Chapter 5 Mechanical Purification

By Peder Maribo, 14.06.2003. rev 01.09.2009. 5.1 Introduction Components in wastewater can be separated from the water by physical means on the basis of the physical character of the components. Dense particles can be removed by sedimentation and light particles by flotation. Filters can retain small particles and membranes can even retain molecules from the flow of water. Such physical means of separating water and pollutants constitutes a significant element in modern wastewater treatment. The most typical applications include: Screening of the raw wastewater Removal of sand, gravel and grease by sedimentation and flotation. Removal of suspended solids (MLSS) by sedimentation (or flotation) prior to biological treatment Removal of biological sludge (MLSS) after biological treatment by sedimentation, flotation or even membrane separation. Filtration of the biologically purified wastewater for removal of non settable MLSS.

In the following section the purpose of these mechanical purification processes will be explained and the main design and dimensioning criteria will be outlined.

5.2 Screens and sieves The raw wastewater may contain large elements such as wood, plastics, metal, cotton sticks, stones and other relatively large objects. Such objects can damage mechanical equipment at the WWTP such as pumps or can cause clogging of pipes. Therefore it is a standard procedure to include a mechanical screening of the wastewater at the inlet of the WWTP. The efficiency of the screening operation depends on the distance between the screen bars: Fine screening for bar spacing below 10 mm Medium screening for bar distances between 10 and 40 mm Coarse screening for bar spacing above 40 mm Screenings accumulating on the screen can be removed by means of a rake or alternatively by movement of some of the bars as done by the step-screen types devices (figure 5.1). Screenings are in this way lifted up along the screen bars and dumped directly into a container or on a conveyor belt or screw taking the screenings to a container. Drainage and compacting of the screenings can be included in the transporting device. Most screens used in WWTP are automatically operated, but manually cleaned screens are often installed in overflow structures or as emergency backup.

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Bar spacing down to 3 mm are often preferred in order to eliminate elements such plastic cotton sticks and other smaller elements. By operating the screen based on online measurement of the upstream water level, the efficiency of the screen can be increased as it allows for a build up of screenings on the screen. The screenings form a mat on the screen, that consequently decrease the free passage through the screen and in this way diminishes the effective spacing of the screen. In periods with low flow a significant head loss over the screen can be accepted and the screening is very efficient. In storm situations the available head loss is typically low and the screen rake is operated more frequently.

Figure 5.1 Mechanical screens Right: Automatic screen in channel with cover. Closed screenings compactor and transportation system. Leftt: Meva Stepscreen (Courtesy of Hydropress). Below: principle of operation of the two sets of bars for lifting of the screenings.

Screen and screen channel design and dimensioning Various manufactures produce screens with different capacities, mode of operation etc. Each manufacturer has different requirements to the design of the screen channel. The following are some general design considerations and guidelines. In front of the screen the channel should be designed so that deposits of grit and gravel is minimised. In order to avoid deposits in the channel, the length of it should be kept low, preferably not more than five times the width of the channel and the channel should be designed with berms (sloping sides) of at least 45 o.

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Pressurised sewers should be introduced perpendicular to the direction of the screen channel in order to reduce the momentum of the water in front of the screen. The screen channel should be designed for a water velocity of maximum 0.5 m/s and minimum 0.25 m/s both in front of and after the screen. The screen channel after the screen should have critical depth at the outlet (typically to the grit and grease removal chamber). This can be secured by having the bottom level of the channel in the level of minimum water level of the subsequent reactor (typically the grit and grease removal chamber). Screen and screen channel should be equipped with a cover and a suction ventilation system to avoid most of the malodorous and toxic compounds entering the screen room. The screen room should be equipped with a detection device for hexane and H2S with alarm. This is in particular important in hot climate and if the sewer system is long and pressurised.

The quantity of screening removed from the wastewater varies much depending on the catchment area and the bar spacing of the screen. Typical quantities in Denmark from a 5 mm screen are in the order of 10 20 L/PE/year. Variations over the week and day are considerable and a screen and compactor should be dimensioned for in the order of 10 to 15 times this quantity i.e. 0.03 L/PE/hour. Screenings constitute some of the most malodorous and pathogenic by-products of wastewater treatment and should be handled with hygienic care and taken to incineration or a controlled dump.

