Cooling towers

The cooling tower cools the hot water with cool air by crosscurreentflow of two fluids
that is air and water past each other in a tower filled with packing .this involves both
mass and heat transfer .the water surface which exists on the tower packing is covered
with an air film assumd to be saturated at water temperature .The heat is transferred
between this film and the main body of air by diffusion and convection .the packing or
fill is arranged to prevent a droplet of water from falling the full heigt of the tower .As it
falls in hits a packing member ,spases forms afilm ,drops off and falls to hitsa packing
member.The cross -current air streams of air sweeps across these drops and films to
effectively cool the water and humidify the air .As the water flow down through the
tower its temperature may drop below the dry bulb temperature,it can just only approch
one of the controoling features in tower design and performance is how close the inlet air
wet bulb temperature and outlet water are expected to operate . Common app y large
hyperboloid structures that can be up to 200 metres tall and 100 metres in diameter, or
rectangular structures that can be over 40 metres tall and 80 metres long. Smaller towers
are normally factory-built, while larger ones are constructed on site

Principles of heat transfer

conduction

Conduction is the transfer of heat by direct contact of particles of matter.

The transfer of energy could be primarily by elastic impact as in fluids or by free electron
diffusionas predominant in metals or phonon vibration as predominant in insulators. In
other words, heat is transferred by conduction when adjacent atoms vibrate against one
another, or as electrons move from atom to atom. Conduction is greater in solids, where
atoms are in constant contact. In liquids (except liquid metals) and gases, the molecules
are usually further apart, giving a lower chance of molecules colliding and passing on
thermal energy.

Heat conduction is directly analogous to diffusion of particles into a fluid, in the situation
where there are no fluid currents. This type of heat diffusion differs from mass diffusion
in behaviour, only in as much as it can occur in solids, whereas mass diffusion is mostly
limited to fluids.

To quantify the ease with which a particular medium conducts, engineers employ the
thermal conductivity, also known as the conductivity constant or conduction coefficient,
k. In thermal conductivity k is defined as "the quantity of heat, Q, transmitted in time (t)
through a thickness (L), in a direction normal to a surface of area (A), due to a
temperature difference (ΔT) [...]." Thermal conductivity is a material property that is
primarily dependent on the medium's phase, temperature, density, and molecular bonding.

Convection
Convection is transfer of heat by movement of a heated fluid. Unlike the case of pure
conduction, now currents in fluids are additionally involved in convection. This
movement occurs into a fluid or within a fluid, and cannot happen in solids. In solids,
molecules keep their relative position to such an extent that bulk movement or flow is
prohibited, and therefore convection does not occur.

In natural convection a fluid surrounding a heat source receives heat, becomes less dense
and rises. The surrounding, cooler fluid then moves to replace it. This cooler fluid is then
heated and the process continues, forming a convection current. The driving force for
natural convection is buoyancy, a result of differences in fluid density when gravity or
any type of acceleration is present in the system.

Forced convection, by contrast, occurs when pumps, fans or other means are used to
propel the fluid and create an artificially induced convection current. Forced heat
convection is sometimes referred to as heat advection, or sometimes simply advection for
short. But advection is a more general process, and in heat advection, the substance being
"advected" in the fluid field is simply heat (rather than mass, which is the other natural
component in such situations, as mass transfer and heat transfer share generally the same
equations).

In some heat transfer systems, both natural and forced convection contribute significantly
to To calculate the rate of convection between an object and the surrounding fluids,
engineers employ the heat transfer coefficient, h. Unlike the thermal conductivity, the
heat transfer coefficient is not a material property. The heat transfer coefficient depends
upon the geometry, fluid, temperature, velocity, and other characteristics of the system in
which convection occurs. Therefore, the heat transfer coefficient must be derived or
found experimentally for every system analyzed. Formulae and correlations are available
in many references to calculate heat transfer coefficients for typical configurations and
fluids.

It should be noted that convection does not occur in a perfect vacuum due to the lack of
media to transmit heat. This mode of heat transfer does not occur in space where there is
no atmosphere in the surroundings of the system to be analyzed. It only occurs where
gases are present.

