinates all forms of adult education in the country. The Department of Adult Education is responsible for the implementation of the board's policies and programmes. The goals and objectives of adult and continuing education are:

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Providing literacy and adult education for youth and adults who miss out of the formal education programmes. Providing survival skills. Promoting individual development and fulfillment Fostering and promoting national unity through promotion of Kiswahili language. Bridging illiteracy gap between men and women.

Enrolment in adult education has been characterized by decline in the 1990s, compared to the situation in the late 1970s and the 80s. The decline has been attributed to low funding, negative attitude to the programme and an unsuitable curriculum that does not respond to the needs of the learners as well as shortage of teachers. Notable feature of the programme is that it attracts more women than men. However, there have been attempts in recent years to review the curriculum to make it more responsive to the changing times and learners' needs as well as make the programme more flexible to accommodate the learners' schedules. The latest attempts to revitalize adult literacy programs have seen enrolment rise again. As Table 7 shows, there were 16,324 learners enrolled in literacy classes in 2005. Out of those enrolled, 38,902 were male and 87,422 females. This was an improvement over the 2004 figures, where 109,923 learners were enrolled, with 31,512 makes and 78,411 females. Further, the government is developing a national qualification framework that will allow for equation of adult learners' certificate and competences with those of the formal education system. This will allow transfer and progression from basic adult literacy to higher academic or professional levels. It has conducted a national literacy survey whose objective is to provide accurate and up-to-date on the level and magnitude of literacy in the country. The findings of the survey will also help in reshaping literacy programmes to meet the felt needs of learners and service providers.

Table 7. Enrolment trends in adult education by gender, 2001 - 2005 YEAR MALE FEMALE TOTAL 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 26,476 41,341 31,305 31,512 38,902 66,573 73,524 77,126 78,411 87,422 93,049 114,865 108,431 109,923 126,324

% FEMALE ENROLMENT 72.0% 64.0% 71.1% 71.3% 69.2%

Source: Economic Survey 2006

Special needs Education Special needs education referees to education and training programme formally organized for children with learning and physical disabilities. The objective of special needs education is to assist those with special needs to develop so that they can realize their full participation in social life and development. There s a unit at the Ministry of Education head-quarter that is responsible for promotion and coordination of education programmes for those with special learning needs. Similarly, there is a unit at the Kenya Institute of

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Education that is responsible for developing the curriculum for special needs education. The Kenya Institute of Special Education trains teachers for special needs education. Special needs education caters for children with the following conditions hearing impairment, visual impairment, mentally handicapped, physically handicapped and multiple handicaps. While a number of primary schools offer special needs education, there are only three secondary schools for the physically handicapped, one each for the blind and the deaf as well as four integrated units for the blind. There are also three vocational training centers and technical training institute catering for those with special needs. Special needs education suffers from inadequate funding, lack of clear policy framework, low progress in assessing and placing children with disability, few qualified teachers to handle children with special needs, lack of teaching and learning resources among others. University Education. University education is charged with the responsibility of providing high level human resource for national development. In addition, universities have the task of conducting research, development and dissemination of knowledge. The country had six public universities and one constituent university college as well as 19 private universities in2005/2006. Seven of the private universities are fully chartered to offer their own degrees. According to the 2006 National Economic Survey, there were 79.735 students enrolled in public universities, a decline from 81,491 in 2004/2005. Out of that figure, there were 52,637 males and 27,098 females. In private universities, there were 10,244 students in 2005 up from 10,050 in 2004. Since mid-1990s, the public universities have been offering parallel degree programmes, which are open to working people or those who qualified but did not get admission during the regular intake due to lack of places. The parallel degree programmes have offered a window of opportunities for many people to pursue university education, acquire postgraduate qualifications, and improve their skills, and change profession or just study courses of their interest. Another mark of Kenya's higher education is the rapid expansion of private universities since the 1990s to accommodate the increasing numbers of high school leavers seeking university education. University admission is pegged at grade C+ at the KCSE although only those with grade B+ and above get admission during the regular intake, due to limited places in the public universities. Generally it is those who are locked out during the regular admission who go for the parallel degree programmes or join the private universities. However, a trend has emerged in recent times where qualified students, who can afford, opt to go straight for parallel degree programmes or private universities because there they can choose the course they want to study and complete within a shorter period.

Table 8: Universities in Kenya by category, 2006 Public Private chartered University of Nairobi University of Eastern Africa, Baraton Moi University Catholic University of Eastern Africa

Private awaiting charters Kiriri Women's University of Science and Technology Kabarak University Aga Khan University

Kenyatta University Egerton University

Daystar University United States International

Strathmore University East Africa School of Theology Kenya Highlands Bible College Nairobi Evangelical Graduate School of Theology Nairobi International School of Theology Pan Africa Christian College St.Paul's United Theological

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University Jomo Kenyatta University of Africa Nazarene University Agriculture and Technology Maseno University Scott Theological College Masinde Muliro University of Kenya Methodist University Science and Technology Source: Commission for Higher Education 2006

College Graats University Great Lake University

Kenya's university education is faced with the following challenges; few places to admit the high number of qualifiers; gender imbalances, especially in science and technology courses; inadequate teaching and learning resources; shortage of lecturers; scarcity of funds for running academic programmes and conducting research. It is notable, though, that more females than males are enrolled in private universities and as well, many pursue the parallel degree programmes at public universities. Also, the government has created a fund to support academic research, especially in universities. There are two state corporations working in higher education. The Commission for Higher Education is responsible for registration, accreditation and quality assurance, coordination and regulation of admission to universities, among other functions. The Higher Education Loans Board is responsible for providing loans and grants to university students as well as loans recovery from past beneficiaries. Table 8 provides a list of universities in Kenya according to their classification while Table 9 shows enrolment at the universities. Table 9: Students enrolment by gender in universities, 2001/2001 - 2005/06 INSTITUTION 2001/2002 2002/2003 2003/2004 2004/2005 2005/2006 Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Public universities Nairobi 15,426 9,270 16,200 9,489 16,992 9,720 21,268 11,706 20,940 11,665 Full time 8,724 4,450 9,163 4,428 9,603 4,406 9,987 5,250 9,800 5,325 Part time 6,702 4,820 7,037 5,061 7,389 5,314 11,281 6,456 11,140 6,340 Kenyatta 6,831 4,984 10,737 4,998 10,753 5,023 11,252 4,803 10,896 4,787 Full time 5,384 3,983 4,972 3,329 5,221 3,495 4,313 2,887 4,356 2,947 Part time 1,447 1,001 5,765 1,669 5,532 1,528 6,939 1,916 6,540 1,840 Moi 5,469 3,869 6,274 4,549 5,804 4,643 6,796 5,214 6,731 5,314 Full time 4,066 3,179 4,086 3,195 4,107 3,211 4,304 3,195 4,311 3,200 Part time 1,403 690 2,188 1,354 1,697 1,432 2,492 2,019 2,420 2,114 Egerton 6,816 2,285 6,975 2,387 6,908 2,444 6,350 2,247 6,262 2,236 Full time 6,161 2,053 6,307 2,151 6,207 2,196 5,540 1,960 5,322 1,890 Part time 655 232 668 236 701 248 810 287 940 346 Jomo 2,565 1,115 3,184 1,404 3,202 1,455 4,315 1,959 4,207 1,111 Kenyatta Full time 857 339 1,442 613 1,373 624 2,201 999 2,240 1,016 Part time 1,708 776 1,742 791 1,829 831 2,114 960 1,967 95 Maseno 2,530 1,518 3,505 2,130 3,428 2,179 3,413 2,168 2,826 1,698 Full time 1,922 1,132 2,885 1,736 2,777 1,765 2,660 1,690 2,106 1,240 Part time 608 386 620 394 651 414 753 478 720 458 WEUCO 775 287 Full time 420 182 Part time 355 105 Sub-total 39,637 23,041 46,875 24,957 47,087 25,464 53,394 28,097 51,862 27,385 Private universities Private 3,122 4,089 3,476 4,163 3,650 4,371 3,796 4,546 3,820 4,624 accredited

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Unaccredited Sub-total Total Grand Total

949 511 4,071 4,600 43,708 27,641 71,349

748 742 4,224 4,905 51,099 29,862 80,961

763 4,413 51,500 82,092

757 5,128 30,592

801 907 4,597 5,453 57,991 33,550 91,541

853 947 4,673 5,571 56,535 32,956 89,491

Source: Economic Survey 2006

Education Expenditure Education continues to consume the bulk of the national budget. In 2006/2007, the Education Ministry was allocated Kenya Shillings (KSE) 96.6 billion or US$1.34 billion, which represents a third of the national recurrent expenditure. The bulk of the money, however, goes to paying salaries, administration and planning. Out of the budget Ksh.71 billion (US$ 986 million), or 73 per cent, was for paying salaries and administration and planning. Table 10 captures the expenditures of the education sector budget between 2001/2002 and 2005/6.

Table 10: Expenditure of the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, 2001/02 - 2005/06 in Ksh. Millions. YEAR 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06 Recurrent expenditure General administration 44,521.94 49,051.57 55,776.74 59,140.80 64,139.32 Pre-primary education 6.72 5.22 5.51 25.66 57.00 Primary education 741.98 3,321.65 5,966.52 6,583.42 7,148.58 Secondary education 667.31 667.88 945.42 93.79 2,893.70 Technical training 888.34 89.94 1,171.40 1,546.55 1,292.09 Teacher training 138.70 144.29 192.83 210.41 177.72 Special education 107.46 121.39 175.13 209.77 193.14 Polytechnic education 320.84 342.73 466.01 1,538.20 571.72 Higher education 6,369.09 6,795.74 7,470.08 9,735.25 11,885.24 Miscellaneous 254.24 217.40 240.90 311.06 SUB-TOTAL 54,016.63 61,557.82 72,410.54 80,239.91 88,357.51 Development expenditure General administration 472.54 1,893.7 954.99 651.00 1,705.04 Pre-primary education 204.02 197.52 362.55 6.60 Primary education 3.10 26.00 2,214.10 3,196.00 1,311.60 Secondary education 52.24 151.90 205.50 170.00 Technical education 4.19 70.00 185.00 Teacher education 27.77 6.09 155.12 80.27 143.50 Special education Polytechnic education Higher education 117.61 372.03 471.40 560.20 487.70 Miscellaneous 1.00 1.00 TOTAL 825.3 2,547.59 4,314.24 4,771.47 4,002.84 GROSS TOTAL 54,841.66 64,105.41 76,724.78 85,011.38 92,360.35 Source: Economic Survey 2006 1US$=Kshs72

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Reforms in Education In November 2003, the Ministry of Education convened a National conference on Education and Training. This brought together educationists, experts, practitioners, teachers, government officials, faith-based groups, civil society, students and all other interest groups who deliberated and made suggestions on ways of reforming the education sector. The outcomes of the conferences provided the basis for the development of the Sessional paper No1 of 2005 on Education, Training and Research, which spells out the new direction for the sector. Subsequently, the government through the sector-wide approach to planning (SWAP) published the Kenya Education Sector Support Programme (KESSP), which provides the framework for implementing the education reforms. KESSP comprises 23 investment programmes grouped around six thematic areas of financing, which are; access, sector management, quality, retention, secondary, tertiary and higher education. Education service delivery Until December 2005, the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology was responsible for the provision and management of all education and training programme. However, the ministry has since been split into two Ministry of Education and Ministry of Science and Technology. The former is responsible for provision of education in general, while the latter is responsible for science technical education and vocational training research and technology. The ministry of Education is divided into four directorates responsible for specific tasks. The directorates are: Basic Education, Higher Education, Planning and Policy, Quality Assurance and Standards, The Ministry of Science and Technology has the directorate of technical Education and Vocational Training. It also has a division for science, research and technology. Besides the two, there are other ministries that are also responsible and provide education and training, these are: the Ministry of Gender, Sports, Culture and Social Service, which is responsible for adult and continuing education; the Ministry of Labour and Human Resources that is responsible for vocational and industrial training, mostly offered in youth polytechnics. The other ministries like Agriculture, Water, Roads and Public Works, Tourism Information and Communication have specialized training institutions for their personnel. As the main provider of education and training the Ministry of Education has a wide and elaborate network from its headquarters right to the grassroots, it also has semi-autonomous institutions with specific mandates (see Table 11). Table 11: Summary of functions of educational agencies in Kenya Organization Function Kenya Institute of Education Curriculum development and research Capacity development Kenya National Examination Council

Administration of exams for all institutions below universities Certificate and validation of qualifications Registration, employment and deployment of teachers Training education administrators and policy makers

Teachers Service Commission

Kenya Education Staff Institute

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Kenya Institute of Special Education Commission for Higher Education

Training special education teachers Regulating higher education and training programmes Financing higher education students

Higher Education Loans Board

Source: Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, 2005 Laws governing education, training and research

Education Act Cap 211 of 1968 revised 1970 and 1980 is the main legal document governing education. It provides for the development of schools, management and administration, development of curricula and teacher education. Teachers Service Commission (TSC) Act Cap 212 of 1967 provides for registration, recruitment deployment, remuneration and discipline of teachers for schools, colleges and middle-level College, including vocational and training institutions. Kenya National Examinations Council (KNEC) Act Cap 225A of 1980 sets up the examining body regulates the management and conduct of public examinations, certification of schools and institutions below the universities. Universities Act Cap 210B of 1985 establishes the Commission for Higher Education (CHE), which is responsible for accrediting private universities and maintaining quality assurance in higher education and training. Acts of Parliament and Charters for the establishment and management of public and chartered private universities respectively. Higher Education Loan Board (HELB) Act 213 of 1994, which established HELB to manage and provide loans and bursaries to students pursuing higher education. Board of Adult Education Act Cap 223, which promotes and regulates adult education programmes. Local Government Act Cap 265 mandates local authorities to manage and develop primary education in their areas of jurisdiction. Industrial Training Act Cap 237 governing training and certificate of artisans. Accountants Act Cap 531, which established the Kenya Accountants and Secretaries National Examination Board (KASNEB). There are other Acts that provide for training in various ministries like Health, Water, Agriculture and others.

Education Challenges The Kenya Education Sector Support Programme (KESSP) identifies the following as some of the constraints facing education at various levels:

Lack of adequate infrastructure and shortage of permanent classrooms in primary schools particularly in poor districts, Lack of clear legal guidelines on the implementation of inclusive education and non formal education programs; Lack of reliable data on children with special needs, out-of-school children and illiterate adults and youth; Shortfall of adult literacy teachers as well as teaching and learning materials; Low transition rates from primary to secondary; secondary to higher education institutions; Outdated curricula for technical, vocational education and training.

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Inadequate physical facilities for technical, vocational education and training as well as mechanisms for quality assurance; Limited resources for expansion of universities to cope with the number of students leaving secondary schools; Mismatch between skills offered by universities and the demands of the labour market. High number of HIV/AIDS orphans. High pupils: teacher ratios in densely populated areas and low pupil: teacher ratios in less populated regions; and Due o the need to contain the wage bull o manageable levels, the government does not employ new teachers, but only replaces those who leave through death, resignation or retirement. This has led to shortfall of teachers in schools.

Strategies to address the challenges

The Ministry of Education has drafted a national policy on ECE, which provides guidelines on the implementation of the ECE programmes. The draft policy is under discussion with the stakeholders before being finalized and adopted. Adult literacy survey was conducts between June and August 2006 and findings should establish the actual literacy levels in the country. Draft policy on gender and education is being developed. Draft policy on Open and Distance Learning (ODM) being developed. Review of all laws on education and training is on-going through a taskforce on legal frame work for education and training.

Ministry of Education has prepared a draft paper on teacher employment and deployment to ensure equitable staff distribution.

Chapter Review
Please attempt the following questions; a) Identify and explain the goals of education in Kenya b) Critically examine the educational challenges facing Kenya Education system c) Suggest ways of addressing these challenges d) What educational reforms would you suggest in the Kenyan educational system in order to make it more relevant to the job market?

Chapter Seven: EDUCATION SYSTEM IN USA

Student Assignment
Obtain information from internet (recommended online wikipedia ) source and any other source you consider important to help you write a well documented report on the following; i) Background information on the USA as a country ii) Aims of Education in the Educational System of the USA iii) Structure of the educational system in the USA

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iv) Administration of the educational system v) Financing of the Educational System in the USA vi)Challenges facing the educational system in USA vii) Suggest ways of addressing challenges facing the educational system in the USA. Your report should not exceed 5000 words. not exceed more that 5000 words.

Chapter Eleven: Education in Tanzania

Objectives
After you have read this chapter, you should be able to ; i) Describe the educational system in Tanzania. ii) Identify the challenges facing educational system in Tanzania. iii) Suggest ways of addressing the challenges facing educational system in Tanzania iv) Suggest educational reforms in the educational system in Tanzania that would make it more relevant to the job market.