5.3 Grit and grease removal The purpose of the grit and grease removal chamber is to 1. remove grit, stones and sand that could otherwise form permanent deposits at the bottom of the following process tanks. Furthermore, sand and grit are abrasive and cause wear to pumps and other mechanical equipment in the plant. 2. remove particulate grease i.e. grease that is not dispersed, emulsified or otherwise dissolved in the water, as the particulate grease is difficult to decompose by the biology of a WWTP. The reason for this is the relative low surface to volume ratio of these organic particles making them difficult for the microbiology to hydrolyse and decompose. One speciality regarding emulsified or liquid grease is that it has a tendency to harden rubber air-diffuser membranes made of EPDM rubber and consequently increase air blower head loss and thus decreasing aeration intensity. In situations with waste water with an unusually high contend of grease, silicone rubber membranes or diffusers without membranes should be chosen for the aeration tank. For grit and grease removal tanks, diffusers without rubber membranes should always be chosen. The principle in the removal of grit is to allow dense particles to settle while the less dense organic particles are kept in suspension. Eggshells, coffee grounds and fruit

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seed tend to settle out with the grit. The grit will contain high concentrations of micro organisms and is pathogenic. The sedimentation speed of a spherical particle is proportional to the diameter and the density of the particle and furthermore depends on the viscosity of the water. The sedimentation speed of sand with a density of 2,65 kg/l is given in figure 5.3.

mm Figure 5.3 Right: Sedimentation velocity of sand particles with a density of 2.65 kg/l. (settling velocity in cm/s as function of particle diameter in mm). From Wintrher, L. et al (1998). Left: Required settling area for sand precipitation. Tchobanoglous et al (2003). Grit removal is typically done in rectangular chambers often with an agitation causing a spiral flow around a horizontal axis I the flow direction. Vortex type design are an alternative to this made for circular reactors in which centrifugal forces are used in the separation process, see figure 5.2

Figure 5.2 Left: Grit and grease removal chambers. Odder WWTP, Denmark. Right: Vortex-type grit removal chamber. Tchobanoglous et al (2003). The major challenge in the design is to keep as much of the organic matter in suspension while as much of the inorganic sand and grit is removed. Creation of a mild controllable turbulence in the sedimentation chamber typically by coarse

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bubble aeration is the most common means to establish stable sedimentation conditions relatively independent of flow variation. Grease removal by flotation is often done in combination with the removal of grit. Water turbulence as caused by aeration increases aggregation of grease particles and facilitates the subsequent flotation of the grease. The design criteria are most often removal of that fraction of the grit that would otherwise settle on the WWTP for all flow regimes. Grease removal aims mainly at removing the particulate grease and a significant decrease in the efficiency of the grease removal are normally accepted during peak flow situations. The reason for this is that grit and sand deposited in the sewage network is re-suspended and transported to the WWTP during peak flow situations, and significant quantities of grit may thus be led to the WWTP with the first flushes of a storm event. Grease, on the other hand, typically flows unhindered to the plant in dry weather situations and a reduced efficiency in grease removal in the rare storm situations is not significant to the long term purification efficiency of the plant. Grit and grease removal structures - design and dimensioning The dimensioning of combined aerated grit and grease removal chambers are most often done based on hydraulic retention time. For the removal of grit, a minimum retention time of 4 6 minutes (at peak flow) is normally considered sufficient. For removal of grease the retention time should be higher, typically in the order of 8 12 minutes. The grease removal criterion is however often only enforced in dry weather situations. In the below figure 5.4 and tables 5.1 and 5.2 one design of an aerated grit and grease removal chamber for municipal wastewater is given, along with the main dimensioning requirements.

Pit volume not included in effective volume Figure 5.4 Section Plane and section of aerated grit and grease removal chamber. Measures in cm. A small concrete beam with a lattice wall of pressure creosoted planks separate the grit removal section (left) from the grease removal section (right). Air is introduced at the far left side of the structure approximately equally distanced from the water surface and

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the sloping bottom, causing a slow rotation of the water transversely to the direction of the wastewater flow. Air-lift pumps for removal of grit are installed at the bottom in the two pits of the structure.
TYPE (vol)
13 27 41 59 81 107 124

b [m]
1.70 2.30 2.70 3.10 3.50 3.90 4.10

L [m]
3.40 4.60 5.40 6.20 7.00 7.80 8.20

B [m]
2.55 3.45 4.05 4.65 5.25 5.85 6.15

D [m]
1.70 1.90 2.10 2.30 2.50 2.70 2.80

d [m]
0.65 0.95 1.15 1.35 1.55 1.75 1.85

Tabel 5.1 Main dimensions of aerated grit and grease removal chamber c.f. fig. 5. 4 TYPE
13 27 41 59 81 107 124

