ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my gratitude to Mr. Anugra Jha (Senior DGM HRD) HECRanchi who provided me opportunity to undergo In-plant Training in HEC.Not only he has been source of inspiration throughout the training but also helped me to learn about various machines and equipments used in the field of Electrical & Mechanical Engineering.

I am extremely thankful to all the following engineers of HEC for their cooperation and guidance during my training period Mr. D.K. Singh-Sr. Manager ERS Mr. Chotu Mahli-Sr.Manager GSS Mr. A Singh-Assistant Eng. PSD Mr. RK Jha-DGM EDD

I have also learned a lot from the workers of HEC and I express my gratitude towards them. I will also like to thank my mentor Mrs. Nidhi Gupta for providing me her valuable experience and knowledge prior to training.

About HEC Plant

1

Heavy Engineering Corporation Limited or "HECLtd." is a Public Sector Undertaking ("PSU") in India. HEC was established in the year 1958 as one of the largest Integrated Engineering Complex in India. It manufactures and supplies capital equipments & machineries and renders project execution required for core sector industries. It has complete manufacturing set up starting from casting & forging, fabrication, machining, assembly and testing - all at one location, Ranchi, backed by a strong design - engineering and technology team.It has THREE UNITS as follows

Heavy.Machine.Building.Plant.(HMBP). The Plant has a fenced area of 5,70,000 sq.m and a floor area of nearly 2,00,000 sq.m. It is well equipped with sophisticated machine tools and handling equipment to undertake manufacture of heavy machinery and equipment of top quality. It is engaged in design and manufacture of equipment and components for Steel Plant, Mining, Mineral Processing, Crushers, Material Handling, Cranes, Power, Cement, Aluminium, Space Research, Nuclear Power etc. Heavy.Machine.Tools.Plant(HMTP) Set up in collaboration with M/s Skodaexport Czechoslovakia, HMTP is the most modern and sophisticated of its kind in the country which produces machine tools in heavier ranges. The Plant covers an area of over 2,13,500 sq.m. It designs and manufactures medium & heavy duty CNC and conventional Machine Tools for Railways, Defense, Ordnance factories, HAL, Space and other strategic sectors. Foundry.Forge.Plant(FFP) It is the largest foundry and forging complex in India and one of the largest of its kind in the world. The area of the Plant is 13,16,930 sq.m accommodating 76,000 tonnes of installed machinery to cope up with the various operations effectively. This Plant is the manufacturer of heavy castings and forgings for various HEC make equipments and related to Steel plant, Defence, Power, Nuclear energy etc.. Manufacturer of Forged Rolls for Steel Plants, Crank Shafts for Railway Loco etc. Project.Division Design, Engineering and execution of Turnkey Projects related to Bulk Material handling, Steel Plant projects, Cement Plant and other sectors.

HEC Ltd. Products:

Steel Plant & it's Equipment

Blast Furnace Coke Oven Batteries Continuous Casting Machine Steel Melting Converters Forged Rolls

Mining Equipment Electric Rope Shovel (5 CuM) Electric Rope Shovel (10 CuM) Draglines

Crushing Equipment and mineral processing products Primary Gyratory Crusher Cone Crusher Four Roll Crusher Reversible Hammer Crusher Rod Mill Machine Tools Vertical Turning & Milling Machine Lathe Roll Grinding Machine Deep Hole Boring Machine Horizontal Boring Machine Radial Drilling Machine Planning Machine Plano Milling Machine

Castings & Forgings Cranes Steel Castings Steel Forgings Grey Iron Casting

EOT crane Laddle crane Rotating Trolley Crane Magnet Grab Crane

Turn Key Projects:

Sl . 1

Project & features Coal Handling Plant at PARICHHA Thermal Power Station (UPSEB), UPSEB Turnkey: Design to commissioning Wagon Tippler, Ring Granulator, Plough Feeder, Conveyor (1.6 Km) Civil, Structure, Electrics Jayant CHP, Northern Coal Fields Ltd. Turnkey: Design to commissioning Gyratory Crusher, Apron Feeder, EOT Crane, Conveyor (1 Km) Civil, Structure, Electrics Dankuni Coal Complex, Coal India Ltd. Turnkey: Design to commissioning Low Temperature Carbunisation Complex including : Wagon Tripler, Crusher, Screens, Conveyor (2.5 Km) Civil, Structure, Electrics Upto Lime Storage & Screening Plant, Bokaro Steel Plant Turnkey: Design to commissioning Screens, Conveyors Civil, Structure, Electrics Coal Preparation Plant, Kedla, Central Coalfiels Ltd. Consultancy servives for project & detailed engineering, construction, erection & commissioning of washery including CHP Conveyors (4 Km) Raw Material Handling System (Phase-II), Rourkela Steel Plant Turnkey: Design to commissioning Wagon Tripler, Wagon Pusher, Apron Feeder, Cone & Roll Crushers, Inspectors, Rod Mills, Weigh feeders, Vibro Feeders & Screen, Conveyor (7 Km) Civil, Structure, Electrics & PLC system Up to Raw Material Handling System, NINL Turnkey: Design to commissioning Hammer Crusher, Feeders & screen, Conveyor (10.5 Km)

Capacity 675 TPH

1200 TPH

1000 TPH

1500 TPH

650 TPH

1200 TPH

1000 TPH

Up to 8 Second Launching Pad, ISRO 400 / 60 EOT Crane, 200 / 30 T EOT Crane 10T Tower Crane, FCVRP, SD Clean Room Mobile Launching Pad Coal Handling Plant (Ph-II), Nigahi, Northern Coal Fields Ltd. Planning, Design, Engineering, Construction, Fabrication, Supply, Erection, Trial run and Commissioning on Turnkey basis. Major Items : Gyratory Crusher, Apron Feeder, EOT Crane, complete utilities etc. Conveyor system of length approx. 4.0 km 3000T Silo with rapid wagon loading system of 5500 TPH. Cyclotron Magnet Poles Magnet pole and associated component for VECC (Atomic Energy) 1600 TPH

10

Unique Facilities at HEC:

5

acilities
Melting Furnaces:
30T Electric arc Furnace 10T Electric arc Furnace 5T Induction Furnace 2T Induction Furnace 2 Nos. 1 No. 1 No. 1 No.