Background information The United Republic of Tanzania comprises Tanganyika, Zanzibar and Pemba. Tanganyika got independence in 1961 and in 1964 united with Zanzibar and Pemba to form the United Republic of Tanzania. For many years after independence, Tanzania pursued a socialist political and economic policy that encouraged state ownership of public resources. The citizens were made to live in communities where they worked and collectively produced goods for common use in what was called the Ujamaa system. But the socialist policy was later abandoned in the 1980s as it failed to transform the country's socio economic systems. However, one of the lasting legacies of the system was that it promoted mass literacy and entrenched the use of Kiswahili as a national language. Adult literacy rate is 77 per cent with 85.2 per cent for men and 69.2 per cent for women. According to the economic Survey 2006, Tanzania had a population of 37,267,530 in 2005. Out of this, 19,009,051were females, equivalent to 51 per cent which 18,258,479 were males, or 49 per cent. The bulk of population, more than 35 million people, lives on the Tanzania Mainland. Further, the statistics show that majority of the people- 77 per cent live in rural areas and only 23 per cent live urban areas of the Tanzania Mainland. The country's economic mainstay is agriculture. Tourism, trade and manufacturing also play a significant role in the economy. In 2005, the country recorded a GDP growth of 6.8 per cent compared to 6.7 per cent in 2004. The improved economic growth rate was mainly attributed to good performance in agriculture, trade, tourism, and transport and communication. Tanzania, which is the biggest country in East Africa, has 25 administrative regions, namely, Arusha, Dar es Salaam, Dodoma, Iringa, Kagera, Kigoma, Kilimanjaro, Lindi,Mara, Mbeya, Morogoro, Mtwara, Mwanza, Pemba North, Pemba South, Pwani, Rukwa, Ruvuma, Shinyanga, Singida, Tabora, Tanga, Zanzibar Central/South, Zanzibar North, Zanzibar Urban/West

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The country has a spectacular landscape of mainly three physiographic regions namely the Islands and the coastal plains to the east; the inland saucer-shaped plateau; and the highlands, The Great Rift Valley that runs from north east of Africa through central Tanzania is another landmark that adds to the country's scenic beauty. EDUCATION IN TANZANIA The vision of Tanzania's Ministry of Education is to provide high level of education at all levels and create a nation with people sufficiently equipped with the requisite knowledge to solve the society's problems, meet the challenges of development and attain competitiveness at regional and global levels. The mission is to realize UPE, eradication of illiteracy and attainment of a level of tertiary education and training commensurate with a critical high quality human resources required to effectively respond to the country's development challenges. Policies for Education and Training The broad policy objectives of education and training in Tanzania as spelt out in the various policy documents are as follows:

Development of integrative personalities Promotion of the acquisition and appreciation of national culture and of the constitution; Promotion of society-centered learning and the use of acquired skills and knowledge for the improvement of the quality of life; Development of self-confidence, inquiring mind, and development oriented mindset; Giving adaptive and flexible education that meets the challenges of a changing world; Encouraging love and respect for work of whatever type and improved productivity; Inculcating in learners ethical behavior, tenets of national unity, international co-operation, peace and justice and Fostering a rational management and use of the environment.

To realize these objectives, the government developed the Education and Training Sector Development Programme, which provides the framework for implementation of education and training goals. Specifically, the programme seeks to:

Enhance partnership in the provision of education and training, through the deliberate effort of encouraging private agencies to participate in the provision of education, to establish and manage schools and other educational institutions at all levels. Broaden the financial base and cost-effectiveness of education and training through more effective control of government spending, cost-sharing and liberalization strategies Streamline and management structure of education by placing more authority and responsibility on schools, colleges universities, local communities, districts and regions. Provide quality education through curriculum review, improved teacher management and introduction and use of appropriate performance and assessment strategies. Strengthen the integration of formal and non-formal education relationship, by instituting knowledge comparability and inter-mobility within the two sub-sectors of education Increase access to education by focusing on equity issue with respect to women, groups and regions needs. Promote live-log education and training for job -creation and self-employment through increased quality and availability of opportunities for vocational education and training. Promote quality non-formal education and training through the improvement of folk development centers in terms of physical infrastructure, tutors education and improved tutor management.

Education System The structure of the formal education and training system in the United Republic of Tanzania constitutes two years of pre-primary education, seven years of primary education, four years of junior secondary (ordinary

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level) two years of senior secondary (A' level) and three or more years of tertiary education. Thus, the education system has three levels -basic, secondary and higher. Basic education includes pre-primary, primary, non-formal and adult education. Secondary education comprises O' land A' levels while higher education includes post-secondary colleges offering certificate, diploma and degree courses. The main languages of instruction in schools are Kiswahili and English. Enrolment trends Since the introduction of free primary education in 2002, the United Republic of Tanzania has realized a major increase in school enrollment. The programme is being implemented under the Primary Education Development Plan (PEDP). In 2004, there were 9,868 registered pre-primary schools, of which 9,701 were owned by the government and 167 by private individuals or organizations. A total of 554,635 children were enrolled in these pre-primary schools, with 547,343 in pubic and 7,292 in private pre-primary schools. Boys constituted 50.4 per cent and girls 49.6 per cent. But this figure only represents about 25 per cent of the eligible children. Enrolment in primary schools stood at 7,083,063 in 2004 in public schools and 41,234 in private schools, bringing the total to 7,124,267. There were 13,689 primary schools in 2004, which was an increase over the 2003 figure of 12,815. In general, there is gender parity in terms of enrolment, with 50.1 per cent being boys and 49.9 per cent girls. Cumulatively the country had a GER of 106.3 per cent in2004, which was a slight increase from 105.3 in 2003. Regional disparities persist, with the highest, Mara recording 126.4 per cent, which Tabora, the least, having a GER of 79.0 per cent.

Higher Education Tertiary education institutions are diverse, ranging from certificate to degree-offering institutions. In 2004, the country had 45 teacher training colleges, with 34 being run by the government and 11 by private organizations. There were three technical training institutions catering for 2,103 students. The country had five public universities in 2006-Dar es Salaam, Sokoine University Agriculture, Mzumbe, State University of Zanzibar and the Open University of Tanzania. Other institutions offering higher education offering degree courses are Moshi University College of Cooperative and Business Studies and Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology. In 2004, the public universities had a total enrollment of 26,475, students, comprising 7,213 females, representing 27.2 per cent, and 19,262 males or 72.8 per cent. These figures have since gone up. Similarly, during that year, there were 14 private universities, half of which are fully registered and cumulatively enrolled 2,543 students in 2004. Table 27 shows the number of tertiary institutions in Tanzania and their enrollments in 2004. Education Funding The government's expenditure on education has been increasing since the mid-1980s. The per capita expenditure on education has similarly gone up to match the increasing population. The government spends an average of 24.2 percent of the recurrent budget on education, representing2.6 per cent of the GDP. Out of that budget, primary education consumes more than 60 per cent, secondary about 7 per cent, technical and vocational education about 7 per cent and tertiary and higher education about 15 per cent. Overall, the bulk of education budget goes to salaries and personal emoluments, leaving very little for actual teaching and learning inputs. Currently, primary education is financed by the central government through the local authorities. The local authorities are responsible for putting up classrooms and providing the teaching and learning materials based on funds they receive from the central government.

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At the secondary level, there is a policy of cost-sharing where the government pays salaries for teachers while parents pay for boarding and other costs. Table 28 shows the expenditure on education in Tanzania beeetween2000 and 2003. Education Management Tanzania has two ministries that are responsible for the provision of education and training, namely the Ministry of Education and Culture and the Ministry of Science, Technology, and Higher Education. While the two ministries are responsible for policy and professional matters, the development of educational infrastructure is done by the Ministry of local Government and Regional Development. In addition, vocational training is provided by the Ministry f Labour and Youth Development while Folk Development Colleges are under the Ministry of community Development, Gender and children. Other professional education and training programmes are offered by other line ministries like agriculture and health. The Ministries of education and Culture as well Science, Technology and Higher Education are responsible for developing education policies and curriculum, providing funding and teachers for public schools, maintain academic standards through inspection and training, and also examination and certification. The Ministry of education and Culture is managed by a minister, deputy minister, permanent secretary, chief education officer, five directors responsible for various divisions-basic education, secondary education, teacher education, policy and planning, and administration. There is also a personnel officer and chief inspector of schools. The responsibility of the Ministry of Education and Culture is to supervise and manage pre-primary, primary, secondary, special education, adult education, national culture and teacher education. The Ministry of Science, Technology, and Higher Education is responsible for promoting science, research and higher education. It is responsible for universities, technical training colleges and other tertiary institutions. It coordinated and regulates higher education and training through developing policies and legal frameworks. At the regional and urban council levels there are education boards appointed to oversee the day-to-day running of education activities and to provide the link between the central government and the local people. Further there are semi- autonomous institutions that perform particular functions as listed in Table 29. Table 29: Functions of education agencies in Tanzania Organization Tanzania Institute of Education Function Curriculum development and research

Providing training on curriculum implementation Development of curriculum and pedagogical materials Setting administration and marking of exams for all institutions below universities Certification and validation of qualifications Registration employment and deployment of teachers

National Examination Council of Tanzania

Teachers Service Commission Vocational Education

Coordinating and regulating technical and vocational training

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and Training Authority (VETA) National Arts Council Of Tanzania Kiswahili council of Tanzania Institute of Adult Education The Agency for Development Education Management (ADEM) Council for Higher education

Equating and validating professional or other qualifications Development of art-music, theatre and all forms of art Identify, harness and support talented artists Responsible for the development of Kiswahili language

Developing curriculum for adult and continuing education

Registration and accreditation of higher education institutions Coordinating and supervising academic progammes in private higher education and tertiary institutions.

Development Partners Development partners in education play a significant role in the development and provision of education in Tanzania. They include Sweden, Japan, Norway, German, Belgium, United Kingdom, China and South Korea as well as International organizations, NGOs and private sector that have contributed to education and culture. These include: World Bank, African Development Bank, NORAD, Sida, GTZ, DFID, WFP, UNICEF, UNESCO, UNFPA, UNDP, CIDA, ILO, EU, JICA, USAID, VSO, Celtel, Peace Corps, Book Aid international, Aga Khan Education Foundation, Plan International, World Vision, Ireland Aid, and CARE. Education laws and policies

The Education act No 25 of 1978: Education Sector Development Programme: Primary Education Development Plan (2002-2006) The Education and Training Policy; The Higher Education Policy The Technical Education and Training Policy; The National Science and Technology Policy; Cultural Policy; Tanzania Vision Development 2025; and; National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty

Education Challenges

Low transition rate from primary to secondary school. Less than one third of all candidates who sit Standard Seven (class7) examinations proceed to secondary schools yearly. Regional and gender disparities in access to primary education, with some regions registering 126 per cent enrollment while others 70 per cent.

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Inadequate teachers for the UPE programme. The national average teacher/pupil ratio ( TPR) is 1:58 although some regions like Kigoma have a ratio of 1:74. Poor remuneration and lack of teachers. Inadequate coordination within the departments responsible for provision of education Poor learning environments Shortage of teaching and learning materials. Lack of adequate funds to meet the high learning costs across all the levels.

Chapter Review
Please attempt the following questions; a) Identify and explain the goals of education in Tanzania b) Critically examine the educational challenges facing Tanzanian Education system c) Suggest ways of addressing these challenges d) What educational reforms would you suggest in the Tanzanian educational system in order to make it more relevant to the job market?

Reading Activity
Read the Education system in USA and Education system in Tanzania Compare the aims and structure of the two educational systems.

Chapter Twelve: Education in Uganda

Objectives
After you have read this chapter, you should be able to ; i) Describe the educational system in Uganda. ii) Identify the challenges facing educational system in Uganda. iii) Suggest ways of addressing the challenges facing educational system in Uganda iv) Suggest educational reforms in the educational system in Uganda that would make it more relevant to the job market.

Background information Uganda is a landlocked country located in the eastern part of Africa. It has a total surface of 241,039 square kilometers. It is bordered to the north by Sudan, to the east by Kenya, to the south by Tanzania, to southwest by Rwanda and to the west by the Democratic Republic of Congo.

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Uganda became in depended in 1962. However, it went through a turbulent political history for about two decades marked by coups and military dictatorship that slowed its socio-economic growth. It is not until 1986, when the National Resistance Movement (NRM) took over power, that the country started enjoying peace. Since, it has recorded significant growth in various sectors of the economy. It recorded an economic growth 5.3 per cent in 2005/6 and this is expected to rise to 5.6 per cent in 2006/7. Similarly, it recorded an inflation rate of 5.3 per cent. Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy, accounting for more than 50 per cent of the GDP. According to the 2002 Housing and Population Census, Uganda has a population of 24.4 million people. However, recent estimates put the population at 28 million as of 2006, with 50 per cent being children under 14 years. Literacy rate is 68 per cent, with 76 per cent for males and 61 per cent for females. English is the official language, however, Ganda or Luganda and Kiswahili are also widely spoken. Although the country has operated a no-party system in the past 20 years, a national referendum held in July 2005 paved the way for the introduction of multiparty politics in the country. Education System Vision Quality Education and Sports for All. Mission To provide for support, guide, coordinate, regulate and promote quality education and sports to all persons in Uganda for national integration, individual and national development. Objectives

To make significant and permanent gains in achieving equitable access to education at all levels; To improve considerably the quality of education particularly at the primary level; To enhance the management of education service delivery at all levels particularly the district level; and To develop the capacity of the ministry to plan, programme and manage an investment portfolio that will effectively and efficiently develop the education sector.

Overview of education system The current education system in Uganda has been in force since independence. It consists of one year preprimary education, seven years of primary education, two year of higher secondary and then three to five years of university education. After successful completion of the primary school cycle, one can either join lower secondary school or take a three year craft course in vocational and technical training. On average, only about 40 per cent of those leaving primary school are absorbed into the secondary cycle. On completion of secondary education, one can proceed to high school (Advanced Level); technical training institutes for advanced craft course that takes two or three years; primary teachers college for a two-year; or join the various government training colleges. Those completing "A" level either proceed to the university, national and technical training colleges or other higher education training institutions. Early childhood education

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The ministry of Education and Sports through the department of pre-primary and primary education is responsible for making policies; development of curriculum guidelines, training of teachers and caregivers; coordination and monitoring of ECE interventions. ECE targets children between four and five years. The ministry has developed a draft ECE policy while the National Curriculum Development Centre (NCDC) has developed a draft ECE learning framework, as well as produced and distributed non-book materials to Primary 1 and Primary 2 classes in government-aided schools. According to the ECE policy, the government is responsible for the provision of curriculum; teacher training supervision; and developing policy framework and guidelines for coordinating the programmes. Parents and communities are responsible for providing teaching and learning facilities and paying teachers' salaries. According to government statistics, there were 41,775 children enrolled in ECE in 2004, comprising 21,179 girls and 20,596 boys. The highest enrolments were recorded in 2002, when there were 78,257 pupils - 38,581 boys and 39,676 girls. However, it is noted that the apparent decline in enrolment may not represent the real situation on the ground because many centers do not submit their statistics to the central government. Other achievements made are the establishment of teacher training programmes for ECE teachers at the Institute of Education Kyambogo currently known as Kyambogo University. The training is offered at degree and diploma levels. Some of the challenges facing ECE include inadequate trained teachers, shortage of learning and teaching materials, poor curriculum, low enrolment ratios and lack of effective inspection. Primary Education Uganda was the first country in East Africa to introduce UPE in 1997, offering free schooling for four children in every family. This increased school enrolment dramatically from less than 3 million in 1997 to 6.8 million in 2003, rising to about 7.4 million in 2004. The figure has then stabilized at about 7.2 million in 2005, as the problem of over age learners has been contained. The gross enrolment rates have gone down from 132 per cent in 2000 to 118 per cent in 2005, with 119 per cent and 117 per cent for boys and girls. Similarly, the net enrolment has improved from 86.5 per cent in 2000 - 99.8 per cent for boys and 82.3 per cent girls to 93.01 per cent in 2005, comprising 95.6 per cent for boys and 92.4 per cent for girls. The gross enrolment rates have improved from 128 per cent in 2000 to 118 per cent in 2005, with girls recording the best improvement. The net enrolment rate has also been steadily raising, from 85.5 per cent in 2000 to 95 per cent in 2005. The implication of this is that there are more children aged between, 6-12 enrolled in primary schools. Although the number of qualified teachers rose to 99.6 per cent in 2002, the figure went down to 93 per cent in 2003 and 92 per cent in 2004. Similarly, the pupil-teacher ratio has come down, now standing at 51:1. Table 12 shows the cumulative progress in primary school enrolment between 2000 and 2005, while Table 13 represents the trends in basic education.