Qmax,h [m3/h]
< 107 < 219 < 323 < 453 < 606 < 760 < 840

Qdw,h [m3/h]
< 59 < 121 < 183 < 240 < 308 < 380 < 420

SAs [m2]
5.8 10.6 14.6 19.2 24.5 30.4 33.6

SAf [m2]
2.9 5.3 7.3 9.6 12.3 15.2 16.8.

Vs [m3]
9.8. 20.1 30.6 44.2 61.3 82.2

Vf [m3]
3.6 7.3 10.8 15.1 20.2 26.3.

Nd
3 4 5 6 6 7 8

Tabel 5.2

Hydraulic capacity of aerated grit and grease removal chamber c.f fig 5.4. Qmax,h, Q,dw,h are the peak flow and dry weather max flow (e.g. 85%-tyile) respectively. SAf and SAs are the surface area of the grease and grit removal compartment respectively. Vf and Vs: volume of the grease and grit removal compartment respectively. Nd : Number of coarse bubble diffusers each with the capacity of 8 Nm3/hour.

Removal of accumulated grease can be done manually by a surface scraper but most often this element is automated and done e.g. by a scraper mounted on a travelling bridge or a small chart and taken to a grease well from where water is drained off and grease taken by a truck to either a biogas plant, incineration or a controlled waste dump. Grit pumped from the grit removal chamber can be taken to a container with drain facility or to a regular grit classifier finally separating grit and water and transporting the grit to a container (figure 5.5). Washing of the grit can remove much of the organic matter, and grit washing devices may lead to as low as a few percentage of organic matter (dry matter loss by ignition) in the grit. Such grit can be utilised for e.g. road foundation and high landfill costs can be avoided. In Denmark the usage of grit washers is becoming increasingly widespread for this reason.

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Figure 5.5

Cross section of a grit classifier. Tchobanoglous et al (2003).

The quantities of grit and grease removed from the wastewater in this way vary much with the composition of the raw wastewater hence the nature of the sewer system and the associated industry. Grit quantities are typically in the region of 5 12 L/PE/year. Grease in the order of 2 3 L/PE/year as average for urban wastewater. Guidelines for the design of the grit and grease removal structure are: The variations in water level caused by variations in flow must be acceptable to the grease skimming device. Bottom slopes must be at least 45 o to avoid accumulation of solid grit deposits, unless a bottom scraper for grit removal is included. The grease well for storage of accumulated grease should be situated as close to the structure as possible and the pipe for grease should be with a steep slope and accessible for inspection and cleaning.

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Emergency

screen

inlet Inlet

inlet (Pumped) Inlet

Outlet outlet

Figure 5.6 Plan and section of two designs of screen and grit & grease removal chamber. Right: Truust WWTP, Dennark. Left: Moletai WWTP Lithuania. Courtesy of Degrmont. Emergency overflow channels with manually cleaned coarse screens are established to secure against flooding in case of power failure or mechanical failure at the screen. 5.4 Settling tanks Settling tanks or clarifiers are primarily used for two purposes: 1. Primary sedimentation: removal of suspended solids, and consequently organic matter BOD, from the raw wastewater 8after screening and grit removal). 2. Secondary sedimentation after biological treatment for the removal of high concentrations of biological sludge (MLSS) from the biologically purified wastewater. The purpose of the secondary clarifier can be sectioned into two basic requirements: 1. NEVER to allow massive outflow of sludge. This situation of massive sludge overflow has been experienced in a number of situations in which the clarifier is not capable to secure sufficient time for settling and concentration of sludge in the clarifier, or if the return sludge pumps strike. The situation is devastating to the receiving body of water as sludge concentrations in the outlet may become as high as the concentration in the process tank i.e. several kg of sludge per m3. 2. Secure a solid separation according to the outlet requirement e.g. 20 mg/L i.e. retain the solids to below the outlet requirement in the far majority of time (according to statistics of outlet quality control).