VD UNIT

Secondary Refinement Furnaces:

60T Vacuum Arc Degassing unit 90T Vacuum Degassing unit 60T Ladle Furnace 1 No 2 Nos. 1 No

VAD Furnace

Forging Facilities
6000T Hydraulic Press 2650T Hydraulic Press 1650T Hydraulic Press 1000T Hydraulic Press 3T/1.6T Hammer Die Forging Units 1 no. 1 no. 1 no. 1 no. 2 nos. (15T & 1600 Kg) 1 each

6000 T Press

Heat Treatment Facilities

Low Frequency Induction Hardening M/c (50 Cycles) Medium Frequency Induction M/c (1000 Cycles) Nitriding Furnace Thermal Stability Testing Equipment Vertical & Horizontal Mist Quenching M/c (Up to 50T & 18M long jobs) Electric H/T Pit Furnace up to 18 M Depth Bogies Type H/T Furnace up to 12M x 6m x 3.5m Bogies Type H/T Furnace up to 19M x 4m x 3m Electric Pit Furnace dia 2.5M Electric Pit Furnace dia 4.0 M 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 1

Machining Facilities
CNC Heavy Duty Gear Shaper Pitch Dia Internal/External Gear 500 mm, Module Max 8mm Maag Gear Shaper (Speciality - Narrow Gap Herringbone grs) MaxDia 1800mm, Max. Module 18mm Vertical Gear Hobbing M/C Max Job Dia 5M, Module 50 mm, Max. Width of Job 2M > Horizontal Gear Hobbing M/C Job Dia 5M, Module 40 mm, Max. Job Length 5.6M Maag Gear Grinding Machines Dia 1800mm, Max. Module 0.5mm to 16mm

CNC Gear Shaper

CNC Vertical Turning and Boring M/c (O&M Make) CNC Planomilling M/c (Waldrich Coburg) CNC Hor. Boring M/c (Skoda Make) Gear Cutting M/c Max Job Dia 14M Max Job weight 250T Max. Job size 3.5M x 7M x 2.5M Max Job weight 120T Max. Spindle Dia 200mm Max Column Travel 20M Max. Job dia 5M Max. module 40mm (Hobbing

Machining of HYDRO TURBINE SHAFT CNC Slant Bed Turning Centre CNC Horizontal Machining Centre CNC Vertical Machining Centre

Machining of Bull Gear for Steel Plant Distance Between Centres 1500mm Swing Over carriage 250mm Table size 1000 x 1000mm Travel 1800/1300/1000mm Table Size 500 x 500mm Travel x axis 1200mm, Y axis-510mm & z axis 510mm Spindle Dia 200mm Table size 3500 x 4000mm Pitch Dia - Internal Gear 500mm External Gear 500mm Module Max 8 m

CNC Horizontal Boring Machine CNC Heavy duty Gear Shaper (Liebherr Make)

Fabrication facilities:

CNC flame cutting

Submerged Arc Welding Electro Slag Welding

Job under CNC flame cutting

Number of Equipments Supplied till Date:

STEEL SECTOR

Equipment 1. Blast Furnace (1033 to 3200 Cu. M) 2. Coke Oven (4.3 to 7 M high) 3. Continuous Casting Machine for Blooms/slabs of various sizes Turkey 4. Rolling Mills of various types & sizes including 3600MM wide Plate Mill 5. Steel Melting Converters (55 to 300T) 6. Mixer (600 to 1300T) 7. Sinter Plant Equipment (75 to 312 Sq.M.) 8. General Purpose & Steel Plant Cranes upto 450T 9. Forged Rolls (HRM & CRM)

Nos. 9 21 13

Supplied to Bhilai, Bokaro, Vizag Steel Plant,Turkey, Egypt. Bhilai, Bokaro, Vizag, Durgapur Steel Plant, Turkey, USSR, Sri Lanka Bhilai, Bokaro, Vizag Rourkela Steel Plant,

19

Bhilai, Bokaro, Vizag Steel Plant, Salem Steel Plant,Misra Dhatu Nigam, Ahmadabad Advance Mill,Bombay Mint Bhilai, Bokaro, Vizag, Durgapur,Rourkela Steel Plant, Malvika Steel Ltd. Malvika Steel Ltd., Indomag, Bhilai,Vizag Steel Plant Bhilai, Bokaro, Vizag Steel Plant,Turkey, USSR Bokaro, Durgapur, Bhilai, Rourkela, Vizag Steel Plant, BHEL, Malvika Steel,TISCO, CIL, TYAZPROMEXPORT (USSR) ISRO

10 10 24 300

3800 Bokaro, Bhilai, Rourkela, Durgapur, Vizag Steel Plant,Jindal, Nippon Dendro, Steelco, Tinplate, Jindal, Uttam Galva 10 1 ESSAR STEEL, RSP Tata International

10. 22 M3 Slag Cups 11. 20 M3 Slag Cups 12. 16 Cu. M. Slag Cups 13. 18 M3 Slag Cups 14. Machine Tools

2900 Bokaro, Bhilai, Rourkela, Vizag,Durgapur Steel Plant, TISCO 20 149 RSP, TISCO, VSP, JindalNINL Bokaro, Bhilai, Rourkela, Vizag,Durgapur Steel Plant, TISCO, NINL.

COAL / MINING

Equipment 1. 4.6/5 CuM Elect. Rope Shovel 2. 10 CuM Elect. Rope Shovel

Nos. 540 30

Supplied to All Subsidiaries of CIL, NMDC,TISCO, HCL, BSL, BSP, RSP CIL, SECL

10

3. 12.5 CuM Elect. Rope Shovel 4. Draglines (20/90) 5. Draglines (24/96) 6. Hyd. Shovel (RH-30C, 3.5CuM) 7. Hyd. Shovel (RH-40C, 5CuM) 8. Hyd. Shovel (RH-75C, 8.1 CuM) 9. Over Burden Drill 10. Mine Winder / Friction Winder 11. Crushers (Gyratory, Jaw, Cone Crushers, Single, Two, Four Roll Crushers) 12. Ball Mills 13. Rod Mills 14. Stacker/Reclaimer/Wagon Loader 15. Wagon Pusher & Wagon Tippler

2 1 12 8 12 3 89 16 144

CIL CIL CIL CIL TISCO & CIL CIL All Subsidiaries of CIL, NMDC BCCL, ECL, SECL, HZL Bokaro, Bhilai, Vizag Steel Plant, NMDC, HCL, CIL, USSR, MESCO, NINL, HZL.Yugoslavia, Bulgaria Bokaro Steel Plant Rourkela Steel Plant NMDC (Kiriburu, Bailadilla),Bongaigaon Thermal Plant BSL, BSP, RSP, VSP, IISCO,DANKUNI, PARICHA, Patratu, Bongaingaon

10 3 5 41

OTHERS

Equipment 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Cyclotron Magnet K-500 Super conducting Cyclotron Magnet Horton Sphere Heavy Tyre Casting (Dia. 5.5M wt. 30T) Heavy Tyre Casting (Dia. 5.9M) wt. 55MT

Nos. 1 1 2 2 3 VECC VECC FCI Barauni TISCO

Supplied to

Jindal, AARTI, Madras Cement

11

6. 7. 8. 9.