Radiation

Radiation is the transfer of heat energy through empty space. All objects with a
temperature above absolute zero radiate energy at a rate equal to their emissivity
multiplied by the rate at which energy would radiate from them if they were a black body.
No medium is necessary for radiation to occur; radiation works even in and through a
perfect vacuum. The energy from the Sun travels through the vacuum of space before
warming the earth. Also, the only way that energy can leave earth is by being radiated to
space.
Both reflectivity and emissivity of all bodies is wavelength dependent. The temperature
determines the wavelength distribution of the electromagnetic radiation as limited in
intensity by Planck’s law of black-body radiation. For any body the reflectivity depends
on the wavelength distribution of incoming electromagnetic radiation and therefore the
temperature of the source of the radiation. The emissivity depends on the wave length
distribution and therefore the temperature of the body itself. For example, fresh snow,
which is highly reflective to visible light, appears white due to reflecting sunlight with a
peak energy wavelength of about 0.5 micrometres. Its emissivity, however, at a
temperature of about -5C, peak energy wavelength of about 12 micrometres, is 0.99.

Gases absorb and emit energy in characteristic wavelength patterns that are different for
each gas.

Visible light is simply another form of electromagnetic radiation with a shorter

wavelength than infrared radiation. The difference between visible light and the radiation
from objects at conventional temperatures is a factor of about 20 in frequency and
wavelength; the two kinds of emission are simply different "colors" of electromagnetic
radiation.

Principle of cooling tower

The cooling tower is totally an orphan product,and as the word cooling
is associaed with it . ACRpeople have taken that word for granted.

Water cannot be cooled with less than a 3C approach .Hence the cold
water temperature achievable shall be 3C.i,e. more than the wet bulb temperature of
air.the wet bulb temperature considered should be the actual wet bulb temperature of air
entering into a cooling tower not atmosperic wet bulb .
The actual wet bulb temperature entering a cooling tower is affected
due to many factor .That is heat source near the cooling tower ;the air movement to the
cooling tower should not be hindered;Recycling because o size of the tower;and
orientation of the tower is respect to wind flow.
Wet-bulb temperature

The thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature is the temperature a

volume of air would have if cooled adiabatically to saturation at constant pressure by
evaporation of water into it, all latent heat being supplied by the volume of air.

The temperature of an air sample that has passed over a large surface of liquid water in an
insulated channel is the thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature – it has become saturated
by passing through a constant-pressure, ideal, adiabatic saturation chamber.

Meteorologist and others may use the term "isobaric wet-bulb temperature" to refer to the
"thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature". It is also called the "adiabatic saturation
temperature".

It is the thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature that is plotted on a psychrometric chart.

The thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature is a thermodynamic property of a mixture of

air and water vapor. The value indicated by a simple wet-bulb thermometer often
provides an adequate approximation of the thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature.

For an accurate wet-bulb thermometer, "the wet-bulb temperature and the adiabatic
saturation temperature are approximately equal for air-water vapor mixtures at
atmospheric temperature and pressure. This is not necessarily

Dry-bulb temperature
The dry-bulb temperature is the temperatureof air measured by a
thermometer freely exposed to the air but shielded from radiation and moisture. In
construction, it is an important consideration when designing a building for a certain
climate. Nall called it one of "the most important climate variables for human comfort
and building energy efficiency

the rate of heat transfer.

Humidity
Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air. In daily language the term "humidity"
is normally taken to mean relative humidity. Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of
the partial pressure of water vapor in a parcel of air to the saturated vapor pressureof
water vapor at a prescribed temperature. Humidity may also be expressed as absolute
humidity and specific humidity. Relative humidity is an important metric used in
forecasting weather. Humidity indicates the likelihood of precipitation, dew, or fog. High
humidity makes people feel hotter outside in the summer because it reduces the
effectiveness of sweating to cool the body by preventing the evaporation of perspiration
from the skin. This effect is calculated in a heat index table.

Relative humidity

Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapor in a gaseous
mixture of air and water vapor to the saturated vapor pressure of water at a given
temperature. Relative humidity is expressed as a percentage and is calculated in the
following manner:

RH=P(H2O)\P^*(H2O)

Where

P(H2O) is the partial pressure of water vapor in the gas mixture;

P^*(H2O) is the saturation vapor pressure of water at the temperature of the gas
mixture; and
RH is the relative humidity of the gas mixture being considered.