Table 12: Cumulative progress for the primary sub-sector in Uganda, 2000-2005 INDICATOR 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Pupils enrolment 5,351,099 5,917,216 6,575,827 6,835,525 6,687,574 (Government aided schools) Pupils enrolment in all 6,559,013 6,900,916 7,354,153 7,633,314 7,377,292 schools Teachers on payroll (as of 82,148 101,818 113,232 121,772 124,137 Sep. 2005)

2005 6,491,260 7,152,099 126,227

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Source: EMIS 2005

Secondary Education Secondary education has registered high enrolment growth rates since the mid-1990s, following the introduction of UPE, which saw large numbers of children join primary schools. The number of governmentaided secondary schools grew by 20 per cent while the private ones increased by 15 per cent in the past 10 years. According to the 2005 Annual School Census, there were 697,507 students enrolled in secondary schools in 2004. The figure was estimated to have risen to more than 700,000 in 2006. A key development in secondary education is the increased participation of girls. According to available statistics, girls constituted 45.5 per cent of students enrolled in secondary schools, while boys were 55.0 per cent. Some of the reasons for this was affirmative action, including providing proper sanitation for girls and creating conducive environment for them in schools. However, secondary education is still marked by low transition rates. In 2004, for example, only 50 per cent of the 400,000 pupils who completed primary school transited to post-secondary institutions. Another major development in Uganda's secondary education is the plan by the government to abolish fees and make it free for all qualified students. The universal secondary education (USE) is expected to start in January 2007 and will first benefit those enrolling in Form One and then move gradually until Form Four. Universal secondary education will put Uganda among the few countries in Africa to offer a complete free basic education covering 12 years. Special needs Education Special needs education has benefited from the UPE funds. Besides, children with special learning needs are integrated into normal schools through the policy of inclusive education. Through the various interventions, the number of children with special learning needs have increased quite significantly, from 26,429 before UPE to 218,380 in 2004. However, this declined to 182,350 in 2005 with 98,469 boys and 83,881 girls. To promote special needs education, the government has expanded programme for assessing those with learning difficulties and has also trained 3,663 teachers on special education. The interventions have enabled many children with special needs to stay in school, cope with their situations and compete with other children in class work. Enrolments in special needs education between 2000 and 2005 are captured in Table 14. Teacher Deployment and Quality Uganda has made progress in raising up the number and qualification of teachers at all levels. The number of primary school teachers has risen from 110,366 in 2000 to 147,242 in 2004. Similarly, the number of secondary school teachers grew to 37,297 in 2004, up from 30,384 in 2000. However, the number of teachers on the payroll has since gone down to 129,024 as of 2006 as school enrolments stabilized with the system having cleared over age learners. However, the teaching force is characterized by uneven distribution in terms of gender, with males dominating the profession at all levels. Table 15 and 16 represent the number of teachers and their qualifications at primary and secondary levels respectively. Non-formal education is provided to youth who missed the chance to go to regular primary schools for various reasons such as economic and environmental difficulties, as well as political conflict mainly in the northern part of the country. The programme targets youth in pastoral and fishing communities, those engaged in child labour and those living in conflict and hardship areas.

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There are a number of initiatives by the government, civil society, religious groups and development agencies. Some of these initiatives are: Alternative Basic Education for Karamoja (ABEK), Complementary Opportunities for Primary Education (COPE), Basic Education for Urban Poverty Areas (BEUPA), Child-centered Alternative Non-Formal Community Based Education (CHANCE), Empowering Lifelong Skills Education in Masindi (ELSE). There are 70,140 learners enrolled in the NFE programmes - 32,390 makes and 37,750 females. Table 17 shows the enrolment trends at the NFE centers.

Other interventions to support NFE are:

Provisions of grants to enable NFE centers acquire facilities and instructional materials. Recruitment of instructors and putting them on the government's payroll. Developing training modules NFE teachers and instructors.

Adult Literacy and Continuing Education The revival of adult literacy programmes started in 1992 with a pilot project in eight districts of Apac, Hoima, Kabarole, Mbarara, Mpigi, Mukono, Iganga and Kamuli. The project was then extended to cover 22 districts in 1999 and thereafter expanded to the whole country. Evaluations carried out on the programmes show that it has improved enrolments considerably. According to Uganda's National Adult Literacy Strategic Investment Plan, the country's literacy rate is 68 per cent - 76 per cent for men and 61 per cent for females. But the literacy levels vary according to regions, with the urban areas recording higher rates compared to the rural areas - 87 per cent and 59 per cent respectively. Some rural areas, especially in the north, have a literacy rate of 47 per cent compared to the Central region where the average literacy rate is 77 per cent. In total 5.5 million women and 1.4 million men are illiterate. Broadly, the functional Adult Literacy programmes is aimed at equipping the youth and adults, especially women, persons with disabilities and the elderly, with literacy and numeric skills to enable them to participate in the economic, socio-cultural and political transformation and modernization of Uganda, so as to reduce poverty. The overall objective of the programme is to increase people's access to information and participate in self, community and national development. Since inception, the programme has trained 30,000 literacy instructors, purchased and distributed 11,114 bicycles to literacy instructors countrywide and developed instructional materials. Through FAL, the number of adults enrolled in literacy programmes has grown considerably to the current 434,664, comprising 108,943 males and 325,721 females. Details of enrolment are contained in Table 18. Literacy materials have been produced in six languages- Luganda, Luo, Lunyankole, Lukiga, Lutoro, Ateso and Lukonjo. The literacy materials include primers, instructors' guides and charts. Some post-literacy programmes have also been developed to promote continuing education. Challenges

Inadequate training for literacy instructor (only one week training); Poor remuneration for the literacy instructors; Lack of programme ownership by the village, parish, sub-county and district authorities; Learning materials do not suit all the different languages or interest of the learners; Low participation by men who shy away from being seen as illiterate; Inadequate funding to provide teaching and learning materials.

Trends in higher education Higher education in Uganda is offered at the universities and other tertiary institutions, which admit those with six years of secondary education. The universities offer degree and diploma courses, while the tertiary institutions offer certificate and diploma courses. Higher education has grown significantly since the early 1990s, with enrolments increasing by about 90 percent to date. At least there are five public universities and 17 private universities in the country.

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However, transition rates are still low. Out of the 12,000 students who qualify for university education each year, just about 25 per cent of them get admission. Makerere University, the oldest in East Africa takes the bulk of these, while the others are absorbed in the other public and private universities. Table 19 gives a breakdown of the higher education institutions in Uganda, while Table 20 provides a list of the universities by category and location.

In 2001, the government enacted the university and other tertiary institutions Act which provides the legal basis for the development and management of higher education. The Act led to the establishment of the National Council for Higher Education, which is responsible for accreditation of universities, setting academic standards and maintaining quality assurance for all higher education institutions in the country. Financing Education Education is a priority area in Uganda's national development plan. It consumes 24.1 per cent of the GDP and takes 31.2 per cent of the national discretionary recurrent budget. The main investment is in UPE, whose goal is to ensure equitable access to quality education for all children. In total, primary education takes more than 65 per cent of the education budget, while secondary takes an average of 15 per cent, technical and vocational training about 4 per cent and university and other tertiary institutions about 10 per cent. Table 21 gives the budgetary allocation for the various education sub-sectors between 2003 and 2005. The overall responsibility for provision and development of education lies with the Ministry of Education and sports (MOES), which is headed by a full Minister and assisted by three Ministers of state responsible for various portfolios - Primary Education, Higher education and Sports. The MOES has seven technical departments headed by commissioners, who, except that of Education Planning, are answerable to the Director of Education. The departments are: Pre-primary Education; Primary Education; Secondary Education; Technical, Vocational and Business Education; Higher Education; Special Education and Career Guidance; Teachers Education; and Education Planning. MOES also has semi-autonomous Institutions that deal with specific functions explained in Table 22.

Table 22: Summary of functions of education agencies in Uganda Organization Function National Curriculum Development Centre Develop and review curriculum for primary and secondary education. Set learning competencies - Set up by a Decree of 1976. Uganda National Examination Board - Set up by Act of Parliament of 1983 Education Service Commission - Operationalised by Article 167 of the

Setting, administration and marking of exams for all institutions below universities. Certificate and validation of qualifications. Advising the President on the appointment of top civil servants in the education service. Recruiting staff into the education sector.

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1995 Constitution of Republic of Uganda

Determine minimum entry requirements for training teachers. Reviewing the terms and conditions of service of education service workers. Reviewing tenure, retirement and terminal benefits in the education service. Regulating and guiding the establishment of higher education and training institutions. Accreditation of institutional programmes Registration of private institutions Monitoring achievement of academic standards. Equating and validating professional or other qualifications. Set, define and review standards in education practice and provision at various institutions. Assess achievements of standards and evaluate effectiveness of educational programmes. Develop systematic approaches to inspection. Disseminate reports on education quality. Provide advice on educational provision and practice at all levels.

National Council for Higher Education - Created by an Act of Parliament in 2000

Education Standards Agency - Established through the Government white paper of 1992

Policy and Legal framework for Education In 1987, the government set up the Education Policy Review Commission (EPRC) that recommended policy reforms right from primary to tertiary levels. The commission underscored the fact that primary education must provide a solid foundation upon which other levels would be built. In 1995, Uganda adopted a new Constitution which further entrenched education in the country's laws. Article 30 of the constitution provides that: "All persons have a right to education." The Constitution also made it the obligation of the government to provide basic education to its citizens, thus Article 30 (XVIII) states: The state shall provide free and compulsory basic education.

The state shall take appropriate measures to afford every citizen equal opportunity to attain the highest level of education standard possible. In 1996, the government enacted the Children's Act of 1996 (Article 28), which also underscores the state's responsibility in providing every child with free and compulsory education of good quality. Another piece of legislation was enacted in 2001 - University and other Tertiary Education Act - that provides the framework for the development and management of higher education. All the legal provisions and programmes are implemented through the Education Sector Strategic Plan (ESSP), 2004-2005. The plan forms the basis for planning and investment in education in the medium term and in line with the provisions of the legal policies. Educational Challenges High enrolments against limited facilities. Low transition rates across the system Inadequate and poorly trained teachers. Gender imbalances. Providing education to children from disadvantaged communities. HIV/AIDS, which has caused death of pupils, teachers and parents with trauma and stigma associated with HIV/AIDS also affecting learning programmes.

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 Armed conflict/insurgency, especially in North/East Uganda, which has caused instability and displaced families, hence hampering education programmes Prohibitive cultural practices and attitudes, mostly affecting girls. Geographical barriers Strategies to tackle Education Challenges End armed conflict and ensure security and peaceful environment. Develop and promote education programmes that target war-affected areas and other disadvantaged groups. Strengthen laws on education and promote good governance. Mobilize resources and coordinate key stake holders, including communities, the private sector and development agencies to focus their resources to areas of need. Allocate more resources to education, at least 2 per cent of the GDP. Strengthen internal and external partnerships with various players. Decentralize education provision, supervision and management. Strengthen education management information system (EMIS). Enhance sub-regional and regional cooperation to promote African Renaissance. Create an enabling environment for full participation of women in education, leadership and other development programmes. Provide conditions that ensure the integration of disadvantaged groups in education and development. Intensify campaigns against HIV/AIDS and provide systems for supporting AIDS orphans.

Chapter Review
a) Identify and explain the goals of education in Uganda b) Critically examine the educational challenges facing Uganda Education system c) Suggest ways of addressing these challenges d) What educational reforms would you suggest in the Uganda educational system in order to make it more relevant to the job market?

Reading Activity
Read about the Education system in Brazil and the Education system in Uganda Compare the goals of education and financing of education of the two countries

Chapter Fourteen: Education in South Africa

Student Assignment
Obtain information from internet (recommended online free wikipedia source) and any other source you consider important to help you write a well documented report on the following; i) Background information on South Africa as a country ii) Aims of Education in the Educational System of South Africa iii) Structure of the educational system in South Africa iv) Administration of the educational system in South Africa

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v) Financing of the Educational System in South Africa vi)Challenges facing the educational system in South Africa vii) Suggest ways of addressing challenges facing the educational system in South Africa Your report should not exceed more than 5000 words.

Section Three: Contemporary Issues in Education

In this section the following chapters will be considered; Chapter Seventeen: Universal Primary Education (UPE) and Education for All (EFA). Chapter Eighteen:Equity and Education. Chapter Nineteen:Gender and Education. Chapter Twenty:Dependency and Education. Chapter Twenty One:Employment and Education. Chapter Twenty Two: Information CommunicationTechnology and Education. Chapter Twenty Three: Teacher Education. Chapter Twenty Four: Globalization and Education.
Chapter Seventeen: UPE and EFA
Objectives
After you have read this chapter, you should be able to; i) Explain the concepts of Universal Primary Education (UPE) and Education For All (EFA). ii) Explain how your country has endeavoured to implement these concepts through her educational system. iii) Identify the challenges facing the implementation of both UPE and EFA in you counrty. iv) Examine the relevance of these concepts in the education system of your country. v) Suggest ways of addressing the challenges of implementing UPE and EFA in your country.

Reading Activity

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Browse the internet for information on UPE and EFA for your country. Recommended site include UNESCO website and free online Wikipedia. Write a detailed report on the concepts of UPE and EFA

Chapter Eighteen: Equity and Education

Objectives
After you have read this chapter, you should be able to; i) Explain the concepts of Equity Education. ii) Explain how your country has endeavoured to achieve equity in education through the education system in your country. iii) Identify and explain factors that hinder achievement of equity in education in your counrty. iv) Suggest ways of enhancing achievement of equity in education in your country. v) Examine the relevance of equity in education in you country.

Reading Activity
Browse the internet for information on Equity in Education. Recommended site include free online Wikipedia.

Write a detailed report on the concept of Equity and education.

1.Explain how your country has endeavoured to achieve equity in education 2. What challenges does you country face when endeavouring to achieve equity in education? 3. Identify and explain efforts by your government aimed at achieving equity in education in your country. Write brief reports on this with a maximum of 1000 words in each case.

Chapter Nineteen: Gender and Education

Objectives
After you have read this chapter, you should be able to;

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i) Explain the concept of Gender and Education. ii) Identify and explain gender issues in education in your country. iii) Analyze how your country has addressed issues of gender disparity in education in your country. iv) Suggest ways of minimizing gender disparity in education in your country. v) Examine the relevance of gender and education in the education system in your country.

Reading Activity
Browse the internet for information on Gender and Education. Recommended site is free online wikipedia Write a detailed report on the concept of Gender and education.

1.Explain how your country has addressed the concept of gender in education. 2. What challenges does you country face when addressing issues of gender disparity in education? 3. Identify and explain efforts by your government aimed at minimizing gender disparity in education in your country. Write brief reports on this with a maximum of 1000 words in each case.
Chapter Twenty:Dependency and Education
Objectives
After you have read this chapter, you should be able to; i) Explain the concept of Dependency and Education. ii) Identify and explain indicators of dependency in education in your country. iii) Explain how and whether educational dependency in your country can be minimized. v) Examine the relevance of dependency and education in the education system in your country.

Reading Activity

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Browse the internet for information on Dependency and Education. Recommended site is free online wikipedia Write a detailed report on the concept of Dependency and education.

Chapter Twenty One:Employment and Education.

Objectives
After you have read this chapter, you should be able to; i) Explain the concepts of Employment and Education.(Employment, Unemployment, Educated unemployed, underemployment etc) ii) Identify and explain the role of education in promoting employment in your country. iii) Explain the major causes of unemployment in your country v) Examine how the education system in your country can help in addressing various issues of unemployment.

Reading Activity
Browse the internet for information on Employment and Education. Recommended site is free online wikipedia

Chapter22 : INFORMATION, COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY AND EDUCATION

OBJECTIVES
After you have read this chapter you should be able to; i) Define the various terms used in ICT ii) Examine the promise of ICTs in educatuion iii)Explain the uses of ICTs in education iv) Analyze issues in the use of ICTs in education. v) Examine key challenges in integrating ICTs in education

Introduction Globalization and technological change-processes that have accelerated in tandem over the past fifteen yearshave created a new global economy "powered by technology, fueled by information and driven by knowledge." [1] The emergence of this new global economy has serious implications for the nature and purpose of educational institutions. As the half-life of information continues to shrink and access to information continues to grow exponentially, schools cannot remain mere venues for the transmission of a prescribed set of information from teacher to student over a fixed period of time. Rather, schools must promote "learning to learn," : i.e., the acquisition of knowledge and skills that make possible continuous learning over the lifetime. [2]

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"The illiterate of the 21st century," according to futurist Alvin Toffler,"will not be those who cannot read and write, but those who cannot learn, unlearn, and relearn." Concerns over educational relevance and quality coexist with the imperative of expanding educational opportunities to those made most vulnerable by globalization-developing countries in general; low-income groups, girls and women, and low-skilled workers in particular. Global changes also put pressure on all groups to constantly acquire and apply new skills. The International Labour Organization defines the requirements for education and training in the new global economy simply as "Basic Education for All","CoreWork Skills for All"and "Lifelong Learning for All". [3] Information and communication technologies (ICTs)-which include radio and television, as well as newer digital technologies such as computers and the Internet-have been touted as potentially powerful enabling tools for educational change and reform. When used appropriately, different ICTs are said to help expand access to education, strengthen the relevance of education to the increasingly digital workplace, and raise educational quality by, among others, helping make teaching and learning into an engaging, active process connected to real life. However, the experience of introducing different ICTs in the classroom and other educational settings all over the world over the past several decades suggests that the full realization of the potential educational benefits of ICTs is not automatic. The effective integration of ICTs into the educational system is a complex, multifaceted process that involves not just technology-indeed, given enough initial capital, getting the technology is the easiest part!-but also curriculum and pedagogy, institutional readiness, teacher competencies, and long-term financing, among others. This primer is intended to help policymakers in developing countries define a framework for the appropriate and effective use of ICTs in their educational systems by first providing a brief overview of the potential benefits of ICT use in education and the ways by which different ICTs have been used in education thus far. Second, it addresses the four broad issues in the use of ICTs in education-effectiveness, cost, equity, and sustainability. The primer concludes with a discussion of five key challenges that policymakers in developing countries must reckon with when making decisions about the integration of ICTs in education, namely, educational policy and planning, infrastructure, capacity building, language and content, and financing.