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The principle and design of settling tanks are described in Tchobanoglous et al (2003): p 396-411 + 686-688 + 820-822 (supplementary reading: 823-832) + 833 840. These pages are found later in this chapter. Sludge settling properties SVI and DSVI Activated sludge will separate from the water phase when left to stand in a non-stirred container, often revealing a very distinct transition between a clear water phase and the sludge (SS) phase. The solid-liquid interface also - called the sludge blanket will move downwards with time as the sludge settles and concentrates (figure 5.7). The settling ability or settling speed of the solids that are to be separated from the water is a key characteristic parameter that determines the capacity and performance of a clarifier. This Sludge Volume Index (SVI) is used to describe the settling characteristics of activated sludge.
Solbjerg WWTP sludge settling
1200

1000

800 SV [mL]

600

Series1

400

200

0 0 10 20 30 Time [minutes] 40 50 60

Figure 5.7 Settling curve (sludge phase volume vs. time) for activated sludge. Initial (free) settling velocity (red dotted line): 30 mL/min equal to 0.67 cm/min. SV30 = 460 mL. XA = 4.0 g/L. SVI = 115 ml/g. SVI is measured by taking a sample of sludge from the process tank and pouring it into a 1000 mL Imhoff cone (or a graduated cylinder). After 30 minutes of settling the volume of the sludge phase SV30 is recorded [mL]. The concentration of drymatter in the sludge from the aeration tank XA is measured [g SS/L], the SVI is calculated as SVI = SV30 / (XA 1 L). The unit of SVI is [mL/g] and express the volume of one gram of sludge take up after 30 minutes of settling. The lower the SVI the better (faster) the sludge settle and concentrate, and the easier it is to separate from purified water in the clarifier tank. Example 1 L of activated sludge from an aeration tank at the concentration XA = 4.5 g SS/L is poured into an Imhoff cone and left to settle. After 30 minutes the volume of the sludge SV30 is recorded to 420 mL. The SVI is calculated as SVI = 420/4.5 = 93 mL/g.

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SVI may vary quite a lot at the same WWTP depending on the actual conditions at the WWTP. Rapid changes in salinity, temperature pH or other conditions may disturb the sludge flocks and alter their settling velocity. Growth of large quantities of filamentous bacteria (e.g. Microthrix Parvicella) in the sludge is known to cause poor settling qualities of the sludge (high SVI). SVI for the same type of sludge will vary with the initial sludge concentration XA when the sludge concentration becomes high (above 5 6 g SS/L). A Dilute SVI (DSVI) is more consistent with the actual sludge settling characteristics. The DVSI is measured by diluting the sludge sample with wastewater (supernatant from process tank) before it is left to settle. For a DSVI measurement the desired sludge concentration XA before settling is 3 4 g SS/L. A Comment: A basic clarifier design Various advanced methods can be applied in the sizing of secondary settling tanks. However, the knowledge on the settling properties of the biological sludge is often very limited in the design situation and thus a less advanced approach based on overflow rate and solids loading is used in the following as also described in Tchobanoglous et al (2003) page 687. Much research has been conducted on the subject of secondary settling tanks. The International Water Association IWA (formerly:IAWQ) Scientific and Technical report no. 6 Secondary settling tanks: theory, modelling, design and operation , by G.A. Ekama et al (1997) is one of the best and most comprehensive compilations on design of secondary settling tanks.

Figure 5.7

Circular clarifier tank. Design for low load activated sludge WWTP for municipal wastewater with anaerobic selector.

The following is a set of design criteria that has proved adequate for design of circular secondary clarifiers (as shown in figure 5.7) for usage in connection with extended aeration with selector tank and SVI typically around 100 120 mL/g (occasionally up to up to 150 mL/g) and complying with outlet criteria of 20 mg SS/L as yearly average of a number of 24-hours flow-proportional samples.