Relative humidity is often mentioned in weather forecastsand reports, as it is an indicator

of the likelihood of precipitation, dew, or fog. In hot summer weather, it also increases
the apparent temperature to humans by hindering the evaporation of perspiration from
the skin as the relative humidity rises

Dew point
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The dew point is the temperature to which a given parcel of air must be cooled, at
constant barometric pressure, for water vapor to condense into water. The condensed
water is called dew. The dew point is a saturation point.

When the dew point temperature falls below freezing it is often called the frost point, as
the water vapor no longer creates dew but instead creates frost or hoarfrost by deposition.

The dew point is associated with relative humidity. A high relative humidity indicates that
the dew point is closer to the current air temperature. Relative humidity of 100%
indicates that the dew point is equal to the current temperature (and the air is maximally
saturated with water). When the dew point stays constant and temperature increases,
relative humidity will decrease.

At a given barometric pressure, independent of temperature, the dew point indicates the
mole fraction of water vapor in the air, and therefore determines the specific humidity of
the air.

The dew point is an important statistic for general aviation pilots, as it is used to calcu
late the likelihood of carburetor icing and fog, and estimate the height of the cloud base

Performance
The effect of wet bulb temperature ,approach and range on indced draft cooling
tower size are indicated as curves ,these curves are necessarily the approximate midrange
of a spread or brand of the magnitude of respective influences on the ground area.that is ,
the information a good for guidance as to the direction .Certain changes will take in the
final selection.
In examine the tower perfomance it is no the air temperature that sets the capacity
,but the heat content or enthalpy of the air .Although the air temperature and wet bulb at
inlet may be different inlet air condition, it is still possible for the air to have the same
enthalpy .thereforetwo different conditions can produce the same effect on tower
performance .The heat content or enthalpy of all air with the same wet bulb temperature
is the same ,therefore,it is clear that the wet bulb temperature is important and sets
performance of all commonly used commercial high voidage packings can be correlated
by
KaV/L’=0.07+AN(L’/Ga)*_n
This relates the tower characteristics to the number of packings decks in the tower and
L’/a raio
The simultanious solution of equation involving the approach and cooling range and
equation involving the number of packing decks yields the L’/Ga which satisfies the
specified perfomance .The accuracy of this combined with the data is within 5%.equation
is essentially a straight line on log-log paper , so tow points are sufficient to determine
the position .
The tediousness is involved in integrating the expression for the several enthalpy
conditions involving approach and range that could satisfy the problem .
The economics of forced and induced draft cooling tower operation require a study of fan
and water pump horsepwer and usually dictate a fan static pressure requirement not to
exceed 0.75-1.0 inch of water .This means that the ground area must be so selected as
keep the height down while not dropping the unit rates so low that performance becomes
poor .this then ,is a balance of ground area versus total deck height .Prichard presents an
estimating curve inicating that as packed height varies from 12-40 feet ,beig slightly less
than a straight line function.
THE PRESSURE LOSSES ARE:

1.Tower packing or fill(70-80 % of loss )

2.Air inlet if induced draft
3.mist eleminators at top
4.air direction change losses and entrance to packing on forced draft units
These losses are a unction of air velocity ,number and spacing of packing decks ,liqid rate
and relaion between L’&Ga.
P’=NBGa(0.0675/pg)
Pressure drop values per individual deck P’/N range from 0.003-0.006 inch of water for
low L’and Ga rates to 0.03-0.06 inch of water for high L’ and Ga rates.Pressure losses
through wooden mist eliminators based on 0.0675lb/cu.ft.air varies from 0.01 inch water
at Ga 800to 0.07at Ga=2000as almost a straight line function . These loses are based on
the face area of the eleminators .

FAN HORSE POWER FOR MECHANICAL DRAFTTOWER can be calculated by

using the equation:
BHP=Fps/(6356)*(0.50)
F=actual cfm at fan inlet
Ps =total static pressure of fan, inches of water

This relation includes a 50% static efficiency of the fan and gear losses assuming a gear
drive .If belt driven the difference wil not begreat. The conditions for actual inlet
conditions for an induced draft fan must be obtainened from equation .economical tower
sizes usually require fan horse power between 1.05and 0.08 horse power per square foot
of ground plan area and motors largerthan 75HP are not often used due toinability to
obtain the proper fans and gears in the space required .