Hydro Turbine Shaft T.G. Rotor Shaft (For 200MW) Industrial Turbine Shaft Francis Runner Turbine Casting of Stainless Steel (Wt. 15T)

12 1 2 1 6000 2 1500 1 1 801

BHEL BHEL BHEL BHEL Rourkela Steel Plant ONGC Indian Railways BALCO INDALCO BALCO, NALCO, Yugoslavia & Egypt

10. Stainless Steel Die Forgings 11. Oil Drilling Rigs 12. Crank Shaft for Meter & Broad Gauge Locomotives 13. Vertical Stand with Drive Roller Table 14. Slitting & Trimming Line 15. Electrolyser Pots with Anode Mechanism 16. Folding-cum-Vertically Repositionable Platform 17. 10T Tower Crane for SLP 18. 400T EOT Crane for GSLV MK-III 19. Folding-cum-Vertically Repositionable Platform for GSLV MK-III 20. Horizontal Sliding Doors for GSLV MK-III 21. Mobile Launch Pedestal for GSLV MK-III

6 Sets ISRO, Sriharikota 1 1 3 3 1 ISRO, Sriharikota ISRO, Sriharikota ISRO, Sriharikota ISRO, Sriharikota ISRO, Sriharikota

MACHINE TOOLS
CONVENTIONAL MACHINES

Equipment 1. Radial Drill 2. Horizontal Borer

Nos. 166 197

Supplied to BHEL, BHPV, L&T, Indian Railway, TISCO,Mukund, Telco, Bhilai, Bokaro Steel, NINL, etc. BHEL, Indian Railway, Hindustan Motor,Telco, Bhilai, Bokaro Steel, IISCO, Defence,NINL, TRL etc. TISCO, BHPV, HMT, BARC, IISCO, HCL,Indian Railway, Braithwaite etc.

3. Planer

56

12

8. Plano Miller 4. Heavy Duty Centre Lathe 5. Vertical Turning & Boring 6. Roll Grinder 7. Deep Hole Boring 9. Edge Planing

2 120

Durgapur, Vizag Steel Plant BHEL, ASP, HMT, GRW, Jessop, BSL, RSP,BSP, VSP, NINL, NTPC, CIL, SCCL, MSR etc.

50

BHEL, Vizag, Bokaro, Indian Railways,L&T, NTPC, Air Force Base Workshop etc.

20 1 9

Tayo, BALCO, Durgapur, L&T, Tinplate,INDALCO, Defence, IG MINT. Foundry Forge Plant BHPV, Bokaro, TISCO, BHEL, ATV etc.

RAILWAY MACHINES

Equipment 10. Surface Wheel Lathe 11. Under Floor Wheel Lathe 12. Axle Journal Turning & Burnishing Lathe 13. Multi Purpose Wheel Lathe

Nos. 74 49 31 4

Supplied to Indian Railways, Vizag Steel Plant, NALCO Indian Railways, Metro Railway, Bokaro Steel Indian Railways Indian Railways

CNC MACHINES

Equipment 14. 15. Roll Turning Lathe Vertical Turning & Boring

Nos. 10 20

Supplied to Tata Yodogawa, Vizag Steel Plant, L&T, BSL Durgapur Steel Plant, TELCO, HAL, SDSC/SHAR

VSSC

Equipment 16. Horizontal Borer 1

Nos. HMTP

Supplied to

13

17. 18. 19. 20.

Deep Hole Boring Planer Lathe Surface Wheel Lalthe

3 1 5 2

Field Gun Factory, Kanpur, MSF Ishapore Rourkela Steel Plant WCL, BHEL, HMBP, FFP Indian Railways, NTPC

Total = 821

PROJECTS COMMISSIONED

Project 1. Coal Handling Plant

Supplied to Jayant (NCL), Bina (NCL),Kedla (CCL), Paricha (UPSEB), Bongaigaon (ASEB) Rourkela Steel Plant, Neelachal Ispat Nigam Ltd. Dankuni Coal Complex, West Bengal Kedla (CCL) Rourkela Steel Plant Patratu (BSEB) IISCO Burnpur RDCIS/SAIL Durgapur Steel Plant Misra Dhatu Nigam Limited, Hyderabad Bokaro Steel Plant Bokaro Steel Plant

2. Raw Material Handling Plant 3. Low Temperature Coal Carbonisation Plant 4. Coal Washery 5. Continuous Casting Plant (SMS-I) for Slab 6. Rotaside Wagon Tippler Complex 7. Rotary Wagon Tippler Complex 8. Pilot Sponge Iron Plant (3600 TPA) 9. New Hammer Mill Complex 10. Super Alloy Plant 11. Lime Stone Screening Plant 12. Flux Storage, Crushing and Screening Complex in Sinter Plant 13. Modernisation of Cement Plant 14. Wheel & Axle Plant

Chhatak Cement Plant, Bangladesh Durgapur Steel Plant

14

CNC Machines
Introduction
Today, computer numerical control (CNC) machines are found almost everywhere, from small job shops in rural communities to Fortune 500 companies in large urban areas. Truly, there is hardly a facet of manufacturing that is not in some way touched by what these innovative machine tools can do. Everyone involved in the manufacturing environment should be well aware of what is possible with these sophisticated machine tools. The design engineer, for example, must possess enough knowledge of CNC to perfect dimensioning and tolerancing techniques for workpieces to be machined on CNC machines. The tool engineer must understand CNC in order to design fixtures and cutting tools for use with CNC machines. Quality control people should understand the CNC machine tools used within their company in order to plan quality control and statistical process control accordingly. Production control personnel should be abreast of their company's CNC technology in order to make realistic production schedules. Managers, foremen, and team leaders should understand CNC well enough to communicate intelligently with fellow workers. And, it goes without saying that CNC programmers, setup people, operators, and others working directly with the CNC equipment must have an extremely good understanding of CNC. In this presentation, we will explore the basics of CNC, showing you much of what is involved with using these sophisticated machine tools. Our primary goal will be to teach you how to learn about CNC. For readers who will eventually be working directly with CNC machine tools, we will show you the basics of each major CNC function. Additionally, we will make suggestions as to how you can learn more about each CNC function as it applies to your particular CNC machine/s. At the completion of this presentation, you should have a good understanding of how and why CNC functions as it does and know those things you must learn more about in order to work with any style of CNC machine tool. For readers who are not going to be working directly with CNC equipment in the near future, our secondary goal will be to give you a good working knowledge of CNC technology. At the completion of this presentation, you should be quite comfortable with the fundamentals of CNC and be able to communicate intelligently with others in your company about your CNC machine tools. To proceed in an organized manner, we will be using a key concepts approach to all presentations. All important functions of CNC are organized into ten key concepts (We'll show five of the ten key concepts in this presentation. All five are related to programming). Think of it this way. If you can understand ten basic principles, you are well on your way to becoming proficient with CNC. While our main focus will be for the two most popular forms of CNC machine tools (machining centers and turning centers), these ten key concepts can be applied to virtually any kind of CNC machine, making it easy to adapt to any form of CNC equipment. With so many types of CNC machine