The Promise of ICTs in Education

For developing countries ICTs have the potential for increasing access to and improving the relevance and quality of education. It thus represents a potentially equalizing strategy for developing countries. [ICTs] greatly facilitate the acquisition and absorption of knowledge, offering developing countries unprecedented opportunities to enhance educational systems, improve policy formulation and execution, and widen the range of opportunities for business and the poor. One of the greatest hardships endured by the poor, and by many others who live in the poorest countries, is their sense of isolation. The new communications technologies promise to reduce that sense of isolation, and to open access to knowledge in ways unimaginable not long ago [12] However, the reality of the Digital Divide-the gap between those who have access to and control of technology and those who do not-means that the introduction and integration of ICTs at different levels and in various types of education will be a most challenging undertaking. Failure to meet the challenge would mean a further widening of the knowledge gap and the deepening of existing economic and social inequalities.

How can ICTs help expand access to education?

ICTs are a potentially powerful tool for extending educational opportunities, both formal and non-formal, to previously underserved constituencies-scattered and rural populations, groups traditionally excluded from education due to cultural or social reasons such as ethnic minorities, girls and women, persons with disabilities,

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and the elderly, as well as all others who for reasons of cost or because of time constraints are unable to enroll on campus. Anytime, anywhere. One defining feature of ICTs is their ability to transcend time and space. ICTs make possible asynchronous learning, or learning characterized by a time lag between the delivery of instruction and its reception by learners. Online course materials, for example, may be accessed 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. ICT-based educational delivery (e.g., educational programming broadcast over radio or television) also dispenses with the need for all learners and the instructor to be in one physical location. Additionally, certain types of ICTs, such as teleconferencing technologies, enable instruction to be received simultaneously by multiple, geographically dispersed learners (i.e., synchronous learning). Access to remote learning resources. Teachers and learners no longer have to rely solely on printed books and other materials in physical media housed in libraries (and available in limited quantities) for their educational needs. With the Internet and the World Wide Web, a wealth of learning materials in almost every subject and in a variety of media can now be accessed from anywhere at anytime of the day and by an unlimited number of people. This is particularly significant for many schools in developing countries, and even some in developed countries, that have limited and outdated library resources. ICTs also facilitate access to resource persons- mentors, experts, researchers, professionals, business leaders, and peers-all over the world.

How does the use of ICTs help prepare individuals for the workplace?
One of the most commonly cited reasons for using ICTs in the classroom has been to better prepare the current generation of students for a workplace where ICTs, particularly computers, the Internet and related technologies, are becoming more and more ubiquitous. Technological literacy, or the ability to use ICTs effectively and efficiently, is thus seen as representing a competitive edge in an increasingly globalizing job market.Technological literacy,however,is not the only skill well-paying jobs in the new global economy will require. EnGauge of the North Central Regional Educational Laboratory (U.S.) has identified what it calls "21st Century Skills," which includes digital age literacy (consisting of functional literacy, visual literacy, scientific literacy, technological literacy, information literacy, cultural literacy, and global awareness), inventive thinking, higher-order thinking and sound reasoning, effective communication,and high productivity. [13] (See Table 1 for a brief explanation of each skill.) The potential of ICTs to promote the acquisition of these skills is tied to its use as a tool for raising educational quality, including promoting the shift to a learner-centred environment.

How can the use of ICTs help improve the quality of education?
Improving the quality of education and training is a critical issue, particularly at a time of educational expansion. ICTs can enhance the quality of education in several ways: by increasing learner motivation and engagement, by facilitating the acquisition of basic skills, and by enhancing teacher training. [14] ICTs are also transformational tools which, when used appropriately, can promote the shift to a learner-centered environment. Motivating to learn. ICTs such as videos, television and multimedia computer software that combine text,sound, and colorful, moving images can be used to provide challenging and authentic content that will engage the student in the learning process. Interactive radio likewise makes use of sound effects, songs, dramatizations, comic skits, and other performance conventions to compel the students to listen and become involved in the lessons being delivered. More so than any other type of ICT, networked computers with Internet connectivity can increase learner motivation as it combines the media richness and interactivity of other ICTs with the opportunity to connect with real people and to participate in real world events.

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Facilitating the acquisition of basic skills. The transmission of basic skills and concepts that are the foundation of higher order thinking skills and creativity can be facilitated by ICTs through drill and practice. Educational television programs such as Sesame Street use repetition and reinforcement to teach the alphabet, numbers, colors, shapes and other basic concepts. Most of the early uses of computers were for computer-based learning (also called computer-assisted instruction) that focused on mastery of skills and content through repetition and reinforcement. (See section below on Computer-Based Learning.) Enhancing teacher training. ICTs have also been used to improve access to and the quality of teacher training. For example, institutions like the Cyber Teacher Training Center (CTTC) in South Korea are taking advantage of the Internet to provide better teacher professional development opportunities to in-service teachers. The government-funded CTTC, established in 1997, offers self-directed, self-paced Web-based courses for primary and secondary school teachers. Courses include "Computers in the Information Society,""Education Reform," and "Future Society and Education." Online tutorials are also offered, with some courses requiring occasional face-to-face meetings. [15] In China, large-scale radio-and television-based teacher education has for many years been conducted by the China Central Radio and TV University, [16] the Shanghai Radio and TV University and many other RTVUs in the country. At Indira Gandhi National Open University, satellite-based one-way video- and two-way audio-conferencing was held in 1996, supplemented by printmaterials and recorded video, to train 910 primary school teachers and facilitators from 20 district training institutes in Karnataka State. The teachers interacted with remote lecturers by telephone and fax. [17]

How can ICTs help transform the learning environment into one that is learnercentered?
Research has shown that the appropriate use of ICTs can catalyze the paradigmatic shift in both content and pedagogy that is at the heart of education reform in the 21st century. [19] If designed and implemented properly, ICT-supported education can promote the acquisition of the knowledge and skills that will empower students for lifelong learning. When used appropriately, ICTs-especially computers and Internet technologies- enable new ways of teaching and learning rather than simply allow teachers and students to do what they have done before in a better way. These new ways of teaching and learning are underpinned by constructivist theories of learning and constitute a shift from a teacher-centered pedagogy-in its worst form characterized by memorization and rote learning-to one that is learner-centered. (See Table 2 for a comparison of a traditional pedagogy and an emerging pedagogy enabled by ICTs.) Active learning. ICT-enhanced learning mobilizes tools for examination, calculation and analysis of information, thus providing a platform for student inquiry, analysis and construction of new information. Learners therefore learn as they do and, whenever appropriate, work on real-life problems in-depth, making learning less abstract and more relevant to the learner's life situation. In this way, and in contrast to memorization-based or rote learning, ICT-enhanced learning promotes increased learner engagement. ICTenhanced learning is also "just-in-time" learning in which learners can choose what to learn when they need to learn it. Collaborative learning. ICT-supported learning encourages interaction and cooperation among students, teachers, and experts regardless of where they are. Apart from modeling real-world interactions, ICT-supported learning provides learners the opportunity to work with people from different cultures, thereby helping to enhance learners' teaming and communicative skills as well as their global awareness. It models learning done throughout the learner's lifetime by expanding the learning space to include not just peers but also mentors and experts from different fields. Creative Learning. ICT-supported learning promotes the manipulation of existing information and the creation of real-world products rather than the regurgitation of received information.

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 Integrative learning. ICT-enhanced learning promotes a thematic, integrative approach to teaching and learning. This approach eliminates the artificial separation between the different disciplines and between theory and practice that characterizes the traditional classroom approach. Evaluative learning. ICT-enhanced learning is student-directed and diagnostic. Unlike static, text- or printbased educational technologies, ICT-enhanced learning recognizes that there are many different learning pathways and many different articulations of knowledge. ICTs allow learners to explore and discover rather than merely listen and remember.

The Uses of ICTs in Education

Education policymakers and planners must first of all be clear about what educational outcomes (as discussed above) are being targeted.These broad goals should guide the choice of technologies to be used and their modalities of use. The potential of each technology varies according to how it is used. Haddad and Draxler identify at least five levels of technology use in education: presentation, demonstration, drill and practice, interaction, and collaboration. [20] Each of the different ICTs-print, audio/video cassettes, radio and TV broadcasts, computers or the Internet-may be used for presentation and demonstration, the most basic of the five levels. Except for video technologies, drill and practice may likewise be performed using the whole range of technologies. On the other hand, networked computers and the Internet are the ICTs that enable interactive and collaborative learning best; their full potential as educational tools will remain unrealized if they are used merely for presentation or demonstration. ICTs stand for information and communication technologies and are defined, for the purposes of this primer, as a "diverse set of technological tools and resources used to communicate, and to create, disseminate, store, and manage information." [4] These technologies include computers, the Internet, broadcasting technologies (radio and television), and telephony.

How have radio and TV broadcasting been used in education?

Radio and television have been used widely as educational tools since the 1920s and the 1950s, respectively. There are three general approaches to the use of radio and TV broadcasting in education: [21] direct class teaching, where broadcast programming substitutes for teachers on a temporary basis; school broadcasting, where broadcast programming provides complementary teaching and learning resources not otherwise available; and general educational programming over community, national and international stations which provide general and informal educational opportunities. The notable and best documented example of the direct class teaching approach is Interactive Radio Instruction (IRI).This consists of "ready-made 20-30 minute direct teaching and learning exercises to the classroom on a daily basis. The radio lessons, developed around specific learning objectives at particular levels of maths, science, health and languages in national curricula, are intended to improve the quality of classroom teaching and to act as a regular, structured aid to poorly trained classroom teachers in under-resourced schools." [22] IRI projects have been implemented in Latin America and Africa. In Asia, IRI was first implemented in Thailand in 1980; Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal rolled out their own IRI projects in the 1990s. [23] What differentiates IRI from most other distance education programs is that its primary objective is to raise the quality of learning-and not merely to expand educational access-and it has had much success in both formal and non-formal settings. [24] Extensive research around the world has shown that many

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IRI projects have had a positive impact on learning outcomes and on educational equity. And with its economies of scale, it has proven to be a cost-effective strategy relative to other interventions.[25] Mexico's Telesecundaria is another notable example of direct class teaching, this time using broadcast television. The programme was launched in Mexico in 1968 as a cost-effective strategy for expanding lower secondary schooling in small and remote communities. Perraton describes the programme thus: Centrally produced television programs are beamed via satellite throughout the country on a scheduled basis (8 am to 2 pm and 2 pm to 8 pm) to Telesecundaria schools, covering the same secondary curriculum as that offered in ordinary schools. Each hour focuses on a different subject area and typically follows the same routine-15 minutes of television, then book-led and teacher-led activities. Students are exposed to a variety of teachers on television but have one home teacher at the school for all disciplines in each grade. [26] The design of the programme has undergone many changes through the years, shifting from a "talking heads"approach to more interactive and dynamic programming that "link[s] the community to the programme around the teaching method. The strategy meant combining community issues into the programs, offering children an integrated education, involving the community at large in the organization and management of the school and stimulating students to carry out community activities." [27] Assessments of Telesecundaria have been encouraging: drop out rates are slightly better than those of general secondary schools and significantly better than in technical schools. [28] In Asia, the 44 radio and TV universities in China (including the China Central Radio and Television University), Universitas Terbuka in Indonesia, and Indira Ghandi National Open University have made extensive use of radio and television, both for direct class teaching and for school broadcasting, to reach more of their respective large populations. For these institutions, broadcasts are often accompanied by printed materials and audio cassettes. Japan's University of the Air was broadcasting 160 television and 160 radio courses in 2000. Each course consists of 15 45-minute lectures broadcast nationwide once a week for 15 weeks. Courses are aired over University-owned stations from 6 am to 12 noon. Students are also given supplemental print materials, face-toface instruction, and online tutorials.. [29] Often deployed with print materials, cassettes and CD-ROMS, school broadcasting, like direct class teaching,is geared to national curricula and developed for a range of subject areas. But unlike direct class instruction, school broadcasting is not intended to substitute for the teacher but merely as an enrichment of traditional classroom instruction. School broadcasting is more flexible than IRI since teachers decide how they will integrate the broadcast materials into their classes. Large broadcasting corporations that provide school broadcasts include the British Broadcasting Corporation Education Radio TV in the United Kingdom and the NHK Japanese Broadcasting Station. In developing countries, school broadcasts are often a result of a partnership between the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Information.

What is teleconferencing and what have been its educational uses?

Teleconferencing refers to "interactive electronic communication among people located at two or more different places." [31] There are four types of teleconferencing based on the nature and extent of interactivity and the sophistication of the technology: 1) audioconferencing; 2) audio-graphic conferencing, 3) videoconferencing; and 4) Web-based conferencing. Audioconferencing involves the live (real-time) exchange of voice messages over a telephone network. When low-bandwidth text and still images such as graphs, diagrams or pictures can also be exchanged along with voice messages, then this type of conferencing is called audiographic. Non-moving visuals are added using a computer keyboard or by drawing/writing on a graphics tablet or whiteboard.

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Videoconferencing allows the exchange not just of voice and graphics but also of moving images. Videoconferencing technology does not use telephone lines but either a satellite link or television network (broadcast/cable). Web-based conferencing, as the name implies, involves the transmission of text, and graphic, audio and visual media via the Internet; it requires the use of a computer with a browser and communication can be both synchronous and asynchronous. Teleconferencing is used in both formal and non-formal learning contexts to facilitate teacher-learner and learner-learner discussions, as well as to access experts and other resource persons remotely. In open and distance learning, teleconferencing is a useful tool for providing direct instruction and learner support, minimizing learner isolation. For instance, an audiographic teleconferencing network between Tianjin Medical University in China and four outlying Tianjin municipalities was piloted in 1999 as part of a multi-year collaboration between Tianjin Medical University and the University of Ottawa School of Nursing funded by the Canadian International Development Agency. The audio-graphic teleconferencing network aims to provide continuing education and academic upgrading to nurses in parts of Tianjin municipality where access to nursing education has been extremely limited. [32] Other higher education institutions using teleconferencing in their online learning programs include the Open University of the United Kingdom, Unitar (Universiti Tun Abdul Ruzak) in Malaysia, Open University of Hong Kong, and Indira Gandhi National Open University.

How have computers and the Internet been used for teaching and learning?
There are three general approaches to the instructional use of computers and the Internet, namely: Learning about computers and the Internet, in which technological literacy is the end goal; Learning with computers and the Internet, in which the technology facilitates learning across the curriculum; and Learning through computers and the Internet, integrating technological skills development with curriculum applications. [33]

What does it mean to learn about computers and the Internet?

Learning about computers and the Internet focuses on developing technological literacy. It typically includes: Fundamentals: basic terms, concepts and operations Use of the keyboard and mouse Use of productivity tools such as word processing, spreadsheets, data base and graphics programs Use of research and collaboration tools such as search engines and email Basic skills in using programming and authoring applications such as Logo or HyperStudio Developing an awareness of the social impact of technological change. [34]

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What about learning with computers and the Internet?

Learning with the technology means focusing on how the technology can be the means to learning ends across the curriculum. It includes: Presentation, demonstration, and the manipulation of data using productivity tools Use of curriculum-specific applications types such as educational games, drill and practice, simulations, tutorials, virtual laboratories, visualizations and graphical representations of abstract concepts, musical composition, and expert systems Use of information and resources on CD-ROM or online such as encyclopedia, interactive maps and atlases, electronic journals and other references. [35] Technological literacy is required for learning with technologies to be possible, implying a two-step process in which students learn about the technologies before they can actually use them to learn. However, there have been attempts to integrate the two approaches.

What does learning through computers and the Internet mean?

Learning through computers and the Internet combines learning about them with learning with them. It involves learning the technological skills "just-in-time" or when the learner needs to learn them as he or she engages in a curriculum-related activity. For example, secondary school students who must present a report on the impact on their community of an increase in the price of oil for an Economics class may start doing research online, using spreadsheet and database programs to help organize and analyze the data they have collected, as well using a word processing application to prepare their written report.

How are computers and the Internet used in distance education?

Many higher educational institutions offering distance education courses have started to leverage the Internet to improve their programme's reach and quality. The Virtual University of the Monterrey Institute of Technology in Mexico uses a combination of print, live and recorded broadcasts, and the Internet to deliver courses to students throughout Mexico and in several Latin American countries. Similarly, the African Virtual University, initiated in 1997 with funding support from the World Bank, uses satellite and Internet technologies to provide distance learning opportunities to individuals in various English-speaking and French-speaking countries throughout Africa. At the University of the Philippines Open University, course materials are still predominantly print-based but online tutorials are becoming a convenient alternative to face-to-face tutorials especially for students unwilling or unable to go to UPOU's various physical learning centres. About 70-90% of UPOU's degree courses offer online tutorials as an option, while in several of its non-degree courses tutorials are conducted only online. But even in Korea, where infrastructure is among the best in the world, and government has put considerable financial and other resources behind an ambitious ICT-based re-tooling of its educational system, challenges to online education persist. (See Box 3.)