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Diameter [m]

Overflow rate (OR) Solids loading rate (SLR) (= surface loading rate) [kg SS/(m2h)] [m/h] < 25 Max*) DW**) Max*) DW**) 2.5 <1.0 <0.7 <9.2 <5.5 2.7 <1.1 <0.8 <10.0 <5.7 3.0 <1.2 <0.85 <10.5 <5.9 >3.5 <1.3 <0.9 <11.0 <6.5 25 35 3.0 1.1 <0.8 <10.0 <5.9 >3.5 1.25 <0.9 <11.0 <6.5 Tabel 5.3 Design criteria for circular settling tanks for activated sludge WWTP. *) Max: Qh,max,S : maximum flow [m3/h] to the WWTP **) DW: Qh,max,DW Dry weather flow [m3/h], i.e. maximum flow to the plant in situations without rainwater. Often a 85 %-tile of the total flow statistics for the sewage area has been used. If Qmax,h lasts longer than 3 -4 hours (dependant on an evaluation of how often this situation will occur) one should choose a lower load of the clarifiers (possibly by dimensioning the process tanks for a lover solids content XL). If Qmax,h can last for more than 10 15 hours and is expected to occur often (i.e. for large combined sewer systems with basins for accumulation of storm water) Qmax,h should be used instead of QDW,h. The overflow rate (OR) or Surface loading rate is defined as OR = Qi/A, see p 50. OR does not depend on the return sludge flow. The Solids loading rate (SLR) is defined as: SLR = XA. (Qi + QR) /A., see p57)

Side water depth heff [m]

Further requirements to the above design are: The hydraulic retention time HRT (calculated as the volume of the settling tank divided by the inflow to the clarifier: Qh,max,S + QR) must be at least 1.4 hours. Return sludge pumps must have a capacity to establish a return sludge flow QR of (at least) 85 % of Qh,max,S. The weir loading rate is no more than 10 m2/h. The weir loading rate is defined as the inlet flow [m3/h] divided by the weir length [m]. The height of the settling zone should be at least 50 % of the side water depth heff. The consequence is that the tank volume used for concentration of the sludge (hindered settling and concentration) is limited to maximum half of the total tank volume. In order to calculate the required tank volume for sludge concentration will need to establish a sludge concentration curve representative for the plant in question. In the below 5.8 some sludge concentrations curves are shown. German ATV standards (standard A131, 1991) use a formula for sludge concentration given in below formula 5.1 (Ekama et al 1997).
X R = eff ( 1000 3 ) th DSVI (5.1)

In which: XR : return sludge concentration [g/L]

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eff : coefficient for the disturbance of the sludge by the sludge scraper system (typically 0.6 (0.5 0.7) DSVI: dilute sludge volume index [mL/g] th: thickening time for sludge in the clarifier concentration zone.
12 Sludge conc. [kg SS/m3] 10 8 A 6 4 2 0 0 50 100 Time [minutes] 150 200 B C

Figure 5.8

Sludge concentration curves. A: inlet sludge concentration XA = 4 kg/m3 and SVI 140 ml/g. B: inlet sludge concentration XA = 4 kg/m3 and SVI 150 ml/g. C: inlet sludge concentration XA = 5 kg/m3 and SVI 130 ml/g.

Further design considerations: The clarifier must be constructed with an efficient bottom scraper mechanism and sludge pumps for removal of sludge. The weirs must be equipped with a scum guard for retaining supernatant (floating) sludge. The inlet must be designed with a controlled level of turbulence to facilitate flocculation of the sludge. Secondary settling tanks must be equipped with a supernatant sludge well and means for scraping off supernatant sludge and diverting it to the supernatant sludge well. Prevailing wind directions must be taken into account when situating the outlet for supernatant sludge. In a cold climate heating cables should be casted into the tank rim to facilitate traction of the self propelled scraper bridge (for bridges with peripheral drive only). Example 5.1: Dimensioning of a circular secondary clarifier for activated sludge WWTP with nitrification and denitrification Design basis: Qh,max,S (Maximum flow to unit during storm situations) (Maximum flow during dry weather) Qh,max,DW Qd,av (Average daily dry weather flow) 450 m3/h 250 m3/h 2,900 m3/d

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QR (Capacity of return sludge pumps: > 85% of Qi ) XA (Concentration of sludge (total) in process tank) SVImax Maximum design SVI for the sludge CNO3 (Nitrate concentration in purified wastewater)