15

tools in existence, it is next to impossible for this presentation to be extremely specific about any one particular type. The key concepts allow us to view the main features of CNC in more general terms, stressing why things are handled the way they are even more than the specific techniques used with any one particular CNC machine tool. With the broad background we give, you should be able to easily zero in on any kind of CNC machine tool you will be working with. As yet a third goal, this presentation should help instructors of CNC. The key concepts approach we show has been proven time and time again during live presentations in CNC courses. This method of presentation will help instructors organize CNC into extremely logical and easy to understand lessons.

Why CNC?
Laborious, tedious, poor use of skilled boat builders who can be working on other jobs Predictability of turn-around time Quality, repeatability, symmetry and tolerance are controlled. Arbitrary plan forms and arbitrary sections can be easily accomodated using CAD/CAM systems. Mathematically correct surfaces as the designer specified. eg As the chord reduces, the thickness should also reduce in proportion. This is difficult to do manually without good templates and lots of time. The fairness of the machined surface reduces the time and materials spent in the finishing process. Machined foils generally only need sanding (to remove machining marks) before glass, primer and paint. Machined shape is not affected by material combinations (changes in density, hardness do not change the resulting shape). Accurately shaped foils not only improve performance, but also handling. Concave shapes (such as moulds) are just as easy to manufacture.

Fundamentals of CNC
16

While the specific intention and application for CNC machines vary from one machine type to another, all forms of CNC have common benefits. Though the thrust of this presentation is to teach you CNC usage, it helps to understand why these sophisticated machines have become so popular. Here are but a few of the more important benefits offered by CNC equipment. The first benefit offered by all forms of CNC machine tools is improved automation. The operator intervention related to producing workpieces can be reduced or eliminated. Many CNC machines can run unattended during their entire machining cycle, freeing the operator to do other tasks. This gives the CNC user several side benefits including reduced operator fatigue, fewer mistakes caused by human error, and consistent and predictable machining time for each workpiece. Since the machine will be running under program control, the skill level required of the CNC operator (related to basic machining practice) is also reduced as compared to a machinist producing workpieces with conventional machine tools. The second major benefit of CNC technology is consistent and accurate workpieces. Today's CNC machines boast almost unbelievable accuracy and repeatability specifications. This means that once a program is verified, two, ten, or one thousand identical workpieces can be easily produced with precision and consistency. A third benefit offered by most forms of CNC machine tools is flexibility. Since these machines are run from programs, running a different workpiece is almost as easy as loading a different program. Once a program has been verified and executed for one production run, it can be easily recalled the next time the workpiece is to be run. This leads to yet another benefit, fast change-overs. Since these machines are very easy to setup and run, and since programs can be easily loaded, they allow very short setup time. This is imperative with today's Just-In-Time product requirements. Motion control - the heart of CNC The most basic function of any CNC machine is automatic, precise, and consistent motion control. Rather than applying completely mechanical devices to cause motion as is required on most conventional machine tools, CNC machines allow motion control in a revolutionary manner. All forms of CNC equipment have two or more directions of motion, called axes. These axes can be precisely and automatically positioned along their lengths of travel. The two most common axis types are linear (driven along a straight path) and rotary (driven along a circular path). Instead of causing motion by turning cranks and handwheels as is required on conventional machine tools, CNC machines allow motions to be commanded through programmed commands. Generally speaking, the motion type (rapid, linear, and circular), the axes to move, the amount of motion and the motion rate (feedrate) are programmable with almost all CNC machine tools. Accurate positioning is accomplished by the operator counting the number of revolutions made on the handwheel plus the graduations on the dial. The drive motor is rotated a corresponding amount, which in turn drives the ball screw, causing linear motion of the axis. A feedback device confirms that the proper amount of ball screw revolutions have occurred. A CNC command executed within the control (commonly through a program) tells the drive motor to rotate a precise number of times. The rotation of the drive motor in turn rotates the ball screw. And the ball screw causes drives the linear axis. A feedback

17

device at the opposite end of the ball screw allows the control to confirm that the commanded number of rotations has taken place. Though a rather crude analogy, the same basic linear motion can be found on a common table vise. As you rotate the vise crank, you rotate a lead screw that, in turn, drives the movable jaw on the vise. By comparison, a linear axis on a CNC machine tool is extremely precise. The number of revolutions of the axis drive motor precisely controls the amount of linear motion along the axis. How axis motion is commanded - understanding coordinate systems It would be infeasible for the CNC user to cause axis motion by trying to tell each axis drive motor how many times to rotate in order to command a given linear motion amount. (This would be like having to figure out how many turns of the handle on a table vise will cause the movable jaw to move exactly one inch!) Instead, all CNC controls allow axis motion to be commanded in a much simpler and more logical way by utilizing some form of coordinate system. The two most popular coordinate systems used with CNC machines are the rectangular coordinate system and the polar coordinate system. By far, the most popular of these two is the rectangular coordinate system, and we'll use it for all discussions made during this presentation. One very common application for the rectangular coordinate system is graphing. Almost everyone has had to make or interpret a graph. Since the need to utilize graphs is so commonplace, and since it closely resembles what is required to cause axis motion on a CNC machine, let's review the basics of graphing. As with any two dimensional graph, this graph has two base lines. Each base line is used to represent something. What the base line represents is broken into increments. Also, each base line has limits. In our productivity example, the horizontal base line is being used to represent time. For this base line, the time increment is in months. Remember this base line has limits - it starts at January and end with December. The vertical base line is representing productivity. Productivity is broken into ten percent increments and starts at zero percent productivity and ends with one hundred percent productivity. The person making the graph would look up the company's productivity for January of last year and at the productivity position on the graph for January, a point is plotted. This would then be repeated for February, March, and each month of the year. Once all points are plotted, a line or curve can be drawn through each of the points to make it more clear as to how the company did last year. Let's take what we now know about graphs and relate it to CNC axis motion. Instead of plotting theoretical points to represent conceptual ideas, the CNC programmer is going to be plotting physical end points for axis motions. Each linear axis of the machine tool can be thought of as like a base line of the graph. Like graph base lines, axes are broken into increments. But instead of being broken into increments of conceptual ideas like time and productivity, each linear axis of a CNC machine's rectangular coordinate system is broken into increments of measurement. In the inch mode, the smallest increment is usually 0.0001 inch. In the metric mode, the smallest increment is 0.001 millimeter. (By the way, for rotary axes the increment is 0.001 degrees.) Just like the graph, each axis within the CNC machine's coordinate system must start somewhere. With the graph, the horizontal baseline started at January and the vertical base line started at zero percent productivity. This place where the vertical and horizontal base lines come together is called the origin point of the graph. For CNC