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Internet- and Web-based initiatives have also been developed at the secondary education level. The Virtual High School is a result of efforts of a nationwide consortium of school districts in the United States to promote the development and sharing of Web-based courses. In Canada, Open School offers a wide range of courses and resources to grades K-12 teachers and students that meet the requirements of the British Columbia curriculum. Course delivery is done through a mix of broadcast and video, while some courses are delivered totally online. [36] The biggest movers in e-learning, however, are not found within academe but in the private sector. John Chambers, CEO of Cisco, famously predicted that e-learning would be the next big killer application, and corporations are moving aggressively to fulfill this prediction. Merrill Lynch estimates that the combined higher education and corporate e-learning markets in the US will grow from $US2.3 billion in 2000 to US$18 billion in 2003, with corporate training accounting for almost two thirds of that growth. [37] Indeed, the number of corporate universities have grown from 400 to 1,800 over the last 13 years. Corporate universities are primarily in-house organizations in large multinational companies that make use of videoconferencing and the Internet for employee training. [38] If this rate of growth continues, the number of corporate universities will exceed the number of traditional universities by 2010. [39] A parallel development in business is the growth of a new breed of companies that offer online training services to small- and medium-sized enterprises. [40]

What is telecollaboration?
Online learning involving students logging in to formal courses online is perhaps the most commonly thought of application of the Internet in education. However, it is by no means the only application. Web-based collaboration tools, such as email, listservs, message boards, real-time chat, and Web-based conferencing, connect learners to other learners, teachers, educators, scholars and researchers, scientists and artists, industry leaders and politicians-in short, to any individual with access to the Internet who can enrich the learning process. The organized use of Web resources and collaboration tools for curriculum appropriate purposes is called telecollaboration. Judi Harris defines telecollaboration as "an educational endeavor that involves people in different locations using Internet tools and resources to work together. Much educational telecollaboration is curriculum-based, teacher-designed, and teacher-coordinated. Most use e-mail to help participants communicate with each other. Many telecollaborative activities and projects have Web sites to support them." [41] The best telecollaborative projects are those that are fully integrated into the curriculum and not just extracurricular activities, those in which technology use enables activities that would not have been possible without it, and those that empower students to become active, collaborative, creative, integrative, and evaluative learners (see Table 1).There are currently hundreds of telecollaborative projects being implemented worldwide and many more that have either been completed or are in development. One example is the Voices of Youth [42] project developed by UNICEF. It encourages students to share their views on global issues, such as HIV/AIDS and child labour, with other youth and adults around the world through an electronic discussion forum. The Voices of Youth website also provides background information on the different discussion topics as well as resource materials to help teachers integrate the Voice of Youth discussions in their other classroom activities. The International Telementor Program (ITP) [43] links students with mentor-experts through email and discussion forums. Founded in 1995 with support from Hewlett Packard, ITP provides project-based online mentoring support to 5th to 12th grade and university students, especially from at-risk communities. The ITP telementor typically meets online with the student at least once every two weeks to answer questions, discuss key issues, recommend useful resources, and comment on student output. The teacher's role, on the other hand, is to provide support to both student and telementor, monitor the telementoring process, and track the student's progress. Perhaps the most widely cited telecollaborative project is the Global Learning and Observations to Benefit the Environment (GLOBE) Program.[44] GLOBE is a U.S. Government-sponsored programme launched in 1994 that links primary and secondary students and teachers from over 10,000 schools in more than 95 countries to the scientific research community. GLOBE gives students the opportunity to collaborate with scientists in

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conducting earth science research. Participating students periodically take measurements of the atmosphere, water, soils, and land cover at or near their schools, following strict protocols designed by GLOBE scientists. They then enter this data to a central Web-based database. The database may be accessed by scientists, researchers and the general public. GLOBE also provides teachers with guidelines and materials for structured learning activities that take off from the students' hands-on experience. Students can also go to the GLOBE website for visualizations of the data they and other students have collected.

Issues in the Use of ICTs in Education

Effectiveness, cost, equity, and sustainability are four broad intertwined issues which must be addressed when considering the overall impact of the use of ICTs in education.

Does ICT-enhanced learning really work?

The educational effectiveness of ICTs depends on how they are used and for what purpose. And like any other educational tool or mode of educational delivery, ICTs do not work for everyone, everywhere in the same way. Enhancing access. It is difficult to quantify the degree to which ICTs have helped expand access to basic education since most of the interventions for this purpose have been small-scale and under-reported. One exception is the television-based project Telesecundaria (discussed in a previous section), which in 1997-98 was serving over 750,000 junior secondary students in 12,000 centres in Mexico. In Asia and Africa, assessments of distance learning projects at the junior secondary level using a combination of print, taped, and broadcast technologies have been less conclusive, while at the primary level there is little evidence that ICTbased models have thrived. [45] In higher education and adult training, there is some evidence that educational opportunities are being opened to individuals and groups who are constrained from attending traditional universities. Each of the 11 so-called mega-universities, the biggest and most well-established open and distance institutions in the world (which include the Open University of the United Kingdom, the Indira Gandhi National Open University of India, the China TV University System, the Universitas Terbuka of Indonesia, and the University of South Africa, among others) has an annual enrollment of more than 100,000, and together they serve approximately 2.8 million. Compare that with the 14 million combined enrollment of the 3,500 colleges and universities in the United States. [46] Raising quality.The impact of educational radio and television broadcasts on the quality of basic education remains an under-researched area, but what little research there is suggests that these interventions are as effective as traditional classroom instruction. [47] Of the many educational broadcast projects, the Interactive Radio Instruction project has been the most comprehensively analyzed. Findings provide strong evidence of the project's effectiveness in raising the quality of education as demonstrated by increased scores on standardized tests as well as improved attendance. [48] In contrast, assessments of the use of computers, the Internet and related technologies for distance learning have been equivocal. Russell, in his comprehensive review of research, claims that there is "no significant difference" between the test scores of learners taking ICT-based distance learning courses and those receiving face-to-face instruction. [49] However, others claim that such generalizations are inconclusive, pointing out that the large number of articles on ICT-based distance learning does not include original experimental research or case studies.[50] Other critics argue that dropout rates are much higher when instruction is delivered at a distance via ICTs. There have also been many studies that seem to support the claim that the use of computers enhances and amplifies existing curricula, as measured through standardized testing. Specifically, research shows that the use of computers as tutors, for drill and practice, and for instructional delivery, combined with traditional instruction, results in increases in learning in the traditional curriculum and basic skills areas, as well as higher test scores in some subjects compared to traditional instruction alone. Students also learn more quickly, demonstrate greater retention, and are better motivated to learn when they work with computers. [51] But there are those who claim that these represent modest gains and, in any case, much of the research on which these claims are based are methodologically flawed.

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Research likewise suggests that the use of computers, the Internet, and related technologies, given adequate teacher training and support, can indeed facilitate the transformation of the learning environment into a learnercentered one. But these studies are criticized for being mostly exploratory and descriptive in nature and lacking in empirical rigor. There is as yet no strong evidence that this new learning environment fosters improved learning outcomes. What does exist are qualitative data based on observations and analysis of student and teacher perceptions that suggest a positive impact on learning. [52] One of the most critical problems in trying to assess the effectiveness of computers and the Internet as transformational tools is that standardized tests cannot capture the kinds of benefits that are expected to be gained in a learner-centered environment. Moreover, since technology use is fully integrated into the larger learning system, it is very difficult to isolate the technology variable and determine whether any observed gains are due to technology use or to some other factor or combination of factors.

How much does it cost?

Broadly speaking, educational television broadcasts and computer-based and online learning are more expensive than radio broadcasts. [53]There is disagreement, however, over whether television broadcasts are cheaper than computer-based and online learning. [54] That said, categorical assessments of cost-effectiveness are difficult to make because of lack of data, differences in programs, problems of generalization, and problems of quantification of educational outcomes and opportunity costs. [55] Speaking specifically of computers and the Internet, Blurton argues that "[w]hen considering whether ICT is "cost-effective" in educational settings, a definitive conclusion may not be possible for a variety of reasons. However, when considering the alternative of building more physical infrastructure, the cost savings to be realized from sharing resources, and the societal price of not providing access, ICT as a means of enabling teaching and learning appears to be an attractive and necessary alternative." [56] A common mistake in estimating the cost of a particular ICT educational application is to focus too much on initial fixed costs-purchase of equipment, construction or retrofitting of physical facilities, initial materials production, and the like. But studies of the use of computers in classrooms, for example, show that installation of hardware and retrofitting of physical facilities account for only between 40% to 60% of the full cost of using the computers over their lifetime, or its total cost of ownership. [57] In fact, while at first glance it may seem that the initial purchase of hardware and software is the costliest part of the process, the bulk of the total cost of ownership is spread out over time, with annual maintenance and support costs (known as variable or recurrent costs) constituting between 30% to 50% of the total cost of hardware and software. The cost of professional development, another variable cost, also accumulates over time. For computer-based approaches the total cost of ownership therefore includes: FIXED COSTS Retrofitting of physical facilities Hardware and networking Software Upgrades and replacement (in about five years)

VARIABLE OR RECURRENT COSTS Professional development Connectivity, including Internet access and telephone time

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 Maintenance and support, including utilities and supplies In order to determine cost efficiencies, fixed costs must be distinguished from variable costs, and the balance between the two understood. If the fixed costs of a technology project are high and its variable costs are low, then there will be cost advantages to scaling up. This is the case with general educational radio and television broadcasting. Programs such as Sesame Street and Discovery are more cost-efficient the larger their audience since the high cost of production is distributed over a larger viewer base while no staff expenditures are made for learner support. On the other hand, the case of Telesecundaria in Mexico demonstrates that the impact of higher variable costs related to learner support may be offset if the scale of the project is sufficiently large to the point where per student costs compare favorably with those of traditional schools. Similarly, with the Interactive Radio Instruction project annual cost per student is estimated to fall from US$8.25 with 100,000 students to US$3.12 with 1,000,000. [58] Obviously, these economies of scale may be achieved only in countries with large populations. Open and distance learning institutions have also achieved cost-effectiveness through economies of scale. Per student costs of the 11 mega-universities range from only 5% to 50% of the average of the traditional universities in their respective countries. [59] The introduction of computers represents additional costs for schools but without short-term cost advantages. Data on cost of computer use per student in both primary and secondary schools in fact suggest costineffectiveness. In Chile, for example, cost per primary school student is between US$22 and US$83, with expenditures for computer use requiring 10% to 37% of the national primary school budget.. [60] In the U.S., computer investments accounted for 1.3% of total expenditure on schools, with annual cost per student at US$70. [61] Perraton and Creed suggest that these levels of cost support the argument against putting computers in every classroom, particularly in primary schools where there are no strong curricular arguments for investment in computers. In secondary schools, spending money on computers may be justified by the curriculum but this will come with significant increases in total school expenditure. [62] Another dimension of cost is location, or who will pay for what. In projects that involve computers connected to the Internet, either the school or student or both bear the variable costs related to operations such as maintenance, Internet service charges, and telephone line charges. In contrast, with radio programming the learner has to pay only for a radio and a set of batteries.

Is there equity of access to ICTs in education? ==

Given the wide disparities in access to ICTs between rich and poor countries and between different groups within countries, there are serious concerns that the use of ICTs in education will widen existing divisions drawn along economic, social, cultural, geographic, and gender lines. Ideally, one wishes for equal opportunity to participate. But access for different actors-both as users and producers-is weighted by their resources. Hence, initial differences are often reproduced, reinforced, and even magnified....A formidable challenge, therefore, continues to face planners of international education: how to define the problem and provide assistance for development. [63] The introduction of ICTs in education, when done without careful deliberation, can result in the further marginalization of those who are already underserved and/or disadvantaged. For example, women have less access to ICTs and fewer opportunities for ICT-related training compared to men because of illiteracy and lack of education, lack of time, lack of mobility, and poverty. [64] Boys are more likely than girls to have access to computers in school and at home. Not surprisingly, boys tend to enjoy working with computers more than girls. [65] As the American Association of University Women reports, "Girls have narrowed some significant gender

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gaps, but technology is now the new boys' club' in our nation's public schools. While boys programme and problem solve with computers, girls use computers for word processing...". [66] In an evaluation of its programme in four African countries, Worldlinks,. [67] an organization that promotes project-based, international telecollaboration activities among secondary school teachers and students from developing countries, it was found that despite efforts to make the programme gender neutral, gender inequalities in access persist in Uganda and Ghana. Furthermore, while girls benefited more from the programme in terms of improved academic performance and communication skills, boys were able to hone their technological skills more. A complex of economic, organizational, and sociocultural factors account for these differences: "High student-to-computer ratios and first come-first serve policies do not favour girls (typically heavily outnumbered by boys at the secondary level), girls have earlier curfew hours and domestic chore responsibilities which limit their access time, and local patriarchal beliefs tend to allow boys to dominate the computer lab environment.". [68] Measures proposed to address this gender bias include encouraging schools to develop "fair use" policies in computer labs, conducting gender sensitivity sessions, and advocating for reducing the after-school duties of girls to give them more time to use the computer lab. [69] Girls also need to have female role models to inspire them to participate in technology-related activities. [70] Providing access to ICTs is only one facet of efforts to address equity issues. Equal attention must be paid to ensuring that the technology is actually being used by the target learners and in ways that truly serve their needs. An ICT-supported educational programme that illustrates this wholistic approach is the Enlace Quich:Bilingual Education in Guatemala Through Teacher Training programme.. [71] The programme seeks to establish and maintain bilingual education technology centres for educators, students, teachers, parents, and community members in Quich and neighboring areas. The technical teams for each centre are composed of three students, two teachers, and the centre administrator, with at least one female student and one female teacher. Another objective of Enlace Quich is the creation of multimedia bilingual educational materials that are anchored on the Mayan culture and that reflect a constructivist approach to learning. As the project website notes, this "demonstrate[s] that the technology can be used to know, to conserve, to disclose and to value local knowledge." The project thus illustrates a model for bridging the digital divide arising from the monopoly in Internet content provision by Western and English-speaking groups and from uneven capacities to make purposeful, relevant and critical use of digital resources (see section on language and content below). Another example of a wholistic approach to ICT integration in education is a radio instruction project in Mongolia called the Gobi Women's Project. It seeks to provide literacy and numeracy instruction built around lessons of interest to around 15,000 nomadic women, and to create income opportunities for them. Among the programme topics are livestock rearing techniques; family care (family planning, health, nutrition and hygiene); income generation using locally available raw materials; and basic business skills for a new market economy.
[72]

Are ICT-enhanced educational projects sustainable?

One aspect of development programs that is often neglected is sustainability. The long history of development aid has shown that too many projects and programs start with a bang but all too soon fade out with a whimper, to be quickly forgotten. This is true for many ICT-based educational projects as well. In many instances, these projects are initiated by third party donors-such as international aid agencies or corporations-and not enough attention is paid to establishing a mechanism by which the educational institution or community involved can pursue the project on its own or in partnership with other stakeholders after the initiating donor exits. But cost and financing are not the only barriers to sustainability. According to Cisler, the sustainability of ICT-enabled programs has four components: social, political, technological, and economic. [73] Economic sustainability refers to the ability of a school and community to finance an ICT-enabled programme over the long term. Cost-effectiveness is key, as technology investments typically run high and in many cases divert funds from other equally pressing needs. Planners should look to the total cost of ownership (see preceding discussion on cost) and build lucrative partnerships with the community to be able to defray all expenses over the long term. The need to develop multiple channels of financing through community participation ties economic sustainability closely to social and political sustainability.

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Social sustainability is a function of community involvement. The school does not exist in a vacuum, and for an ICT-enabled project to succeed the buy-in of parents, political leaders, business leaders and other stakeholders is essential. Innovation can happen only when all those who will be affected by it, whether directly or indirectly, know exactly why such an innovation is being introduced, what the implications are on their lives, and what part they can play in ensuring its success. ICT-enabled programs must ultimately serve the needs of the community. Thus community-wide consultation and mobilization are processes critical to sustainability. In short, a sense of ownership for the project must be developed among all stakeholders for sustainability to be achieved. Political sustainability refers to issues of policy and leadership. One of the biggest threats to ICT-enabled projects is resistance to change. If, for instance, teachers refuse to use ICTs in their classrooms, then use of ICTs can hardly take off, much less be sustained over the long term. Because of the innovative nature of ICTenabled projects, leaders must have a keen understanding of the innovation process, identify the corresponding requirements for successful adoption, and harmonize plans and actions accordingly. Technological sustainability involves choosing technology that will be effective over the long term. In a rapidly changing technology environment, this becomes a particularly tricky issue as planners must contend with the threat of technological obsolescence. At the same time, there is the tendency to acquire only the latest technologies (which is understandable in part because these are the models which vendors are likely to push aggressively) Generally, however, planners should go with tried and tested systems; stability issues plague many of the latest technologies. Again, the rule of thumb is to let the learning objectives drive the technology choice and not vice versa-the latest technologies may not be the most appropriate tools for achieving the desired educational goals.When making technology decisions, planners should also factor in not just costs but also the availability of spare parts and technical support.

Key Challenges in Integrating ICTs in Education

Although valuable lessons may be learned from best practices around the world, there is no one formula for determining the optimal level of ICT integration in the educational system. Significant challenges that policymakers and planners, educators, education administrators, and other stakeholders need to consider include educational policy and planning, infrastructure, language and content, capacity building, and financing.