383 m3/h 4.5 kg SS/m3 140 ml/g < 8 mg N/m3

Outlet requirements: Xout (Concentration of suspended solids in purified water) 20 mg/l (control method: 24 hour sample. 80 %-tile of 10 samples) Note: The concentration of sludge in the process tanks (aeration, denitrification etc.) may vary over the week if excess sludge removal and dewatering is discontinuous. Typically dewatering may not be conducted during weekend, and the sludge concentration is highest Monday morning. 1. Choosing a tank depth As the first choice a total tank depth of 3 m is chosen. 3 m of total tank depth (giving 2.7 m side water depth when leaving 0.3 m for freeboard) is often sufficient for smaller clarifiers. However if the tank is large (>25m) a deeper tank must be chosen. 2. Calculating required surface area according to table 5.3. Requirement to overflow rate gives: A > Qh,max,s / 1.1 = 450 m3/h / 1.1 m/h = 409 m2 A > Qh,max,dw / 250 m3/h / 0.8 m/h = 313 m2 Requirement to solids loading rate gives: A > (QR+Qh,max,s)XA / 5.5 = 1,85450 m3/h 4.5 kg SS/m3 /10 kg SS/(m3h) = 375 m2 A > (QR+Qh,max,dw) X / 3.1 = 1.85250 4.5 /5.7 = 365 m2 Note that when calculating the area during storm the maximum return sludge flow is used in calculating the solids loading rate. During dry weather the return sludge flow is assumed regulated down to max. 85 % of the inlet flow. It is normal to regulate the return sludge pumping according to the inlet flow, either by frequency regulation or by on/off operation of the pumps based on online inlet flow monitoring. The clarifier thus needs to be at least 409 m2 to satisfy all requirements. A 22.8 m clarifier is sufficient. Since the clarifier diameter is less than 25 m, a side water depth of 2.7 m is OK. 3. checking the additional requirements The hydraulic retention time HRT = V/(QR,max + Qh,max,s) = (409 m2 2.7 m)/(450+383 m3/h) = 1.33 hours. The requirement Th > 1.4 hour is NOT satisfied. Choosing instead a side water depth of 3.0 m and a total tank depth of 3.3 m satisfies the requirement. Alternatively a larger tank area A could have been chosen.

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With a single overflow rim in at the whole tank perimeter of 71.6 m gives a maximum weir loading of 450 m3/h / 71.6 m = 6.3 m3/m/h, and well below the maximum of 10 m3/mh.
Comments: The above clarifier design and the outlined design principle is one (relative simple) way to make a suitable design, that has proved adequate for Danish conditions and WWTP with relative good settling quality (SVI < 100 - 140 ml/g). Other more general and sophisticated design principles can be found in the literature. The above design does not directly make usage of the information on the sludge settling properties. However some information can be retrieved. As the return sludge flow is set as max 85 % of the max inflow to the WWTP it can be seen that the return sludge concentration must be at least 1/0.85 = 1.18 times that found in the aeration tank i.e. 1.18 4.5 = 5.3 kg SS/m3 . Looking at the definition of SVI (or at the sludge settling properties in figure 5.8) it can be seen that a similar sludge with 4.5 kg/m3 and SVI = 140 ml/g needs less than 30 minutes to reach this concentration (after 30 minutes of settling time the sludge volume is 0.140 l/g 4.5 g/l = 0.63 l. The concentration of solid phase here is thus 4.5 g/0.63 l = 7.1 g/l and well above the required 5.3 g/l). In fact the required 5.3 g/l would be achieved in the order of approximately 10 minutes (or 0.17 h) concentration time. The thickness of the sludge blanket layer (for concentration of the sludge) needs thus only to be 0.17 h 383 m3/h / 409 m2 = 0.16 m thick to allow for sufficient concentration of the sludge. The remaining 2.84 m of the side water depth can be used for unhindered settling of the sludge solids. As mentioned above up to a maximum of 50 % the clarifier volume can be used for sludge concentration purpose without disturbing the solids separation process taking part ion the remaining part of the clarifier volume. Allowing for a sludge concentration time of 30 minutes, the above sludge would be concentrated to 7.1 g/l. In dry weather situations the average return sludge flow from the above clarifier would be limited to 2,900 m3/d / (7.1/4.5) = 1,838 m3/d or 77 m3/h. 30 minutes of concentration could be obtained in with an average height of the sludge concentration layer of only 77 m3/h 0.5 h/409 m2 = 0.1 m = 10 cm.

5.5 Other mechanical purification processes Membranes, flotation and filtration are methods for mechanical purification not dealt with here. References Ekama, G.A.et al (1997) Secondary Settling Tanks: Theory, Modeling, Design and Operation., IAWQ Scientific and Technical Report no.6. Whinther L. et al (1998) Spildevandsteknik Polyteknisk forlag.

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