18

purposes, this origin point is commonly called the program zero point (also called work zero, part zero, and program origin). For this example, the two axes we happen to be showing are labeled as X and Y but keep in mine that program zero can be applied to any axis. Though the names of each axes will change from one CNC machine type to another (other common names include Z, A, B, C, U, V, and W), this example should work nicely to show you how axis motion can be commanded. The program zero point establishes the point of reference for motion commands in a CNC program. This allows the programmer to specify movements from a common location. If program zero is chosen wisely, usually coordinates needed for the program can be taken directly from the print. With this technique, if the programmer wishes the tool to be sent to a position one inch to the right of the program zero point, X1.0 is commanded. If the programmer wishes the tool to move to a position one inch above the program zero point, Y1.0 is commanded. The control will automatically determine how many times to rotate each axis drive motor and ball screw to make the axis reach the commanded destination point. This lets the programmer command axis motion in a very logical manner. With the examples given so far, all points happened to be up and to the right of the program zero point. This area up and to the right of the program zero point is called a quadrant (in this case, quadrant number one). It is not uncommon on CNC machines that end points needed within the program fall in other quadrants. When this happens, at least one of the coordinates must be specified as minus.

Knowing your machine

A CNC user MUST understand the makeup of the CNC machine tool being utilized. While this may sound like a basic statement, a CNC user must be able to view the machine from two distinctly different perspectives. Here in key concept number two, we will be viewing the machine from a programmer's perspective. Much later, in key concept number seven, we will look at the machine from an operator's viewpoint. The key to success with any CNC machine Many forms of CNC machines are designed to enhance or replace what is currently being done with more conventional machines. The first goal of any CNC beginner should be to understand the basic machining practice that goes into using the CNC machine tool. The more the beginning CNC user knows about basic machining practice, the easier it will be to adapt to CNC. Think of it this way. If you already know basic machining practice as it relates to the CNC machine you will be working with, you already know what it is you want the machine to do. It will be a relatively simple matter of learning how to tell the CNC machine what it is you want it to do (learning to program). This is why machinists make the best CNC programmers, operators, and setup personnel. Machinists already know what it is the machine will be doing. It will be a relatively simple matter of adapting what they already know to the CNC machine. For example, a beginner to CNC turning centers should understand the basic machining practice related to turning operations like rough and finish turning, rough and finish boring, grooving, threading, and necking. Since this form of CNC machine can perform multiple operations in a single program (as many CNC machines can), the beginner

19

should also know the basics of how to process workpieces machined by turning so a sequence of machining operations can be developed for workpieces to be machined. This point cannot be overstressed. Trying to learn about a particular CNC machine without understanding the basic machining practice related to the machine would be like trying to learn how to fly an airplane without understanding the basics of aerodynamics and flight. Just as a beginning pilot will be in for a great number of problems without understanding aerodynamics, so is the beginning CNC user have difficulty learning how to utilize CNC equipment without an understanding of basic machining practice.

Understanding interpolation or motion of CNC

Say for example, you wish to move only one linear axis in a command. Say you wish to move the X axis to a position one inch to the right of program zero. In this case, the command X1. would be given (assuming the absolute mode is instated). The machine would move along a perfectly straight line during this movement (since only one axis is moving). Now let's say you wish to include a Y axis movement to a position one inch above program zero in Y (with the X movement). We'll say you are trying to machine a tapered or chamfered surface of your workpiece in this command. For the control to move along a perfectly straight line to get to the programmed end point, it must perfectly synchronize the X and Y axis movements. Also, if machining is to occur during the motion, a motion rate (feedrate) must also be specified. This requires linear interpolation. During linear interpolation commands, the control will precisely and automatically calculate a series of very tiny single axis departures, keeping the tool as close to the programmed linear path as possible. With today's CNC machine tools, it will appear that the machine is forming a perfectly straight line motion. However, Figure 3.1 shows what the CNC control is actually doing during linear interpolation. Figure 3.1 - Actual motion generated with linear interpolation. Notice the series of very tiny single axis movements. The step size is equal to the machine's resolution, usually 0.0001 in or 0.001 mm. In similar fashion, many applications for CNC machine tools require that the machine be able to form circular motions. Applications for circular motions include forming radii on turned workpieces between faces and turns and milling radii on contours of machining center workpieces. This kind of motion requires circular interpolation. As with linear interpolation, the control will do its best to generate as close to a circular path as possible. The three most basic motion types While your particular CNC machine may have more motion types (depending on your application), let's concentrate on becoming familiar with the three most common types of motion. These three motion types are available on almost all forms of CNC equipment. After briefly introducing each type of motion, we'll show an example program that stresses the use of all three. These motion types share two things in common. First, they are all modal. This means they remain in effect until changed. If for example, several motions of the same kind are to be given consecutively, the corresponding G code need only be specified in the first

