PSY 151: Introduction to Psychology Methods in psychology: Notes Psychology aims at understanding human behaviour from a scientific point

t of view Psychologists have to learn to Check assumptions Observe accurately Weigh evidence objectively Draw valid conclusions Scientific methods: Minimizing error and bias at every step Goals of psychology -Accurately describing and measuring behaviour -Explaining behaviour -Predicting behaviour -Controlling behaviour -Improving the quality of life Goals: A brief examination 1. Description: - Reporting what really happens - Objective observation - Data/ Facts vs. interpretation - What occurred and what is are distinguished from what could have been and what seems to be - Operational definition: Defining a concept entirely by the operations used in measuring it (if a concept cannot be defined operationally, then it cannot be used in scientific operations) INFERENCE IS NOT ACCEPTABLE IN A STATEMENT OF FACTS

2. Explanation Why did it happen? How two of more events are related? Correlation and causation Quest of science is a search for consistent/ regular relationships The process of explanation involves finding a context in which the observed phenomenon makes sense Context: Previous experience or theories In search for explanations psychology applies scientific methods 3. Prediction - What will happen? - Using the discovered relationships 4. Control -Example: Behaviour modification 5. Improving the QOL (quality of life) - Practical implications Methods of psychology Follow the criteria of science Methods differ regarding: Kind of knowledge they yield Type of behaviour to which they are best suited Methods can sometimes be applied in combination to gain a broader perspective Issue: Psychology as a science Is psychology a science? Empiricism: Primacy(subject recalling primary information presented better than information presented later on. ) of sensory experience (experience observation experimentation)

 Rationalism: Primacy of reason (formulation of hypotheses and theories) Search for laws Determinism (causal) Positivism(Positivism is a philosophy of science based on the view that in the social as well as natural sciences, data derived from sensory experience, and logical and mathematical treatments of such data, are together the exclusive source of all authoritative knowledge. Introspective and intuitional attempts to gain knowledge are rejected, should be verifiable) Replication Logically consistent The issue of control Contemporary psychology relies on controlled observation Different methods vary as far as the extent of control is concerned Control: Manipulation by the investigator - Experimental approach/ method Use of control groups Why psychologists use scientific methods? The study relationships in a pure manner (free from errors and biases) Scientific method: A system for reducing bias and error in the measurement of data Steps: Perceiving the question; forming a hypothesis; testing the hypothesis; drawing conclusions; reporting results Some questions cannot be studied empirically and scientifically Some relevant concepts Variable: Any characteristic of an object, event or person that can take two or more values (Ex: The position that people take on welfare issues [V1] will be positively related to their annual income [V2] Experimental approach: Best suited for developing the knowledge suitable for prediction (causal relationships); experimental manipulation Many questions studied by psychologists cannot be answered experimentally Sometimes experiments can be impractical and unethical

 When lab research is not possible co-relational approach can be used. Example: Effect of punishment on social and emotional development of children (ethical issues regarding experimental manipulation). The effect of punishment / discipline has been studied extensively using co-relational approach Correlation and causation In co-relational approach variation is obtained through some kind of a selection procedure and not through experimental manipulation (Ex. Personality, attitudes) Correlation is the term used to describe such relationships in which events occur in some systematic pattern but are not necessarily caused by one another. While it is possible to make accurate predictions based on co-relational data, causal connections cannot be established Despite the limitations of the co-relational approach, it permits the researchers to discover relationships that might otherwise go undetected. It also allows investigators to examine problems that are beyond the scope of laboratory experimentation (Ex: Cigarette smoking and life expectancy) Methods Naturalistic observation Observation in natural surroundings Examples: Animal researchers, developmental psychologists Advantages: Realistic picture Disadvantages: Observer bias: Effects of being observed; Researchers expectations (selective observation); Specificity Participant observation and Laboratory observation Case studies Study of one individual, event, or any other entity in great detail Freuds case studies Clinical case studies (all aspects of life are covered) Issue of generalization Example: Studies on people with brain damage Provide opportunity for an in-depth exploration of domains where the real life manifestations are rare and complex

Interviews Can used in the case study method or surveys Structured and unstructured interviews Individual interviews Group based interviews Questionnaires can be used in interviews and surveys both Surveys are more relevant if the study sample is very large A word of caution during interviews: Rapport and confidentiality (relevant to other methods also) Surveys Large number of people are studied Sample selection (random representation of the population) Questionnaires, interviews, tests etc can be used Internet surveys Anonymous surveys Ex: Pre election surveys, marketing research, opinions regarding issues Construction of questions is a difficult task Wording the questions carefully; order of questions Dealing with the courtesy bias Tests A psychometric test is an objective and standardized measure of a sample of behaviour Technical criteria: reliability, validity and standardization Can be used in case studies and counseling The experimental method Case studies, surveys and interviews etc. do not allow establishing of cause and effect relationships.

 An experiment is observation under controlled condition Experimental psychologists set up simplified versions of problems to be studied Main features of an experiment Variables: Independent, dependent, relevant and nuisance variables Control of relevant and nuisance variables Operational definitions of variables (Operational definition: Defining a concept entirely by the operations used in measuring it (if a concept cannot be defined operationally, then it cannot be used in scientific operations)) Experimental Design Experimental and control groups Importance of random assignment Equating and counterbalancing Example of an experiment: Effect of context on memory; Effect of practice on performance (examples have in discussed in class) The influence of expectations The experimenter effect Demand characteristics Single blind and double blind studies Issues The ethics of psychological research Rights and well being of the participants must be weighed against the studys value for science Participants must be allowed to make informed decisions Debriefing Confidentiality