Water disribution must give uniform water flow over the tower packing .many towers
use a gravity feed system discharging the water through throughs and ceramic ,metal or
plastic nozzles .Other systems use pressure nozzles discharging upward, before falling
back over the packing head due to the pressure rates usually run from 1to 3.5 gpm/ft^2of
ground plan area .

PERCENT BLOWDOWN

This is useful in making material balances around a tower . It shows how much of the
makeup water is being wasted by going to the sewer or leaving the tower as wind age
loss and how much is being usefully useby being evaporated.

ppm calcium in makeup water(100)

Percent Blowdown =
Ppm calcium in circulating water

CYCLES OF CONCENTRATION.
In a sense ,this value is the inverse of the lowdown . it is quite useful in
calculating the treatement dosage .The higher its value ,the more efficiently the water is
being used.
Cycles=ppm calcium in the circulating water /ppm calcium in makeup water

PERMISSIBLE CONCENTRATION
The limit to which the circulating water can be concentrated is governed by the
hardness of the circulating water higher than 70% of the precipitation concentration .

HEAT LOAD:
This is the amount of heat dissipated by the tower in a unit lenth of time .It is
based on the fact 1000BTU are required to evaporate 1 pounds of watermust be cooled
10^0 to furnish this amount of heat .Thus ,the evaporation loss is 1% of the tower
circulation for each 10^0 temperature drop through the tower .The heat load can be
calculated from this data .

MAKEUP WATER REQUIRED:

This value is simply the sum of the water evaporated and water blown down .

AIR REQUIRED:
Enough air must be drown or forced through the tower to evaporate the amount of
water .Two additional mesurements are needed :the wet bulb temperature and dry bulb
temperature of the inlet air .Psychometric table or chart will show that the water water
content of such air .It has been that the temprature of the outlet air is very close to the
average of the inlet and outlet water temperature. The dry bulb and dry bulb
temperatures of the outlet air is same,i.e., saturated .again from a psychometric chart,The
water content of this air is found .The difference between thse two values will give the
amount of water vapour.The dry air required to remove this quantity of water is
evaporation rate devided bythis value.

WATER EFFICIENCY:
The lowest temperature to which water can be cooled by its own evaporation is the
wet bulb tempertature of the air with witch I is in contact.The water efficiecy of a cooling
towerwould be the ratio of the actual cooling to the theoritical cooling.

(hot water temperatue-cold water temperature)

WATER EFFICIENCY=
(hot water temperature-wet bulb temperature)

THERMAL EFFICIENCY:
The thermal efficincy of a cooling tower is the percent of evaporation of the water
supplied to the tower.
Now we calculate the performance of te cooling tower in the sulpuric acid plant .After
calculating the performance we can improve the performance of the cooling tower.

PERFOMANCE CALCULATION

DATA

Cooling water inlet temperature of the cooling tower =45

Cooling water outlet temperature from the cooling tower=33
Wet bulb temperature of the inlet air =29
Water volumetric flow rate per cell =200m^3/hr
Number of cells in the tower =4
Ground plan area of the tower =16*6m^2
Number of decks =40
Types deck used is deck ‘J
Recirculation =3%

CALCULATION

Tin=45
Tout=33
Twet=29

Total volumetric flowrate in to the cooling tower=800m^3/hr

Mass flow rate =800*1000
=80000Kg/hr
Ground plan area=16*6m^2
Range=Tin-Tout=45-33
=12k

Since the circulation is 3% the actual ambient wet bulb temperature is to be corrected.

HEAT LOAD

The water flow rate is

Cooling water inlet temperature
Cooling water outlet temperure
The evaporation loss will be

This is equivalent to
Heat load is
AIR REQUIRED

Enough air must be drawn or forced through the cooling tower to evaporate the water
.Two additional measurements are needed ; the wet bulb and dry bulb temperature of inlet
air.

The wet bulb temperature=84.2

The dry bulb temperature=

A psychometric table or chart will show that the water content of such air will be
Kg of water per Kg of dry air

It has been found that the temperature of the outlet air is very close to the average of the
inlet and outlet temperature .The wet bulb and dry bulb temperatures of the outlet air are
the same ,i,e saturated
The inlet water temperature
The outlet water temperature

The average is which is assumed to be the outlet air temperature

Again from the psychometric chart or table ,the water content of this