20

command. Second, the END POINT of the motion is specified in each motion command. The current position of the machine will be taken as the starting point. Rapid motion (also called positioning) This motion type (as the name implies) is used to command motion at the machine's fastest possible rate. It is used to minimize non-productive time during the machining cycle. Common uses for rapid motion include positioning the tool to and from cutting positions, moving to clear clamps and other obstructions, and in general, any noncutting motion during the program. You must check in the machine tool builder's manual to determine a machine's rapid rate. Usually this rate is extremely fast (some machines boast rapid rates of well over 1000 IPM!), meaning the operator must be cautious when verifying programs during rapid motion commands. Fortunately, there is a way for the operator to override the rapid rate during program verification. The command almost all CNC machines use to command rapid motion is G00. Within the G00 Command, the end point for the motion is given. Control manufacturers vary with regard to what actually happens if more than one axis is included in the rapid motion command. With most controls, the machine will move as fast as possible in all axes commanded. In this case, one axis will probably reach its destination point before the other/s. With this kind of rapid command, straight line movement will NOT occur during rapid and the programmer must be very careful if there are obstructions to avoid. With other controls, straight line motion will occur, even during rapid motion commands. Straight line motion (also called linear interpolation) This motion type allows the programmer to command perfectly straight line movements as discussed earlier during our discussion of linear interpolation. This motion type also allows the programmer to specify the motion rate (feedrate) to be used during the movement. Straight line motion can be used any time a straight cutting movement is required, including when drilling, turning a straight diameter, face or taper, and when milling straight surfaces. The method by which feedrate is programmed varies from one machine type to the next. Generally speaking, machining centers only allow the feedrate to be specific in per minute format (inches or millimeters per minute). Turning centers also allow feedrate to be specified in per revolution format (inches or millimeters per revolution). A G01 word is commonly used to specify straight line motion. Within the G01, the programmer will include the desired end point in each axis. Circular motion (also called circular interpolation) This motion type causes the machine to make movements in the form of a circular path. As discussed earlier during our presentation of circular interpolation, this motion type is used to generate radii during machining. All feedrate related points made during our discussion of straight line motion still apply. Two G codes are used with circular motion. G02 is commonly used to specify clockwise motion while G03 is used to specify counter clockwise motion. To evaluate which to use, you simply view the movement from the same perspective the machine will view the motion. For example, if making a circular motion in XY on a machining center, simply view the motion from the spindle's vantage point. If making a circular motion in XZ on a turning center, simply view the motion from above the spindle. In most cases, this is as simple as viewing the print from above.

21

Additionally, circular motion requires that, by one means or another, the programmer specifies the radius of the arc to be generated. With newer CNC controls this is handled by a simple "R" word. The R word within the circular command simply tells the control the radius of the arc being commanded. With older controls, directional vectors (specified by I, J, and K) tell the control the location of the arc's center point. Since controls vary with regard to how directional vectors are programmed, and since the R word is becoming more and more popular for radius designation, our examples will show the use of the R word. If you wish to learn more about directional vectors, you must reference your control manufacturer's manual.

A typical Horizontal Drilling Machine

22

Closed Loop Single Axis CNC block Diagram

23

Motor Used in CNC System

Stepping Motors
Hybrid stepping motors have a variable-reluctance rotor with a permanent magnet in its magnetic path, usually in the rotor. The term hybrid refers to the use of two sources of magnetic field, the stator windings and the permanent magnet. Hybrid stepping motors are used when small step angles are required. The 1.8 degree stepping motor is the predominant standard for industrial automation.

A 200 step hybrid motor

24

Servo Motors
There are basically three type of servo motor, the DC brushed (2 wire) and BLDC, (brushless DC) and AC sinusoidal, both of these have three stator leads and have the identical appearance the difference is in the BLDC has two windings energised at any given time, hence brushless DC, the AC sinusoidal has all three winding energised by three phases 120 apart. All servo motors should also have one other conductor connected to the frame for Earth Ground.

25

Comparison of servo and stepper motors

Stepper Vs. Servo Motors Characteristics Cost Servo Motor (DC Brushed The cost for a servo motor and servo motor system is higher than that of a stepper motor system with equal power rating. Servo motors are very versatile in their use for automation and CNC applications. Stepper (Hybrid) This feature would have to go to stepper motors. Steppers are generally cheaper than servo motors that have the same power rating. Stepper motors are also very versatile in their use for automation and CNC applications. Because of their simplicity stepper motors may be found on anything from printers to clocks.

Versatility

Reliability

This is a toss up because it depends The stepper takes this category only on the environment and how well the because it does not require an encoder motor is protected. which may fail. Servo motors are availible in a wide variety of frame sizes, from small to large motors capable of running huge machines. Many of the motors come in NEMA standard sized. Stepper motors do not have as many size selections as servo motors in the large sizes. However stepper motors may still be found in a variety of NEMA frame sizes. Stepper motors are almost plug-andplay. They require only the motor wires to be wired to the stepper motor driver.

Frame Sizes

Servo motors require tuning of the Setup Complexity (PID) closed loop variable circuit to obtain correct motor function.

Motor Life

The brushes on servo motors must be The bearing on stepper motors are the replaced every 2000 hours of only wearing parts. That gives stepper operation. Also encoders may need motors a slight edge on life. replacing. Servo motors will do fine with low Stepper motors provide most torque at speed applications given low friction low speed (RPM). and the correct gear ratio Servo motors maintain their rated torque to about 90% of their no load RPM. Servo motors can have very good repeatability if setup correctly. The encoder quality can also play into repeatability. Servo motors may malfunction if overloaded mechanically. Servo motors have an excellent Stepper motors lose up to 80% of their maximum torque at 90% of their maximum RPM. Because of the way stepper motors are constructed and operate they have very good repeatability with little or no tuning required. Stepper motors are unlikely to be damages by mechanical overload. Stepper motors are less efficient than

Low Speed High Torque High speed High Torque

Repeatability

Overload Safety Power to

26

Weight/Size ratio

power to weight ratio given their efficiency. Servo motors are very efficient. Yielding 80-90% efficiency given light loads.

servo motors which usually means a smaller power to weight/size ratio. Stepper motors consume a lot of power given their output, much of which is converted to heat. Stepper motors are usually about 70% efficient but this has some to do with the stepper driver. Stepper motors usually have 1.8 or 0.9 degree resolution. However thanks to micro-stepping steppers can obtain higher resolutions. This is up to the driver and not the motor. Stepper motors are also capable of accelerating loads but not as well as servo motors. Stepper motors may stall and skip steps if the motor is not powerful enough.

Efficiency

Flexibility in motor resolution

Since the encoder on a servo motor determines the motor resolution servos have a wide range of resolutions available.

Torque to Inertia Servo motors are very capable of Ratio accelerating loads.

Least Heat production Reserve Power and Torque

Since the current draw of a servo Stepper motors draw excess current motor is proportional to the load regardless of load. The excess power applied, heat production is very low. is dissipated as heat. A servo motor can supply about 200% of the continuous power for short periods. Servo motors produce very little noise. Servo motors do not vibrate or have resonance issues. Stepper motors do not have reserve power. However stepper motors can brake very well. Stepper motors produce a slight hum due to the control process. However a high quality driver will decrease the noise level. Stepper motors vibrate slightly and have some resonance issues because of how the stepper motor operates.

Noise

Resonance and Vibration Availability

Servo motors are not as readily Stepper motors are far easier to find available to the masses as are stepper than quality servo motors. motors.

Servo motors are more mechanically Stepper motors are very simple in Motor Simplicity complex due to their internal parts design with no designed consumable and the external encoders. parts. Direct Drive Capability Stepper motors will work fine in direct Servo motors usually require more drive mode. Many people simple use a gearing ratios due to their high RPM. motor couple and attach the motor It is very rare to see a direct drive shaft directly to the leadscrew or servo motor setup. ballscrew.