What are the implications of ICT-enhanced education for educational policy and planning?
Attempts to enhance and reform education through ICTs require clear and specific objectives, guidelines and time-bound targets, the mobilization of required resources, and the political commitment at all levels to see the initiative through. Some essential elements of planning for ICT are listed below. A rigorous analysis of the present state of the educational system. ICT-based interventions must take into account current institutional practices and arrangements. Specifically, drivers and barriers to ICT use need to be identified, including those related to curriculum and pedagogy, infrastructure, capacity-building, language and content, and financing. The specification of educational goals at different education and training levels as well as the different modalities of use of ICTs that can best be employed in pursuit of these goals. This requires of the policymaker an understanding of the potentials of different ICTs when applied in different contexts for different purposes, and an awareness of priority education needs and financial and human resource capacity and constraints within the country or locality, as well as best practices around the world and how these practices can be adapted for specific country requirements. The identification of stakeholders and the harmonizing of efforts across different interest groups.

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 The piloting of the chosen ICT-based model. Even the best designed models or those that have already been proven to work in other contexts need to be tested on a small scale. Such pilots are essential to identify, and correct, potential glitches in instructional design, implementability, effectiveness, and the like. The specification of existing sources of financing and the development of strategies for generating financial resources to support ICT use over the long term.

What are the infrastructure-related challenges in ICTenhanced education?

A country's educational technology infrastructure sits on top of the national telecommunications and information infrastructure. Before any ICT-based programme is launched, policymakers and planners must carefully consider the following: In the first place, are appropriate rooms or buildings available to house the technology? In countries where there are many old school buildings, extensive retrofitting to ensure proper electrical wiring, heating/cooling and ventilation, and safety and security would be needed. Another basic requirement is the availability of electricity and telephony. In developing countries large areas are still without a reliable supply of electricity and the nearest telephones are miles away. Experience in some countries in Africa point to wireless technologies (such as VSAT or Very Small Aperture Terminal) as possible levers for leapfrogging.. [74] Although this is currently an extremely costly approach, other developing countries with very poor telecommunications infrastructure should study this option. Policymakers should also look at the ubiquity of different types of ICT in the country in general, and in the educational system (at all levels) in particular. For instance, a basic requirement for computer-based or online learning is access to computers in schools, communities, and households, as well as affordable Internet service. In general, ICT use in education should follow use in society, not lead it. Education programs that use cuttingedge technologies rarely achieve long term success: It is cheaper, and easier, to introduce a form of technology into education, and keep it working, where education is riding on the back of large-scale developments by governments or the private sector. Television works for education when it follows rather than precedes television for entertainment; computers in schools can be maintained once commercial and private use has expanded to the point where there is an established service industry. [75]

What are the challenges with respect to capacitybuilding?

Various competencies must be developed throughout the educational system for ICT integration to be successful. Teachers.Teacher professional development should have five foci: 1) skills with particular applications; 2) integration into existing curricula; 3) curricular changes related to the use of IT (including changes in instructional design); 4) changes in teacher role( 5) underpinning educational theories. [76] Ideally, these should be addressed in pre-service teacher training and built on and enhanced in-service. In some countries, like Singapore, Malaysia, and the United Kingdom, teaching accreditation requirements include training in ICT use. ICTs are swiftly evolving technologies, however, and so even the most ICT fluent teachers need to continuously upgrade their skills and keep abreast of the latest developments and best practices.

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While the first focus-skills with particular applications-is self-evident, the four other foci are of equal, if not ultimately greater, importance. Research on the use of ICTs in different educational settings over the years invariably identify as a barrier to success the inability of teachers to understand why they should use ICTs and how exactly they can use ICTs to help them teach better. Unfortunately, most teacher professional development in ICTs are heavy on "teaching the tools" and light on "using the tools to teach." Teacher anxiety over being replaced by technology or losing their authority in the classroom as the learning process becomes more learner-centered-an acknowledged barrier to ICT adoption-can be alleviated only if teachers have a keen understanding and appreciation of their changing role. Education administrators. Leadership plays a key role in ICT integration in education. Many teacher- or student-initiated ICT projects have been undermined by lack of support from above. For ICT integration programs to be effective and sustainable, administrators themselves must be competent in the use of the technology, and they must have a broad understanding of the technical, curricular, administrative, financial, and social dimensions of ICT use in education. Technical support specialists. Whether provided by in-school staff or external service providers, or both, technical support specialists are essential to the continued viability of ICT use in a given school. While the technical support requirements of an institution depend ultimately on what and how technology is deployed and used, general competencies that are required would be in the installation, operation, and maintenance of technical equipment (including software), network administration, and network security. Without on-site technical support, much time and money may be lost due to technical breakdowns. In the Philippines, for example, one of the major obstacles to optimizing computer use in high schools has been the lack of timely technical support. In some extreme cases involving schools in remote areas, disabled computers take months to be repaired since no technician is available in the immediate vicinity and so the computers have to be sent to the nearest city hundreds of kilometers away. [80] Content developers. Content development is a critical area that is too often overlooked. The bulk of existing ICT-based educational material is likely to be in English (see section on language and content below) or of little relevance to education in developing countries (especially at the primary and secondary levels). There is a need to develop original educational content (e.g., radio programs, interactive multimedia learning materials on CD-ROM or DVD, Web-based courses, etc.), adapt existing content, and convert print-based content to digital media. These are tasks for which content development specialists such as instructional designers, scriptwriters, audio and video production specialists, programmers, multimedia course authors, and web-developers are needed. Like technical support specialists, content developers are highly skilled professionals and are not, with the exception of instructional designers, historically employed by primary and secondary schools. Many universities with distance education programs, and those who otherwise make use of ICTs, have dedicated technical support and content development units. What challenges need to be addressed in the areas of language and content? English is the dominant language of the Internet. An estimated 80% of online content is in English.A large proportion of the educational software produced in the world market is in English. For developing countries in the Asia-Pacific where English language proficiency is not high, especially outside metropolitan areas, this represents a serious barrier to maximizing the educational benefits of the World Wide Web. Even in countries where English is a second language (such as Singapore, Malaysia, the Philippines, and India) it is imperative that teaching and learning materials that match national curriculum requirements and have locally meaningful content, preferably in the local languages, be developed. (See Box 6.) This would ensure that the Web is a genuinely multicultural space and that peoples of different cultures have an equal stake and voice in the global communities of learning and practice online. Particularly vulnerable to exclusion of this sort are isolated, rural populations, cultural minorities, and women in general. Thus attention must be paid to their special needs.

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One encouraging trend has been the emergence of national and regional school networks, or SchoolNets, that facilitate the sharing of content and information-curriculum guides, teaching and learning resources, telecollaborative project registries, school and teacher directories, training curricula and materials, research and policy papers, technology management guides, and start-up toolkits, among others. Countries like Australia, France, Finland, Japan, Canada, Thailand, Ghana, South Africa, and Zimbabwe, to name a few, all have national SchoolNets. The Enlaces programme in Latin America has linked schools from Spanish-speaking countries like Chile, Paraguay, Costa Rica, Colombia, and Peru. In Southeast Asia, efforts are currently underway to pilot SchoolNets in the Philippines, Indonesia, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Vietnam, and to link these to existing national SchoolNets to create a region-wide ASEAN SchoolNet. In Web-based learning, technical standardization of content has also become a pressing issue. Standardization allows different applications to share content and learning systems. Specifications in content, structure, and test formats are proposed so that interoperability may exist between different management systems, resulting in some cost-efficiencies. Standards must be general enough to support all kinds of learning systems and content. Worth mentioning are initiatives conducted by the Instructional Management System (IMS), the Advanced Distributed Learning /Shareable Courseware Object Reference Model (ADL/SCORM) initiative, the Aviation Industry Computer Based Training Committee (AICC), and the European ARIADNE project, since some of the standards they have proposed are already being widely applied. The ease by which Web-based educational content can be stored, transmitted, duplicated, and modified has also raised concerns about the protection of intellectual property rights. For instance, are intellectual, property rights violated when lectures broadcast over the television or on the Web incorporate pre-existing materials, or when students record educational broadcast on tape for later viewing? While schools and universities may already have agreements that expressly authorize the use of certain materials for classroom purposes, these agreements may not be broad enough to accommodate telecommunications transmission, videotape recording, or the distribution of course-related materials beyond the classroom setting.. [82] The United Nations International World Intellectual Property Organization is leading international efforts in setting global standards for the protection of intellectual property rights that would not at the same time unduly curtail the accessing and sharing of information. For teachers and students, each of whom are potential publishers of multimedia materials that incorporate the works of others, information and training about the ethical use of intellectual property should be an important component of ICT-based programs. [83]

What are the challenges related to financing the cost of ICT use? One of the greatest challenges in ICT use in education is balancing educational goals with economic realities. ICTs in education programs require large capital investments and developing countries need to be prudent in making decisions about what models of ICT use will be introduced and to be conscious of maintaining economies of scale. Ultimately it is an issue of whether the value added of ICT use offsets the cost, relative to the cost of alternatives. Put another way, is ICT-based learning the most effective strategy for achieving the desired educational goals, and if so what is the modality and scale of implementation that can be supported given existing financial, human and other resources?

Whyte suggests the following potential sources of money and resources for ICT use programs: 1. Grants 2. Public subsidies 3. Private donations, fund-raising events

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4. In-kind support (e.g., equipment, volunteers) 5. Community support (e.g. rent-free building) 6. Membership fees 7. Revenues earned from core business: Connectivity (phone, fax, Internet, web pages) Direct computer access to users Office services (photocopying, scanning, audiovisual aids 8. Revenues earned from ancillary activities: Business services (word-processing, spreadsheets, budget preparation, printing, reception services) Educational services (distant education, training courses) Community services (meeting rooms, social events, local information, remittances from migrant workers) Telework and consulting Specialized activities (telemedicine) Sales (stationery, stamps, refreshments, etc.) [84]

Will ICT use be the silver bullet that will rid a developing country of all of its educational problems?
If there is one truism that has emerged in the relatively brief history of ICT use in education, it is this: It is not the technology but how you use it! Put another way: "How you use technology is more important than if you use it at all...[and] unless our thinking about schooling changes along with the continuing expansion of [ICTs] in the classroom then our technology investment will fail to live up to its potential." [85] Technology then should not drive education; rather, educational goals and needs, and careful economics, must drive technology use. Only in this way can educational institutions in developing countries effectively and equitably address the key needs of the population, to help the population as a whole respond to new challenges and opportunities created by an increasingly global economy. ICTs, therefore, cannot by themselves resolve educational problems in the developing world, as such problems are rooted in well entrenched issues of poverty,social inequality,and uneven development.What ICTs as educational tools can do, if they are used prudently, is enable developing countries to expand access to and raise the quality of education. Prudence requires careful consideration of the interacting issues that underpin ICT use in the school-policy and politics, infrastructure development, human capacity, language and content, culture, equity, cost, and not least, curriculum and pedagogy. What is teleconferencing and what have been its educational uses? Teleconferencing refers to "interactive electronic communication among people located at two or more different places." [31] There are four types of teleconferencing based on the nature and extent of interactivity and the sophistication of the technology: 1) audioconferencing; 2) audio-graphic conferencing, 3) videoconferencing; and 4) Web-based conferencing.

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Audioconferencing involves the live (real-time) exchange of voice messages over a telephone network. When low-bandwidth text and still images such as graphs, diagrams or pictures can also be exchanged along with voice messages, then this type of conferencing is called audiographic. Non-moving visuals are added using a computer keyboard or by drawing/writing on a graphics tablet or whiteboard. Videoconferencing allows the exchange not just of voice and graphics but also of moving images. Videoconferencing technology does not use telephone lines but either a satellite link or television network (broadcast/cable). Web-based conferencing, as the name implies, involves the transmission of text, and graphic, audio and visual media via the Internet; it requires the use of a computer with a browser and communication can be both synchronous and asynchronous. Teleconferencing is used in both formal and non-formal learning contexts to facilitate teacher-learner and learner-learner discussions, as well as to access experts and other resource persons remotely. In open and distance learning, teleconferencing is a useful tool for providing direct instruction and learner support, minimizing learner isolation. For instance, an audiographic teleconferencing network between Tianjin Medical University in China and four outlying Tianjin municipalities was piloted in 1999 as part of a multi-year collaboration between Tianjin Medical University and the University of Ottawa School of Nursing funded by the Canadian International Development Agency. The audio-graphic teleconferencing network aims to provide continuing education and academic upgrading to nurses in parts of Tianjin municipality where access to nursing education has been extremely limited. [32] Other higher education institutions using teleconferencing in their online learning programs include the Open University of the United Kingdom, Unitar (Universiti Tun Abdul Ruzak) in Malaysia, Open University of Hong Kong, and Indira Gandhi National Open University.

How have computers and the Internet been used for teaching and learning?
There are three general approaches to the instructional use of computers and the Internet, namely: Learning about computers and the Internet, in which technological literacy is the end goal; Learning with computers and the Internet, in which the technology facilitates learning across the curriculum; and Learning through computers and the Internet, integrating technological skills development with curriculum applications. [33]

What does it mean to learn about computers and the Internet?

Learning about computers and the Internet focuses on developing technological literacy. It typically includes: Fundamentals: basic terms, concepts and operations Use of the keyboard and mouse Use of productivity tools such as word processing, spreadsheets, data base and graphics programs

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 Use of research and collaboration tools such as search engines and email Basic skills in using programming and authoring applications such as Logo or HyperStudio Developing an awareness of the social impact of technological change. [34]

What about learning with computers and the Internet?

Learning with the technology means focusing on how the technology can be the means to learning ends across the curriculum. It includes: Presentation, demonstration, and the manipulation of data using productivity tools Use of curriculum-specific applications types such as educational games, drill and practice, simulations, tutorials, virtual laboratories, visualizations and graphical representations of abstract concepts, musical composition, and expert systems Use of information and resources on CD-ROM or online such as encyclopedia, interactive maps and atlases, electronic journals and other references. [35] Technological literacy is required for learning with technologies to be possible, implying a two-step process in which students learn about the technologies before they can actually use them to learn. However, there have been attempts to integrate the two approaches.

What does learning through computers and the Internet mean?

Learning through computers and the Internet combines learning about them with learning with them. It involves learning the technological skills "just-in-time" or when the learner needs to learn them as he or she engages in a curriculum-related activity. For example, secondary school students who must present a report on the impact on their community of an increase in the price of oil for an Economics class may start doing research online, using spreadsheet and database programs to help organize and analyze the data they have collected, as well using a word processing application to prepare their written report.

How are computers and the Internet used in distance education?

Many higher educational institutions offering distance education courses have started to leverage the Internet to improve their programme's reach and quality. The Virtual University of the Monterrey Institute of Technology in Mexico uses a combination of print, live and recorded broadcasts, and the Internet to deliver courses to students throughout Mexico and in several Latin American countries. Similarly, the African Virtual University, initiated in 1997 with funding support from the World Bank, uses satellite and Internet technologies to provide distance learning opportunities to individuals in various English-speaking and French-speaking countries throughout Africa. At the University of the Philippines Open University, course materials are still predominantly print-based but online tutorials are becoming a convenient alternative to face-to-face tutorials especially for students unwilling

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or unable to go to UPOU's various physical learning centres. About 70-90% of UPOU's degree courses offer online tutorials as an option, while in several of its non-degree courses tutorials are conducted only online. But even in Korea, where infrastructure is among the best in the world, and government has put considerable financial and other resources behind an ambitious ICT-based re-tooling of its educational system, challenges to online education persist. (See Box 3.) Internet- and Web-based initiatives have also been developed at the secondary education level. The Virtual High School is a result of efforts of a nationwide consortium of school districts in the United States to promote the development and sharing of Web-based courses. In Canada, Open School offers a wide range of courses and resources to grades K-12 teachers and students that meet the requirements of the British Columbia curriculum. Course delivery is done through a mix of broadcast and video, while some courses are delivered totally online. [36] The biggest movers in e-learning, however, are not found within academe but in the private sector. John Chambers, CEO of Cisco, famously predicted that e-learning would be the next big killer application, and corporations are moving aggressively to fulfill this prediction. Merrill Lynch estimates that the combined higher education and corporate e-learning markets in the US will grow from $US2.3 billion in 2000 to US$18 billion in 2003, with corporate training accounting for almost two thirds of that growth. [37] Indeed, the number of corporate universities have grown from 400 to 1,800 over the last 13 years. Corporate universities are primarily in-house organizations in large multinational companies that make use of videoconferencing and the Internet for employee training. [38] If this rate of growth continues, the number of corporate universities will exceed the number of traditional universities by 2010. [39] A parallel development in business is the growth of a new breed of companies that offer online training services to small- and medium-sized enterprises. [40]

What is telecollaboration?
Online learning involving students logging in to formal courses online is perhaps the most commonly thought of application of the Internet in education. However, it is by no means the only application. Web-based collaboration tools, such as email, listservs, message boards, real-time chat, and Web-based conferencing, connect learners to other learners, teachers, educators, scholars and researchers, scientists and artists, industry leaders and politicians-in short, to any individual with access to the Internet who can enrich the learning process. The organized use of Web resources and collaboration tools for curriculum appropriate purposes is called telecollaboration. Judi Harris defines telecollaboration as "an educational endeavor that involves people in different locations using Internet tools and resources to work together. Much educational telecollaboration is curriculum-based, teacher-designed, and teacher-coordinated. Most use e-mail to help participants communicate with each other. Many telecollaborative activities and projects have Web sites to support them." [41] The best telecollaborative projects are those that are fully integrated into the curriculum and not just extracurricular activities, those in which technology use enables activities that would not have been possible without it, and those that empower students to become active, collaborative, creative, integrative, and evaluative learners (see Table 1).There are currently hundreds of telecollaborative projects being implemented worldwide and many more that have either been completed or are in development. One example is the Voices of Youth [42] project developed by UNICEF. It encourages students to share their views on global issues, such as HIV/AIDS and child labour, with other youth and adults around the world through an electronic discussion forum. The Voices of Youth website also provides background information on the different discussion topics as well as resource materials to help teachers integrate the Voice of Youth discussions in their other classroom activities. The International Telementor Program (ITP) [43] links students with mentor-experts through email and discussion forums. Founded in 1995 with support from Hewlett Packard, ITP provides project-based online mentoring support to 5th to 12th grade and university students, especially from at-risk communities. The ITP telementor typically meets online with the student at least once every two weeks to answer questions, discuss key issues, recommend useful resources, and comment on student output. The teacher's role, on the other

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hand, is to provide support to both student and telementor, monitor the telementoring process, and track the student's progress. Perhaps the most widely cited telecollaborative project is the Global Learning and Observations to Benefit the Environment (GLOBE) Program.[44] GLOBE is a U.S. Government-sponsored programme launched in 1994 that links primary and secondary students and teachers from over 10,000 schools in more than 95 countries to the scientific research community. GLOBE gives students the opportunity to collaborate with scientists in conducting earth science research. Participating students periodically take measurements of the atmosphere, water, soils, and land cover at or near their schools, following strict protocols designed by GLOBE scientists. They then enter this data to a central Web-based database. The database may be accessed by scientists, researchers and the general public. GLOBE also provides teachers with guidelines and materials for structured learning activities that take off from the students' hands-on experience. Students can also go to the GLOBE website for visualizations of the data they and other students have collected.

