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The Cavitation Problem
Cavitation is the process of formation and subsequent
collapse of microscopic vapor bubbles in a flowing fluid. It is
the foremost problem encountered in selecting and applying
control valves for liquid service. In order for cavitation to occur,
the fluid must flow through a low-pressure region, then into a
region of higher pressure. In control valves, the low-pressure
region is caused by local high velocities usually in the seating
area or the vena contracta, immediately downstream. From
Bernoulli’s Law, the total energy of the flowing liquid remains
constant (neglecting losses), so where the velocity increases
due to a restriction in area, pressure will decrease.
Pressure and velocity profiles are seen in Figure 1.
Figure 1
If the vapor pressure of the liquid is above PVC, vapor bubbles
will form in the region near the restriction. Although molecular
theory predicts a tensile strength for water on the order of 103
psi, minute particles and impurities form a nucleus around which
vapor bubbles are created. If the vapor pressure is also above P2,
a mixture of liquid and vapor will exit the valve. If the vapor
pressure is less than P2, the bubbles will implode as they reach
regions of higher pressure. The implosions are very violent,
creating stresses above 100,000 psi on surfaces they implode on
or near. For cavitation to occur, the pressure profile must be as
depicted in Figure 2.
Figure 2
It is important to note that the restriction at the vena contracta
need not be the seat area, but can be any restriction area in the
valve, and is often the cage parts. Incorrectly sized valves may
actually cavitate in the inlet and outlet nozzles.
The exact mechanism of cavitation damage is not fully
understood, but it is hypothesized that the imploding bubbles
act like a shotpeen on the surface, but with very high stress
levels. For weaker materials, the surface is stressed beyond the
yield point and a minute particle of metal is removed
ON THE CO VER: Other manufacturer’s trim damaged by uncontrolled cavitation.
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immediately. For harder materials, repeated implosions fatigue
the surface until particles break off. Although harder materials
withstand it longer, no known metal can withstand cavitation
damage indefinitely (see Figure 3).
Another suggested mechanism is similar to fracturing
concrete by impact. The surface fractures where the shock
wave reaches the maximum tensile stress.
Figure 3
Inadequate Strategies for Cavitation Control
HARDER MATERIALS
Valve designers have developed several methods to the
cavitation problem. The first, and still popular method is to use
hard materials, such as stellite #6, in areas of the valve where
cavitation is likely. It is well recognized that hard materials can
slow the damage, but not stop it. The true solution to the
cavitation problem is to keep the velocities low enough to prevent
the bubbles from forming in the first place. Tests have shown
that the erosion action of cavitation varies as Vn, velocity raised
to the n power, where n ranges from 5 to 10, with about 6 on the
average. With this powerful an exponential function, the
importance of velocity control can easily be seen.
DIRECTED BUBBLE COLLAPSE
One of the strategies developed by valve designers involves
controlling the location of bubble collapse. The fluid is directed
at itself so that the bubbles don’t collapse near a metal surface,
but with no effort to control velocity, and therefore bubble
formation. This approach has several drawbacks. When the
valve is partially closed, the bubbles may not collapse until
they travel some distance down-stream, perhaps as far as the
seat ring, where they may cause damage, as shown in Figure
4. The uncontrolled velocities lead to high erosion rates for
the cage, and cavitation choking through the cage orifices.
Since noise in generated in accordance with a strong velocity
power function, extremely high noise levels can be generated
in high velocity trim such as this one.
Figure 4
DRILLED DISK STAGES
Another cavitation control strategy is to attempt to reduce
the pressure in stages. One approach uses a set of drilled disks,
arranged so that the flow is generally parallel to the valve
stem, as shown in Figure 5. The plates are drilled in such a
way as to cause the fluid to expand and contract through the
orifices and distribute the pressure drop over a number of stages.
As the valve is opened further, fewer and fewer stages remain
to distribute the pressure drop. This means that for valves
with a high pressure drop at full flow conditions, very little
cavitation control exists with this design.
Figure 5
Where cavitation might occur at any (or every) point in
the valve stroke, a radial flow trim must be used. With a radial
flow trim, the fluid impedance is constant at any stroke
position. The problem now is to package sufficient impedance
to control velocities to the required level.
Figure 6
CONCENTRIC DRILLED CYLINDERS
Another approach uses a series of concentric drilled cylinders,
with part of the pressure drop occurring at each cylinder, as
shown in Figure 6. A problem exists, however, when it comes
to putting enough cylinders into a valve body. As a result, the
trim is limited to 3 or 4 cylinders.
For drilled cylinders, the velocity through an orifice is
approximately as follows:
Where:
∆P is the pressure drop across the orifice
K is the loss coefficient of the orifice (about 1.5)
If the area expansion between cylinders is too rapid, the affect
of later cylinders is drastically diminished. In effect, the entire
pressure drop is taken through the first cylinder. Space limitations
in the valve body limits the number of cylinders so that even if
they all worked to reduce velocity, there would not be enough
impedance for anything more than a moderate pressure drop.