Recirculating Ball Screws

Transform rotational motion of the motor into translationalmotion of the nut attached to the machine table.

27

Advantages
Inexpensive & Low Power Use Low Maintenance & High Accuracy High Repeatability & High Efficiency High Load Capacity

A Typical single axis CNC working diagram:

CNC Controller and Pannel

The CNC controller is the brain of a CNC system. A controller completes the all important link between a computer system and the mechanical components of a CNC machine. The

28

controller's primary task is to receive conditioned signals from a computer or indexer and interpret those signals into mechanical motion through motor output. There are several components that make up a controller and each component works in unison to produce the desired motor movement.

The overall CNC controller architecture is to break the controller into a motion board and buffer board. Motion Board
The motion board is controlled via a standard PC parallel port using step and direction commands to control the motion of up to 4 stepper motors. The step and direction commands are sufficiently standardized that alternative motion control systems (e.g. [Camtronics] or [Gecko]) can be substituted in without breaking the overall architecture. Buffer Board The buffer board contains a dedicated microcontroller that talks to a high speed serial port (or SimpliciNet hub; see below) and provides some command buffering. If there is enough buffering, it should be possible to run the CNC equipment from a standard desktop operating system without requiring something as specialized as real time Linux [RTLinux]. There are a total of three configurations: Parallel Port Mode In parallel port mode, the motion board is directly connected to the parallel port of the host processor. Serial Port Mode In serial port mode, the buffer board is connected to the host processor via a high speed serial port and the motion board is connected to the buffer board. SimpliciNet Mode In SimpliciNet mode, the buffer board is connected to the high speed serial port of the host processor via a SimpliciNet hub [SimpliciNet] and the motion board is connected to the buffer board as before.

CNC G-CODE Programming

29

O - Program number (Used for program identification) N - Sequence number (Used for line identification) G - Preparatory function X - X axis designation Y - Y axis designation Z - Z axis designation R - Radius designation F - Feedrate designation S - Spindle speed designation H - Tool length offset designation D - Tool radius offset designation T - Tool Designation

To simply drill two holes (one with each tool). Notice that tool length compensation is being instated in lines N015 and N055.
Program

O0001 (Program number) N005 T01 M06 (Place tool number one in the spindle) N010 G54 G90 S400 M03 T02 (Select coordinate system, absolute mode, start spindle CW at 400 RPM, get tool number two ready) N013 G00 X1.0 Y1.0 (Rapid to first XY position) N015 G43 H01 Z.1 M08 (Instate tool length compensation on first Z move, turn on coolant) N020 G01 Z-1.5 F4. (Drill hole) N025 G00 Z.1 M09 (Rapid out of hole, turn off coolant) N030 G91 G28 Z0 M19 (Return to tool change position, orient spindle) N035 M01 (Optional stop) N040 T02 M06 (Place tool number two in spindle) N045 G54 G90 S400 M03 T01 (Select coordinate system, absolute mode, start spindle at 400 RPM, get tool number one ready) N050 G00 X2. Y1. (Rapid to first XY position) N055 G43 H02 Z.1 M08 (Instate tool length compensation on tool's first Z move, turn on coolant) N060 G01 Z-1.2 F5.5 (Drill hole) N065 G00 Z.1 M08 (Rapid out of hole, turn off coolant) N070 G91 G28 Z0 M19 (Return to tool change position, orient spindle) N075 M30 (End of program)

Advantages
1. CNC machines can be used continuously 24 hours a day, 365 days a year and only need to be switched off for occasional maintenance.

30

2. CNC machines are programmed with a design which can then be manufactured hundreds or even thousands of times. Each manufactured product will be exactly the same. 3. Less skilled/trained people can operate CNCs unlike manual lathes / milling machines etc.. which need skilled engineers. 4. CNC machines can be updated by improving the software used to drive the machines 5. Training in the use of CNCs is available through the use of virtual software. This is software that allows the operator to practice using the CNC machine on the screen of a computer. The software is similar to a computer game. 6. CNC machines can be programmed by advanced design software such as Pro/DESKTOP, enabling the manufacture of products that cannot be made by manual machines, even those used by skilled designers / engineers . 7. Modern design software allows the designer to simulate the manufacture of his/her idea. There is no need to make a prototype or a model. This saves time and money. 8. One person can supervise many CNC machines as once they are programmed they can usually be left to work by themselves. Sometimes only the cutting tools need replacing occasionally. 9. A skilled engineer can make the same component many times. However, if each component is carefully studied, each one will vary slightly. A CNC machine will manufacture each component as an exact match.

Disadvantages
1. CNC machines are more expensive than manually operated machines,
although costs are slowly coming down. 2. The CNC machine operator only needs basic training and skills, enough to supervise several machines. In years gone by, engineers needed years of training to operate centre lathes, milling machines and other manually operated machines. This means many of the old skills are been lost. 3. Less workers are required to operate CNC machines compared to manually operated machines. Investment in CNC machines can lead to unemployment. 4. Many countries no longer teach pupils / students how to use manually operated lathes / milling machines etc... Pupils / students no longer develop the detailed skills required by engineers of the past. These include mathematical and engineering skills.

1.CNC Deep Hole Boring Machine specification

Max. Solid drilling diameter 200 mm Max. Trepanning diameter 350 mm Max. Counter boring diameter 350 mm

31

 Max. Boring depth 12000 mm Swing over bed 1400 mm Mx. Wt. Job 15 MT

2.CNC 3-Axis Gear Shaper

3. CNC Horizontal Boring Machine specification

Boring spindle diameter 100 mm

32

 Max spindle travel 900mm Head stock vertical travel (Y-axis) 1120 m

4.6 Axis CNC Double Column Vertical Turning & Milling Machine (BV 40 / 50 NM) supplied to Vikram Sarabhai Space Research Centre

EOT Cranes & Drive System

33

Conventional AC operated electric overhead travelling (EOT) cranes uses slip ring induction motors whose rotor windings are connected to a power resistance. Speed control is performed by changing the rotor resistance in 3 to 4 steps by power contactors. Reversing is performed by changing the phase sequence of the stator supply through line contactors. Braking is achieved by a plugging operation. A crane control system has been developed using a variable voltage variable frequency drive and a programmable controller which has the advantage of continuous speed control; reversing is achieved by changing the phase sequence through an inverter. The main advantages of this system are precise positioning, energy saving and increased motor life.

Capacity:400 /60 T, Span : 32 M installed at a height of 46 M to handle GSLV and PSLV at ISRO, Sriharikota.

34

Understanding Vector Control Drive Technology

Vector control, also called field-oriented control (FOC), is a variable frequency drive (VFD) control method which controls three-phase AC electric motor output by means of three controllable VFD inverter output variables. Voltage magnitude Voltage angle Frequency.