Issues in the Use of ICTs in Education

Effectiveness, cost, equity, and sustainability are four broad intertwined issues which must be addressed when considering the overall impact of the use of ICTs in education.

Does ICT-enhanced learning really work?

The educational effectiveness of ICTs depends on how they are used and for what purpose. And like any other educational tool or mode of educational delivery, ICTs do not work for everyone, everywhere in the same way. Enhancing access. It is difficult to quantify the degree to which ICTs have helped expand access to basic education since most of the interventions for this purpose have been small-scale and under-reported. One exception is the television-based project Telesecundaria (discussed in a previous section), which in 1997-98 was serving over 750,000 junior secondary students in 12,000 centres in Mexico. In Asia and Africa, assessments of distance learning projects at the junior secondary level using a combination of print, taped, and broadcast technologies have been less conclusive, while at the primary level there is little evidence that ICTbased models have thrived. [45] In higher education and adult training, there is some evidence that educational opportunities are being opened to individuals and groups who are constrained from attending traditional universities. Each of the 11 so-called mega-universities, the biggest and most well-established open and distance institutions in the world (which include the Open University of the United Kingdom, the Indira Gandhi National Open University of India, the China TV University System, the Universitas Terbuka of Indonesia, and the University of South Africa, among others) has an annual enrollment of more than 100,000, and together they serve approximately 2.8 million. Compare that with the 14 million combined enrollment of the 3,500 colleges and universities in the United States. [46] Raising quality.The impact of educational radio and television broadcasts on the quality of basic education remains an under-researched area, but what little research there is suggests that these interventions are as effective as traditional classroom instruction. [47] Of the many educational broadcast projects, the Interactive Radio Instruction project has been the most comprehensively analyzed. Findings provide strong evidence of the project's effectiveness in raising the quality of education as demonstrated by increased scores on standardized tests as well as improved attendance. [48] In contrast, assessments of the use of computers, the Internet and related technologies for distance learning have been equivocal. Russell, in his comprehensive review of research, claims that there is "no significant difference" between the test scores of learners taking ICT-based distance learning courses and those receiving face-to-face instruction. [49] However, others claim that such generalizations are inconclusive, pointing out that the large number of articles on ICT-based distance learning does not include original experimental research or case studies.[50] Other critics argue that dropout rates are much higher when instruction is delivered at a distance via ICTs.

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There have also been many studies that seem to support the claim that the use of computers enhances and amplifies existing curricula, as measured through standardized testing. Specifically, research shows that the use of computers as tutors, for drill and practice, and for instructional delivery, combined with traditional instruction, results in increases in learning in the traditional curriculum and basic skills areas, as well as higher test scores in some subjects compared to traditional instruction alone. Students also learn more quickly, demonstrate greater retention, and are better motivated to learn when they work with computers. [51] But there are those who claim that these represent modest gains and, in any case, much of the research on which these claims are based are methodologically flawed. Research likewise suggests that the use of computers, the Internet, and related technologies, given adequate teacher training and support, can indeed facilitate the transformation of the learning environment into a learnercentered one. But these studies are criticized for being mostly exploratory and descriptive in nature and lacking in empirical rigor. There is as yet no strong evidence that this new learning environment fosters improved learning outcomes. What does exist are qualitative data based on observations and analysis of student and teacher perceptions that suggest a positive impact on learning. [52] One of the most critical problems in trying to assess the effectiveness of computers and the Internet as transformational tools is that standardized tests cannot capture the kinds of benefits that are expected to be gained in a learner-centered environment. Moreover, since technology use is fully integrated into the larger learning system, it is very difficult to isolate the technology variable and determine whether any observed gains are due to technology use or to some other factor or combination of factors.

How much does it cost?

Broadly speaking, educational television broadcasts and computer-based and online learning are more expensive than radio broadcasts. [53]There is disagreement, however, over whether television broadcasts are cheaper than computer-based and online learning. [54] That said, categorical assessments of cost-effectiveness are difficult to make because of lack of data, differences in programs, problems of generalization, and problems of quantification of educational outcomes and opportunity costs. [55] Speaking specifically of computers and the Internet, Blurton argues that "[w]hen considering whether ICT is "cost-effective" in educational settings, a definitive conclusion may not be possible for a variety of reasons. However, when considering the alternative of building more physical infrastructure, the cost savings to be realized from sharing resources, and the societal price of not providing access, ICT as a means of enabling teaching and learning appears to be an attractive and necessary alternative." [56] A common mistake in estimating the cost of a particular ICT educational application is to focus too much on initial fixed costs-purchase of equipment, construction or retrofitting of physical facilities, initial materials production, and the like. But studies of the use of computers in classrooms, for example, show that installation of hardware and retrofitting of physical facilities account for only between 40% to 60% of the full cost of using the computers over their lifetime, or its total cost of ownership. [57] In fact, while at first glance it may seem that the initial purchase of hardware and software is the costliest part of the process, the bulk of the total cost of ownership is spread out over time, with annual maintenance and support costs (known as variable or recurrent costs) constituting between 30% to 50% of the total cost of hardware and software. The cost of professional development, another variable cost, also accumulates over time. For computer-based approaches the total cost of ownership therefore includes: FIXED COSTS Retrofitting of physical facilities Hardware and networking Software Upgrades and replacement (in about five years)

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VARIABLE OR RECURRENT COSTS Professional development Connectivity, including Internet access and telephone time Maintenance and support, including utilities and supplies In order to determine cost efficiencies, fixed costs must be distinguished from variable costs, and the balance between the two understood. If the fixed costs of a technology project are high and its variable costs are low, then there will be cost advantages to scaling up. This is the case with general educational radio and television broadcasting. Programs such as Sesame Street and Discovery are more cost-efficient the larger their audience since the high cost of production is distributed over a larger viewer base while no staff expenditures are made for learner support. On the other hand, the case of Telesecundaria in Mexico demonstrates that the impact of higher variable costs related to learner support may be offset if the scale of the project is sufficiently large to the point where per student costs compare favorably with those of traditional schools. Similarly, with the Interactive Radio Instruction project annual cost per student is estimated to fall from US$8.25 with 100,000 students to US$3.12 with 1,000,000. [58] Obviously, these economies of scale may be achieved only in countries with large populations. Open and distance learning institutions have also achieved cost-effectiveness through economies of scale. Per student costs of the 11 mega-universities range from only 5% to 50% of the average of the traditional universities in their respective countries. [59] The introduction of computers represents additional costs for schools but without short-term cost advantages. Data on cost of computer use per student in both primary and secondary schools in fact suggest costineffectiveness. In Chile, for example, cost per primary school student is between US$22 and US$83, with expenditures for computer use requiring 10% to 37% of the national primary school budget.. [60] In the U.S., computer investments accounted for 1.3% of total expenditure on schools, with annual cost per student at US$70. [61] Perraton and Creed suggest that these levels of cost support the argument against putting computers in every classroom, particularly in primary schools where there are no strong curricular arguments for investment in computers. In secondary schools, spending money on computers may be justified by the curriculum but this will come with significant increases in total school expenditure. [62] Another dimension of cost is location, or who will pay for what. In projects that involve computers connected to the Internet, either the school or student or both bear the variable costs related to operations such as maintenance, Internet service charges, and telephone line charges. In contrast, with radio programming the learner has to pay only for a radio and a set of batteries.

Is there equity of access to ICTs in education? ==

Given the wide disparities in access to ICTs between rich and poor countries and between different groups within countries, there are serious concerns that the use of ICTs in education will widen existing divisions drawn along economic, social, cultural, geographic, and gender lines. Ideally, one wishes for equal opportunity to participate. But access for different actors-both as users and producers-is weighted by their resources. Hence, initial differences are often reproduced, reinforced, and even

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magnified....A formidable challenge, therefore, continues to face planners of international education: how to define the problem and provide assistance for development. [63] The introduction of ICTs in education, when done without careful deliberation, can result in the further marginalization of those who are already underserved and/or disadvantaged. For example, women have less access to ICTs and fewer opportunities for ICT-related training compared to men because of illiteracy and lack of education, lack of time, lack of mobility, and poverty. [64] Boys are more likely than girls to have access to computers in school and at home. Not surprisingly, boys tend to enjoy working with computers more than girls. [65] As the American Association of University Women reports, "Girls have narrowed some significant gender gaps, but technology is now the new boys' club' in our nation's public schools. While boys programme and problem solve with computers, girls use computers for word processing...". [66] In an evaluation of its programme in four African countries, Worldlinks,. [67] an organization that promotes project-based, international telecollaboration activities among secondary school teachers and students from developing countries, it was found that despite efforts to make the programme gender neutral, gender inequalities in access persist in Uganda and Ghana. Furthermore, while girls benefited more from the programme in terms of improved academic performance and communication skills, boys were able to hone their technological skills more. A complex of economic, organizational, and sociocultural factors account for these differences: "High student-to-computer ratios and first come-first serve policies do not favour girls (typically heavily outnumbered by boys at the secondary level), girls have earlier curfew hours and domestic chore responsibilities which limit their access time, and local patriarchal beliefs tend to allow boys to dominate the computer lab environment.". [68] Measures proposed to address this gender bias include encouraging schools to develop "fair use" policies in computer labs, conducting gender sensitivity sessions, and advocating for reducing the after-school duties of girls to give them more time to use the computer lab. [69] Girls also need to have female role models to inspire them to participate in technology-related activities. [70] Providing access to ICTs is only one facet of efforts to address equity issues. Equal attention must be paid to ensuring that the technology is actually being used by the target learners and in ways that truly serve their needs. An ICT-supported educational programme that illustrates this wholistic approach is the Enlace Quich:Bilingual Education in Guatemala Through Teacher Training programme.. [71] The programme seeks to establish and maintain bilingual education technology centres for educators, students, teachers, parents, and community members in Quich and neighboring areas. The technical teams for each centre are composed of three students, two teachers, and the centre administrator, with at least one female student and one female teacher. Another objective of Enlace Quich is the creation of multimedia bilingual educational materials that are anchored on the Mayan culture and that reflect a constructivist approach to learning. As the project website notes, this "demonstrate[s] that the technology can be used to know, to conserve, to disclose and to value local knowledge." The project thus illustrates a model for bridging the digital divide arising from the monopoly in Internet content provision by Western and English-speaking groups and from uneven capacities to make purposeful, relevant and critical use of digital resources (see section on language and content below). Another example of a wholistic approach to ICT integration in education is a radio instruction project in Mongolia called the Gobi Women's Project. It seeks to provide literacy and numeracy instruction built around lessons of interest to around 15,000 nomadic women, and to create income opportunities for them. Among the programme topics are livestock rearing techniques; family care (family planning, health, nutrition and hygiene); income generation using locally available raw materials; and basic business skills for a new market economy.
[72]

Are ICT-enhanced educational projects sustainable?

One aspect of development programs that is often neglected is sustainability. The long history of development aid has shown that too many projects and programs start with a bang but all too soon fade out with a whimper, to be quickly forgotten. This is true for many ICT-based educational projects as well. In many instances, these projects are initiated by third party donors-such as international aid agencies or corporations-and not enough attention is paid to establishing a mechanism by which the educational institution or community involved can pursue the project on its own or in partnership with other stakeholders after the initiating donor exits. But cost

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and financing are not the only barriers to sustainability. According to Cisler, the sustainability of ICT-enabled programs has four components: social, political, technological, and economic. [73] Economic sustainability refers to the ability of a school and community to finance an ICT-enabled programme over the long term. Cost-effectiveness is key, as technology investments typically run high and in many cases divert funds from other equally pressing needs. Planners should look to the total cost of ownership (see preceding discussion on cost) and build lucrative partnerships with the community to be able to defray all expenses over the long term. The need to develop multiple channels of financing through community participation ties economic sustainability closely to social and political sustainability. Social sustainability is a function of community involvement. The school does not exist in a vacuum, and for an ICT-enabled project to succeed the buy-in of parents, political leaders, business leaders and other stakeholders is essential. Innovation can happen only when all those who will be affected by it, whether directly or indirectly, know exactly why such an innovation is being introduced, what the implications are on their lives, and what part they can play in ensuring its success. ICT-enabled programs must ultimately serve the needs of the community. Thus community-wide consultation and mobilization are processes critical to sustainability. In short, a sense of ownership for the project must be developed among all stakeholders for sustainability to be achieved. Political sustainability refers to issues of policy and leadership. One of the biggest threats to ICT-enabled projects is resistance to change. If, for instance, teachers refuse to use ICTs in their classrooms, then use of ICTs can hardly take off, much less be sustained over the long term. Because of the innovative nature of ICTenabled projects, leaders must have a keen understanding of the innovation process, identify the corresponding requirements for successful adoption, and harmonize plans and actions accordingly. Technological sustainability involves choosing technology that will be effective over the long term. In a rapidly changing technology environment, this becomes a particularly tricky issue as planners must contend with the threat of technological obsolescence. At the same time, there is the tendency to acquire only the latest technologies (which is understandable in part because these are the models which vendors are likely to push aggressively) Generally, however, planners should go with tried and tested systems; stability issues plague many of the latest technologies. Again, the rule of thumb is to let the learning objectives drive the technology choice and not vice versa-the latest technologies may not be the most appropriate tools for achieving the desired educational goals.When making technology decisions, planners should also factor in not just costs but also the availability of spare parts and technical support.

Key Challenges in Integrating ICTs in Education

Although valuable lessons may be learned from best practices around the world, there is no one formula for determining the optimal level of ICT integration in the educational system. Significant challenges that policymakers and planners, educators, education administrators, and other stakeholders need to consider include educational policy and planning, infrastructure, language and content, capacity building, and financing.

What are the implications of ICT-enhanced education for educational policy and planning?
Attempts to enhance and reform education through ICTs require clear and specific objectives, guidelines and time-bound targets, the mobilization of required resources, and the political commitment at all levels to see the initiative through. Some essential elements of planning for ICT are listed below. A rigorous analysis of the present state of the educational system. ICT-based interventions must take into account current institutional practices and arrangements. Specifically, drivers and barriers to ICT use need to be identified, including those related to curriculum and pedagogy, infrastructure, capacity-building, language and content, and financing.

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 The specification of educational goals at different education and training levels as well as the different modalities of use of ICTs that can best be employed in pursuit of these goals. This requires of the policymaker an understanding of the potentials of different ICTs when applied in different contexts for different purposes, and an awareness of priority education needs and financial and human resource capacity and constraints within the country or locality, as well as best practices around the world and how these practices can be adapted for specific country requirements. The identification of stakeholders and the harmonizing of efforts across different interest groups. The piloting of the chosen ICT-based model. Even the best designed models or those that have already been proven to work in other contexts need to be tested on a small scale. Such pilots are essential to identify, and correct, potential glitches in instructional design, implementability, effectiveness, and the like. The specification of existing sources of financing and the development of strategies for generating financial resources to support ICT use over the long term.

What are the infrastructure-related challenges in ICTenhanced education?

A country's educational technology infrastructure sits on top of the national telecommunications and information infrastructure. Before any ICT-based programme is launched, policymakers and planners must carefully consider the following: In the first place, are appropriate rooms or buildings available to house the technology? In countries where there are many old school buildings, extensive retrofitting to ensure proper electrical wiring, heating/cooling and ventilation, and safety and security would be needed. Another basic requirement is the availability of electricity and telephony. In developing countries large areas are still without a reliable supply of electricity and the nearest telephones are miles away. Experience in some countries in Africa point to wireless technologies (such as VSAT or Very Small Aperture Terminal) as possible levers for leapfrogging.. [74] Although this is currently an extremely costly approach, other developing countries with very poor telecommunications infrastructure should study this option. Policymakers should also look at the ubiquity of different types of ICT in the country in general, and in the educational system (at all levels) in particular. For instance, a basic requirement for computer-based or online learning is access to computers in schools, communities, and households, as well as affordable Internet service. In general, ICT use in education should follow use in society, not lead it. Education programs that use cuttingedge technologies rarely achieve long term success: It is cheaper, and easier, to introduce a form of technology into education, and keep it working, where education is riding on the back of large-scale developments by governments or the private sector. Television works for education when it follows rather than precedes television for entertainment; computers in schools can be maintained once commercial and private use has expanded to the point where there is an established service industry. [75]

What are the challenges with respect to capacitybuilding?