This type of trim will cavitate very easily.
Defining Cavitation Levels
The readiness of these so called anti-cavitation trims to
cavitate is reflected in the fact that these valves are allowed
by their manufacturer to operate well into cavitating region.
These manufacturers publish values of a cavitation index
designated KC for their anti-cavitation trim. This value is
calculated by the dimensionless expression:
Where:
∆P is a special pressure drop across the valve
experimentally determined
P1 is the inlet pressure
PV is the vapor pressure
If pressure drop and flow rate measurements are performed
under a range of conditions, a curve such as shown in Figure 7
can be generated. At low values of ∆P, the relationship between
the square root of ∆P and the flow rate is linear. As ∆P is
increased, cavitation begins. Further increases in ∆P increase
the rate of bubble formation and the severity of cavitation.
When the formation of bubbles is great enough that they begin
to block the flow of liquid, the linear behavior of the flow curve
ends. The pressure drop in which this occurs is used to calculate
the value of KC.
Figure 7
The control valve manufacturer allows the valve to be placed
in applications where the K value of the application is less
than the published KC value. This approach can be misleading.
Cavitation initiates at K values well below the point where it
affects the flow rate. In addition, much of the cavitation may
occur in the shear area between a high velocity flow stream
and stagnant regions, where flow will not be affected. In
chapter six of its Handbook of Control Valves, the Instrument
Society of America concludes: “Therefore, the cavitation
index, KC, is useful in control valve sizing and analysis work,
but caution should be exercised in applying this index to any
decision regarding whether or not a valve application will
limit cavitation to an ‘acceptable’ level.”
The DRAG Valve Solution to Cavitation
Valve
The solution to reducing cavitation is controlling the fluid
velocity. Specifically, controlling the ratio of the difference
between the fluid pressure and the vapor pressure to the
velocity pressure head at all points in the valve. This
dimensionless ratio, Ci, is also defined in cavitation literature
as the cavitation index.
English Metric
Where:
P is the fluid pressure measured at any point in the valve, psia
(kPa)
PV is the fluid vapor pressure, psia (kPa)
ρ is the fluid density, lbm/ft3 (Kg/m3)
V is the fluid velocity at the point P is determined, ft/s (m/s)
If Ci is one, or smaller, cavitation will occur. CCI selects a
value for Ci equal to two, as the design criteria. This allows a
conservative margin of one velocity head above the theoretical
incipient point of cavitation (see Figure 8), and assures that
Figure 8
cavitation occurring on the periphery of the flow stream is also
controlled. The exit velocity of the flow control orifice which
meets this criteria is found by the equation:
English Metric
Two other experience-based constraints are applies to ensure
the optimal flow solution. On the high end, the disk exit velocity
is never designed to be greater than 100ft/sec. (30m/s), even if
the backpressure is sufficient to eliminate any chance of
cavitation. This value is chosen to prevent erosion and vibration
of trim and body parts.
B
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At the other end of velocities, a lower limit of 75ft/sec.
(22m/s) is used for most industrial applications. Experience
has shown that controlling velocities to this level will provide
excellent protection against cavitation.
Once the required velocity constraint is established, the proper
number of stages or turns are selected to meet the requirements of
each application. Large pressure drops and outlet pressures close to
the vapor pressure require the most turns.
Liquid valves should
flow from the outside
toward the inside.
Figure 9
Controlling velocity through multiple turns is highly
effective in eliminating cavitation. However, CCI has found
that if the velocity is slowed even further as the fluid reaches
the more cavitation-prone, low-pressure area, cavitation
resistance is improved. The flow area of each passage expands
from the inlet to the outlet of the passage (see Figure 9).
This is contrary to what common sense indicates is
appropriate for liquids. However, through expansion, the
pressure drop across the valve can be taken in the first few
turns of the passage where pressure is well above the vapor
pressure and cavitation is impossible. Toward the exit of the
passage, the rate of pressure drop at each turn is reduced, as
the velocity is reduced. The expanding passage design allows
very low velocities in the low-pressure, cavitation-prone
region of the passage exit while maintaining economical
dimensions. Through analysis and experimentation at our
cavitation test facility, we have found the optimum expansion
ratio for the fluid path. If it expands too rapidly, the effect of
the downstream turn is diminished and cavitation will occur
at the passage entrance. If it expands too slowly, more turns
are required to meet the velocity requirements.
By designing the proper rate of area expansion between
turns, a disk can be chosen with the optimum cavitation-
reducing characteristics.
CCI has been engineering and building state of the art control
valves for demanding applications since 1961. Let us help solve
your control valve problems.