Fatigue

S-N Curves (stress-number of cycles to failure) Fatigue properties of a material (S-N curves) are tested in rotating-bending tests in fatigue testing apparatus:

Low cycle fatigue: high loads, plastic and elastic deformation High cycle fatigue: low loads, elastic deformation (N > 105 cycles)
Mechanical Behaviour of Materials

Fatigue
S-N Curves Result is commonly plotted as S (stress) vs. N (number of cycles to failure) Note the presence of a fatigue limit in many steels and its absence in aluminum alloys Stress typically show an endurance limit = 40% of yield

Fatigue limit (endurance limit) occurs for some materials (some Fe and Ti allows). In this case, the SN curve becomes horizontal at large N The fatigue limit is a maximum stress amplitude below which the material never fails, no matter how large the number of cycles is
Mechanical Behaviour of Materials

Fatigue
S-N Curves

In most alloys, S decreases continuously with N. In this cases the fatigue properties are described by Fatigue strength: stress at which fracture occurs after specified number of cycles (e.g. 107) Fatigue life: Number of cycles to fail at specified stress level
Mechanical Behaviour of Materials

Fatigue
Factor Affecting Fatigue Life

Important factors are: mean stress level geometrical design surface condition metallurgical structure environment
For frequencies < 200 Hz, metals are insensitive to frequency Fatigue life in polymers is frequency dependent

Mechanical Behaviour of Materials

Fatigue
Mean Stress (m)

in stress reversal,
R=0.3 (min=0.3max)
max (log)

m = 0 m > 0, then S-N curve moves to lower values fatigue life decreases

R=0 (min=0)

R=-1 (min=-max)

Nr (log)

Mean stress Fatigue strength Stress range Fatigue strength

Mechanical Behaviour of Materials

Fatigue
Surface effects
Design Factors component design is important notches or stress raisers act as crack initiation sites for fatigue: grooves, scratches, keyways, threads, corrosion pits etc. sharp corners and radii, any discontinuities all increase the stress concentration rounded fillets where gradual changes of diameter occur in shafts Scratches and machining marks reduce the fatigue life Surface polishing improves the fatigue properties
Mechanical Behaviour of Materials

Fatigue
Stress concentration

specimen without notch (kt=1)

a (log)

The stress concentration decrease the fatigue strength

specimen with notch (kt>1)

Stress intensity Fatigue strength

Nr (log)

Mechanical Behaviour of Materials

Fatigue
Surface treatments

Shot peening localized micro-plastic deformation using small steel balls (shot) impacting on surface It increases the fatigue properties significantly (aircraft components, etc) also increases yield strength, hardness and fatigue life Work hardening occurs in the surface increase the surface hardness introduces a residual stress of compression

Mechanical Behaviour of Materials

Fatigue
Environmental effects
Thermal Fatigue created at high temperature by fluctuating thermal stresses (t ) restraint in thermal expansion/contraction during uneven heating/cooling t = E l T l is the linear thermal expansion coefficient E is the modulus of elasticity T is the temperature difference, l T is the thermal strain t can be minimized by careful design elimination of restraint and temperature gradients (use expansion gaps) consideration of physical properties

Mechanical Behaviour of Materials

Fatigue
Environmental effects
Corrosion Fatigue simultaneous effect of cyclic stress and chemical attack formation of pits leading to stress concentration on surface and nucleation of fatigue cracks corrosion can enhance crack growth rate prevention is by: protective coatings (painting, galvanizing) selection of more corrosion resistant material reducing the corrosive environment

Mechanical Behaviour of Materials

Fatigue
Environmental (Corrosion Fatigue)

Corrosion fatigue:
Air

Dynamic stresses + chemical etch

a (log)

Corrosive environmental

Nr (log)

Mechanical Behaviour of Materials

Fatigue
Examples of S-N Curves

Mechanical Behaviour of Materials

Fatigue
The construction of S-N curve normally requires ~ 8-12 specimens by first testing at a high level of stress ~ 2/3 of the tensile strength of the material The test is then carried out at lower levels of stress until runout The data obtained is normally scattered at the same stress level by using several specimens This requires statistic approach to define the fatigue limit

Mechanical Behaviour of Materials

Fatigue
Determination of S-N curves with 2 points, (N1, 1) e (N2, 2)

a = AN f B 1 = = AN1B , 2 AN 2 B 1 2
N1 N , log 1 = B log 1 N2 2 N2
B

B =

log 1 log 2 = N log 1 log N1 log N 2 N2

2 = N1B N 2 B

1 log 2

= A

Mechanical Behaviour of Materials

Fatigue

Mechanical Behaviour of Materials

Fatigue
Because the S-N fatigue data is normally scattered, it should be therefore represented on a probability basis Considerable number of specimens are used to obtain statistical parameters At 1, 1% of specimens would be expected to fail at N1 cycles 50% of specimens would be expected to fail at N2 cycles For engineering purposes, it is sufficiently accurate to assume a logarithmic normal
Note: The S-N fatigue data is more scattered at lower stress levels. Each

distribution of fatigue life in the region of the specimen has its own fatigue limit probability of failure of P = 0.10 to P = 0.90
Mechanical Behaviour of Materials