Various competencies must be developed throughout the educational system for ICT integration to be successful.

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Teachers.Teacher professional development should have five foci: 1) skills with particular applications; 2) integration into existing curricula; 3) curricular changes related to the use of IT (including changes in instructional design); 4) changes in teacher role( 5) underpinning educational theories. [76] Ideally, these should be addressed in pre-service teacher training and built on and enhanced in-service. In some countries, like Singapore, Malaysia, and the United Kingdom, teaching accreditation requirements include training in ICT use. ICTs are swiftly evolving technologies, however, and so even the most ICT fluent teachers need to continuously upgrade their skills and keep abreast of the latest developments and best practices. While the first focus-skills with particular applications-is self-evident, the four other foci are of equal, if not ultimately greater, importance. Research on the use of ICTs in different educational settings over the years invariably identify as a barrier to success the inability of teachers to understand why they should use ICTs and how exactly they can use ICTs to help them teach better. Unfortunately, most teacher professional development in ICTs are heavy on "teaching the tools" and light on "using the tools to teach." Teacher anxiety over being replaced by technology or losing their authority in the classroom as the learning process becomes more learner-centered-an acknowledged barrier to ICT adoption-can be alleviated only if teachers have a keen understanding and appreciation of their changing role. Education administrators. Leadership plays a key role in ICT integration in education. Many teacher- or student-initiated ICT projects have been undermined by lack of support from above. For ICT integration programs to be effective and sustainable, administrators themselves must be competent in the use of the technology, and they must have a broad understanding of the technical, curricular, administrative, financial, and social dimensions of ICT use in education. Technical support specialists. Whether provided by in-school staff or external service providers, or both, technical support specialists are essential to the continued viability of ICT use in a given school. While the technical support requirements of an institution depend ultimately on what and how technology is deployed and used, general competencies that are required would be in the installation, operation, and maintenance of technical equipment (including software), network administration, and network security. Without on-site technical support, much time and money may be lost due to technical breakdowns. In the Philippines, for example, one of the major obstacles to optimizing computer use in high schools has been the lack of timely technical support. In some extreme cases involving schools in remote areas, disabled computers take months to be repaired since no technician is available in the immediate vicinity and so the computers have to be sent to the nearest city hundreds of kilometers away. [80] Content developers. Content development is a critical area that is too often overlooked. The bulk of existing ICT-based educational material is likely to be in English (see section on language and content below) or of little relevance to education in developing countries (especially at the primary and secondary levels). There is a need to develop original educational content (e.g., radio programs, interactive multimedia learning materials on CD-ROM or DVD, Web-based courses, etc.), adapt existing content, and convert print-based content to digital media. These are tasks for which content development specialists such as instructional designers, scriptwriters, audio and video production specialists, programmers, multimedia course authors, and web-developers are needed. Like technical support specialists, content developers are highly skilled professionals and are not, with the exception of instructional designers, historically employed by primary and secondary schools. Many universities with distance education programs, and those who otherwise make use of ICTs, have dedicated technical support and content development units. What challenges need to be addressed in the areas of language and content? English is the dominant language of the Internet. An estimated 80% of online content is in English.A large proportion of the educational software produced in the world market is in English. For developing countries in the Asia-Pacific where English language proficiency is not high, especially outside metropolitan areas, this represents a serious barrier to maximizing the educational benefits of the World Wide Web.

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Even in countries where English is a second language (such as Singapore, Malaysia, the Philippines, and India) it is imperative that teaching and learning materials that match national curriculum requirements and have locally meaningful content, preferably in the local languages, be developed. (See Box 6.) This would ensure that the Web is a genuinely multicultural space and that peoples of different cultures have an equal stake and voice in the global communities of learning and practice online. Particularly vulnerable to exclusion of this sort are isolated, rural populations, cultural minorities, and women in general. Thus attention must be paid to their special needs. One encouraging trend has been the emergence of national and regional school networks, or SchoolNets, that facilitate the sharing of content and information-curriculum guides, teaching and learning resources, telecollaborative project registries, school and teacher directories, training curricula and materials, research and policy papers, technology management guides, and start-up toolkits, among others. Countries like Australia, France, Finland, Japan, Canada, Thailand, Ghana, South Africa, and Zimbabwe, to name a few, all have national SchoolNets. The Enlaces programme in Latin America has linked schools from Spanish-speaking countries like Chile, Paraguay, Costa Rica, Colombia, and Peru. In Southeast Asia, efforts are currently underway to pilot SchoolNets in the Philippines, Indonesia, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Vietnam, and to link these to existing national SchoolNets to create a region-wide ASEAN SchoolNet. In Web-based learning, technical standardization of content has also become a pressing issue. Standardization allows different applications to share content and learning systems. Specifications in content, structure, and test formats are proposed so that interoperability may exist between different management systems, resulting in some cost-efficiencies. Standards must be general enough to support all kinds of learning systems and content. Worth mentioning are initiatives conducted by the Instructional Management System (IMS), the Advanced Distributed Learning /Shareable Courseware Object Reference Model (ADL/SCORM) initiative, the Aviation Industry Computer Based Training Committee (AICC), and the European ARIADNE project, since some of the standards they have proposed are already being widely applied. The ease by which Web-based educational content can be stored, transmitted, duplicated, and modified has also raised concerns about the protection of intellectual property rights. For instance, are intellectual, property rights violated when lectures broadcast over the television or on the Web incorporate pre-existing materials, or when students record educational broadcast on tape for later viewing? While schools and universities may already have agreements that expressly authorize the use of certain materials for classroom purposes, these agreements may not be broad enough to accommodate telecommunications transmission, videotape recording, or the distribution of course-related materials beyond the classroom setting.. [82] The United Nations International World Intellectual Property Organization is leading international efforts in setting global standards for the protection of intellectual property rights that would not at the same time unduly curtail the accessing and sharing of information. For teachers and students, each of whom are potential publishers of multimedia materials that incorporate the works of others, information and training about the ethical use of intellectual property should be an important component of ICT-based programs. [83]

What are the challenges related to financing the cost of ICT use? One of the greatest challenges in ICT use in education is balancing educational goals with economic realities. ICTs in education programs require large capital investments and developing countries need to be prudent in making decisions about what models of ICT use will be introduced and to be conscious of maintaining economies of scale. Ultimately it is an issue of whether the value added of ICT use offsets the cost, relative to the cost of alternatives. Put another way, is ICT-based learning the most effective strategy for achieving the desired educational goals, and if so what is the modality and scale of implementation that can be supported given existing financial, human and other resources?

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Whyte suggests the following potential sources of money and resources for ICT use programs: 1. Grants 2. Public subsidies 3. Private donations, fund-raising events 4. In-kind support (e.g., equipment, volunteers) 5. Community support (e.g. rent-free building) 6. Membership fees 7. Revenues earned from core business: Connectivity (phone, fax, Internet, web pages) Direct computer access to users Office services (photocopying, scanning, audiovisual aids 8. Revenues earned from ancillary activities: Business services (word-processing, spreadsheets, budget preparation, printing, reception services) Educational services (distant education, training courses) Community services (meeting rooms, social events, local information, remittances from migrant workers) Telework and consulting Specialized activities (telemedicine) Sales (stationery, stamps, refreshments, etc.) [84] Private sector-public sector partnerships to either pilot or fast track ICT-based projects is a strategy that has gained currency among Ministries of Education in developing countries. These partnerships take many forms, including private sector grants with government counterpart contributions, donations of equipment and education-related content by corporations to state-run schools, and the provision of technical assistance for planning, management, and strengthening human resources at the grassroots level. Multilateral organizations and international aid agencies have also driven many of the most significant ICT in education efforts in the developing world. But the financial litmus test of ICT-based programs is survival after donor money has run out. Many ICT-based education programs funded by aid agencies or by corporations could not be sustained because government failed to step in with the necessary financing; nor were the local communities in a position to generate the resources needed to continue these programs.This was the case with some of the Interactive Radio Instruction projects initiated by USAID. Therefore, a two-fold strategy is key: government support and local community mobilization

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Will ICT use be the silver bullet that will rid a developing country of all of its educational problems?
If there is one truism that has emerged in the relatively brief history of ICT use in education, it is this: It is not the technology but how you use it! Put another way: "How you use technology is more important than if you use it at all...[and] unless our thinking about schooling changes along with the continuing expansion of [ICTs] in the classroom then our technology investment will fail to live up to its potential." [85] Technology then should not drive education; rather, educational goals and needs, and careful economics, must drive technology use. Only in this way can educational institutions in developing countries effectively and equitably address the key needs of the population, to help the population as a whole respond to new challenges and opportunities created by an increasingly global economy. ICTs, therefore, cannot by themselves resolve educational problems in the developing world, as such problems are rooted in well entrenched issues of poverty,social inequality,and uneven development.What ICTs as educational tools can do, if they are used prudently, is enable developing countries to expand access to and raise the quality of education. Prudence requires careful consideration of the interacting issues that underpin ICT use in the school-policy and politics, infrastructure development, human capacity, language and content, culture, equity, cost, and not least, curriculum and pedagogy.

Chapter Review
1.Explain how your country has addressed ICTs issues in education. 2. What challenges does you country face in adopting the use of ICTs education? 3. Identify and explain efforts by your government aimed at enhancing the use of ICTs in education in your country. 4. How relevant is ICTs to education in your country? Write brief reports on this with a maximum of 1000 words in each case.

Chapter Twenty Three: Teacher Education

Objectives
After you have read this chapter, you should be able to; i) Explain the concept of Teacher Education. ii) Identify and explain the role of teacher education in the education system in your country. iii) Explain teacher training programmes in your country v) Examine the challenges facing teacher education in your country. vi)Explain the role of quality assurance in teacher education in your country

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Introduction: Initial teacher education may be organized according to two basic models. In the 'consecutive' model, a teacher first obtains a qualification (often a first university degree), and then studies for a further period to gain an additional qualification in teaching; (in some systems this takes the form of a post-graduate degree, possibly even a Masters). The alternative 'concurrent' model is where a student simultaneously studies both one or more academic subjects, and the ways of teaching that subject, leading to a qualification as a teacher of that subject. Other pathways are also available. In some countries, it is possible for a person to receive training as a teacher under the responsibility of an accredited experienced practitioner in a school. Teacher Education in many countries takes place in institutions of Higher Education. In the United States, approximately one-third of new teachers come through alternative routes to teacher certification, according to testimony given by Emily Feistritzer, the President of National Center for Alternative Certification and the National Center for Education Information, to a congressional subcommittee on May 17, 2007. However, many alternative pathways are affiliated with schools of education, where candidates still enroll in university-based coursework. A supplemental component of university-based coursework is community-based teacher education, where teacher candidates immerse themselves in communites that will allow them to apply teaching theory to practice. Community-based teacher education also challenges teacher candidates' assumptions about the issues of gender, race, and multicultural diversity. [2]

Curriculum
The question of what knowledge, attitudes, behaviours and skills teachers should possess is the subject of much debate in many cultures. This is understandable, as teachers are entrusted with the transmission to learners of society's beliefs, attitudes and deontology, as well as of information, advice and wisdom, and with facilitating learners' acquisition of the key knowledge, attitudes and behaviours that they will need to be active ni society and the economy. Generally, Teacher Education curricula can be broken down into these blocks: foundational knowledge and skills--usually this area is about education-related aspects of philosophy of education, history of education,educational psychology, and sociology of education content-area and methods knowledge--often also including ways of teaching and assessing a specific subject, in which case this area may overlap with the first ("foundational") area. There is increasing debate about this aspect; because it is no longer possible to know in advance what kinds of knowledge and skill pupils will need when they enter adult life, it becomes harder to know what kinds of knowledge and skill teachers should have. Increasingly, emphasis is placed upon 'transversal' or 'horizontal' skills (such as 'learning to not learn' or 'social competences', which cut across traditional subject boundaries, and therefore call into question traditional ways of designing the Teacher Education curriculum (and traditional ways of working in the classroom). practice at classroom teaching or at some other form of educational practice--usually supervised and supported in some way, though not always. Practice can take the form of field observations, student teaching, or (US) internship (See Supervised Field Experiences below.)

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Supervised field experiences

field observations--include observation and limited participation within a classroom under the supervision of the classroom teacher student teaching--includes a number of weeks teaching in an assigned classroom under the supervision of the classroom teacher and a supervisor (e.g. from the university) internship--teaching candidate is supervised within his or her own classroom These three areas reflect the organization of most teacher education programs in North America (though not necessarily elsewhere in the world)--courses, modules, and other activities are often organized to belong to one of the three major areas of teacher education. The organization makes the programs more rational or logical in structure. The conventional organization has sometimes also been criticized, however, as artificial and unrepresentative of how teachers actually experience their work. Problems of practice frequently (perhaps usually) concern foundational issues, curriculum, and practical knowledge simultaneously, and separating them during teacher education may therefore not be helpful.

Induction of beginning teachers

Teaching involves a complex set of tasks. Many teachers experience their first years in the profession as stressful. The proportion of teachers who either do not enter the profession after completing initial training, or who leave the profession after their first teaching post, is high[3]. A distinction is sometimes made between inducting a teacher into a new school (explaining the school's vision, procedures etc), and inducting a new teacher into the teaching profession (providing the support necessary to help the beginning teacher develop a professional identity, and to develop the basic competences that were acquired in college.) A number of countries and states have put in place comprehensive systems of support to help beginning teachers during their first years in the profession. Elements of such a programme can include: mentoring: the allocation to each beginning teacher of an experienced teacher, specifically trained as a mentor; the mentor may provide emotional and professional support and guidance; in many US states, induction is limited to the provision of a mentor, but research suggests that, in itself, it is not enough. [4]. a peer network: for mutual support but also for peer learning. input from educational experts (e.g. to help the beginning teacher relate what she learned in college with classroom reality) support for the process of self-reflection that all techers engage in (e.g. through the keeping of a journal).

Some research suggests that such programmes can: increase the retention of beginning teachers in the profession; improve teaching performance; promote the teachers' personal and professional well-being[5]. The most notable speakers on new teacher induction include Todd Whitaker, Robert Marzano, and Annette Breaux.

Continuous professional development

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Because the world that teachers are preparing young people to enter is changing so rapidly, and because the teaching skills required are evolving likewise, no initial course of teacher education can be sufficient to prepare a teacher for a career of 30 or 40 years. Continuous Professional Development is the process by which teachers (like other professionals) reflect upon their competences, maintain them up to date, and develop them further.

Quality assurance
The quality of the work undertaken by a teacher has significant effects upon his or her pupils or students. Further, those who pay teachers' salaries, whether through taxes or through school fees, wish to be assured that they are receiving value for money. Ways to measure the quality of work of individual teachers, of schools, or of education systems as a whole, are therefore often sought. In most countries, teacher salary is not related to the perceived quality of his or her work. Some, however, have systems to identify the 'best-performing' teachers, and increase their remuneration accordingly. Elsewhere, assessments of teacher performance may be undertaken with a view to identifying teachers' needs for additional training or development, or, in extreme cases, to identify those teachers that should be required to leave the profession. In some countries, teachers are required to re-apply periodically for their license to teach, and in so doing, to prove that they still have the requisite skills. Feedback on the performance of teachers is integral to many state and private education procedures, but takes many different forms. The 'no fault' approach is believed by some to be satisfactory, as weaknesses are carefully identified, assessed and then addressed through the provision of in

Teacher education policy

The process by which teachers are educated is the subject of political discussion in many countries, reflecting both the value attached by societies and cultures to the preparation of young people for life, and the fact that education systems consume significant financial resources (of which teacher salaries is often the largest single element). However, the degree of political control over Teacher Education varies. Where TE is entirely in the hands of universities, the state may have no direct control whatever over what or how new teachers are taught. In other systems, TE may be the subject of detailed prescription (e.g. the state may specify the skills that all teachers must possess, or it may specify the content of TE courses). In many states, the process of acquiring the relevant knowledge and skills to be a teacher (qualification) is separate from the process of acquiring the official permission to teach in public schools (registration, or licensing). Policy cooperation in the European Union has led to a broad description of the kinds of attributes that teachers in EU Member States should possess: the [Common European Principle for Teacher Competences and Qualifications][1].

Reading Activity
BChapter

Twenty Four: Globalization and Education

Reading Activity
Browse the internet and read about Globalization and Education. Recommended site free online wikipedia.

1.Explain the terms globalization and education.

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2. Examine the relationship between globalization and education. 3.How has the concept of globalization impacted on education in your country? 4. Asses the challenges of globalization on education/

rowse the internet and read about teacher education. Recommended site online free wikipedia

1.Describe the model of teacher training in your country. 2.Examine the challenges facing teacher education in your country

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