FOC is a control technique used in brushless DC and AC induction motor applications that was originally developed for high-performance motor applications which can operate smoothly over the full speed range, can generate full torque at that is zero speed, and is capable for of fast acceleration and deceleration but superiority. Not only is FOC very common in induction motor control applications due to its traditional superiority in high-performance applications, but the expectation is that it will eventually nearly universally displace single-variable scalar volts-per-Hertz (V/Hz) control. In vector control, an AC induction or synchronous motor is controlled under all operating conditions like a separately excited DC motor.That is, the AC motor behaves like a DC motor in which the field flux linkage and armature flux linkage created by the respective field and armature (or torque component) currents are orthogonally aligned such that, when torque is controlled, the field flux linkage is not affected, hence enabling dynamic torque response. Vector control (see Indirect FOC Block Diagram) accordingly generates a three-phase PWM motor voltage output derived from a complex voltage vector to control a complex current vector derived from motor's three-phase motor stator current input through projections or rotations back and forth between the three-phase speed and time dependent system and these vectors' rotating referenceframe two-coordinate time invariant system. becoming increasingly attractive lower

performance applications as well due to FOC's motor size, cost and power consumption reduction

35

(d,q) Coordinate System Superimposed on Three-Phase Induction Motor: Such complex stator motor current space vector can be defined in a (d,q) coordinate system with orthogonal components along d (direct) and q (quadrature) axes such that field flux linkage component of current is aligned along the d axis and torque component of current is aligned along the q axis.[21] The induction motor's (d,q) coordinate system can be superimposed to the motor's instantaneous (a,b,c) three-phase sinusoidal system as shown in accompanying image (phases a & b not shown for clarity). Components of the (d,q) system current vector, allow conventional control such as proportional and integral, or PI, control, as with a DC motor. Projections associated with the (d,q) coordinate system typically involve.

Forward projection from instantaneous currents to (a,b,c) complex stator current space vector representation of the three-phase sinusoidalsystem. Forward three-to-two phase, (a,b,c)-to-( , ) projection using the Clarke transformation. Vector control implementations usually assume ungrounded motor with balanced three-phase currents such that only two motor current phases need to be sensed. Also, backward two-to-three phase, ( , )-to-(a,b,c) projection uses space vector PWM modulator or inverse Clarke transformation and one of the other PWM modulators.

Forward and backward two-to-two phase,( , )-to-(d,q) and (d,q)-to-( , ) projections using the Park and inverse Park transformations, respectively.

36

However, it is not uncommon for sources to use three-to-two, (a,b,c)-to-(d,q) and inverse projections. While (d,q) coordinate system rotation can arbitrarily be set to any speed, there are three preferred speeds or reference frames. Stationary reference frame where (d,q) coordinate system does not rotate; Synchronously rotating reference frame where (d,q) coordinate system rotates at synchronous speed; Rotor reference frame where (d,q) coordinate system rotates at rotor speed.

Decoupled torque and field currents can thus be derived from raw stator current inputs for control algorithm development. Whereas magnetic field and torque components in DC motors can be operated relatively simply by separately controlling the respective field and armature currents, economical control of AC motors in variable speed application has required development of microprocessor-based controls with all AC drives now using powerful DSP (digital signal processing) technology. Inverters can be implemented as either open-loop sensorless or closed-loop FOC, the key limitation of open-loop operation being mimimum speed possible at 100% torque, namely, about 0.8 Hz compared to standstill for closed-loop operation. There are two vector control methods, direct or feedback vector control (DFOC) and indirect or feedforward vector control (IFOC), IFOC being more commonly used because in closed-loop mode such drives more easily operate throughout the speed range from zero speed to high-speed field-weakening. In DFOC, flux magnitude and angle feedback signals are directly calculated using so-called voltage or current models. In IFOC, flux space angle feedforward and flux magnitude signals first measure stator currents and rotor speed for then deriving flux space angle proper by summing the rotor angle corresponding to the rotor speed and the calculated reference value of slipangle corresponding to the slip frequency. Sensorless control (see Sensorless FOC Block Diagram) of AC drives is attractive for cost and reliability considerations. Sensorless control requires derivation of rotor speed information from measured stator voltage and currents in combination with open-loop estimators or closed-loop observers.

37

Application Recap
1.Stator phase currents are measured, converted to complex space vector in (a,b,c) coordinate system. 2. Current vector is converted to ( , means of speed measurement sensor. 3. Rotor flux linkage vector is estimated by multiplying the stator current vector with magnetizing inductance Lm and low-pass filtering the result with the rotor no-load time constant Lr/Rr, namely, the rotor inductance to rotor resistance ratio. 4. Current vector is converted to (d,q) coordinate system. 5. d-axis component of the stator current vector is used to control the rotor flux linkage and the imaginary q-axis component is used to control the motor torque. While PI controllers can be used to control these currents, bang-bang type current control provides better dynamic performance. 6. PI controllers provide (d,q) coordinate voltage components. A decoupling term is sometimes added to the controller output to improve control performance to mitigate cross coupling or big and rapid changes in speed, current and flux linkage. PI-controller also sometimes need low-pass filtering at the input or output to prevent the current ripple due to transistor switching from being amplified excessively and destabilizing the control. However, such filtering also limits the dynamic control system performance. High switching frequency (typically more than 10 kHz) is typically required to minimize filtering requirements for high-performance drives such as servo drives. 7. Voltage components are transformed from (d,q) coordinate system to ( , 8. Voltage components are transformed from ( , inverter section. Significant aspects of vector control application: Speed or position measurement or some sort of estimation is needed. Torque and flux can be changed reasonably fast, in less than 5-10 milliseconds, by changing the references. ) coordinate system. ) coordinate system. transformed to a coordinate

system rotating in rotor reference frame, rotor position being derived by integrating the speed by

) coordinate system to (a,b,c) coordinate

system or fed in Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) modulator, or both, for signaling to the power

The step response has some overshoot if PI control is used.

38

The switching frequency of the transistors is usually constant and set by the modulator. The accuracy of the torque depends on the accuracy of the motor parameters used in the control. Thus large errors due to for example rotor temperature changes often are encountered.

Reasonable processor performance is required; typically the control algorithm has to calculated at least every millisecond.

Although the vector control algorithm is more complicated than the Direct Torque Control (DTC), the algorithm is not needed to be calculated as frequently as the DTC algorithm. Also the current sensors need not be the best in the market. Thus the cost of the processor and other control hardware is lower making it suitable for applications where the ultimate performance of DTC is not required.

Block diagram for Vector Control of Motor:

39