The Immunological System

Recognition, Attack, and Memory Microbes are constantly working to invade into other our bodies. Despite that, most of us are healthy most of the time. Our usual state of good health is due to these three Lines of Defense against Microbes: External barriers (keeps microbes out of the body) Nonspecific Internal Defenses Immune System (Specific Defenses)

External Barriers to Microbial Invasion: The Skin Mucus Membranes (of the digestive and respiratory tract)

The Skin Dry dead cells filled with protein Prevents most microbes landing on the skin from obtaining needed water and nutrients Natural antibiotics secreted by the sweat and sebaceous glands actively inhibit the growth of bacteria and fungi on the skin Mucus Membranes Mucus covers/protects the membranes of the digestive and respiratory tract. Mucus contains antibacterial enzymes that destroy the cell walls of bacteria and physically traps microbes that enter the body through the nose or mouth. Cilia on the membranes sweep up the mucus, microbes included, until it is coughed up, sneezed, or swallowed. Swallowed microbes enter the stomach where they encounter a combination of extreme acidity and protein digesting enzymes that kills many enzymes. Further along the digestive tract, bacteria harmless to humans secrete substances deadly to other invading bacteria or fungi. Conclusion: Mucus membranes are more vulnerable to invasion than the skin. Also, mucus membranes and the skin cannot keep all microbes out of the body. When diseased organisms enter the body through the skin or mucus membranes, they run into: Nonspecific Internal Defenses Phagocytic and Natural Killer Cells The Inflammatory Response Fever

Phagocytic and Natural Killer Cells Monocytes and neutrophils

Monocytes Neutrophils Phagocytic white blood cells that travel though capillaries to wounds where bacteria have gained entry, then ooze out through narrow openings in the capillary walls. After leaving the capillaries, monocytes The most numerous of white blood cells; like differentiate into macrophages, amoeba like macrophages also engulfs foreign invaders such cells that engulf and ingest bacteria and other as bacteria and certain fungi. foreign particles. Secrete molecules that attract other defensive cells to the invasion site.

Natural Killer Cells

Another class of white blood cells They identify and destroy body cells that have been invaded by viruses or that have become cancerous. Sensing molecular changes, natural killer cells bind to the compromised cells cellular membrane and release proteins that pierce holes in it. Cytotoxic proteins then enter the abnormal cell and destroy its nucleus. The Inflammatory Response Breaches of the skin or mucus membrane elicit an inflammatory response. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Damaged cells release histamine into wounded area Histamine makes capillary walls leaky Leaky capillaries cause a fluid to seep from the capillaries into the tissues around wound Wound becomes red, swollen and warm Meanwhile, other chemicals released by injured cells initiate blood clotting that both blocks damaged blood vessels preventing microbes from escaping into the bloodstream and seals off wound from outside world and thus limiting entry of other microbes 6) Still other chemicals (released by wounded cells or microbial invaders) attract macrophages, neutrophils, and other phagocytic cells to wound where they engulf microbes, dirt and tissue debris. Pus (that collects around a wound) consists largely of: Fever IF enough microbes survive the inflammatory response and infect larger areas of the body, a fever may be triggered. The hypothalamus in the brain contains temperature sensing nerve cells that normally set the bodys thermostat at about 37C. However, in cases of infection, certain white blood cells release hormones Microbes Tissues debris White blood cells (dead or alive)

called endogenous pyrogens that cause the hypothalamus to trigger behaviours that increase body temperature, shivering, increased fat metabolism, and a feeling of cold. The release of pyrogens also results in reduced iron concentrations in the blood, which when combined with a fever, slows the reproduction rate of bacteria. Fever increases the activity of phagocytic white blood cells that attack bacteria. Fever fights viral infections by increasing the production of protein interferon (synthesized by certain body cells under invasion of viruses). Interferon travels to other cells and increases their resistance to the viral attack. Conclusion: While often effective, nonspecific internal defenses are not impregnable. When they fail to ward off microbes, the body then mounts a highly specific immune response directed against the particular organism that has successfully invaded the body. Specific Internal Defenses (The Immune System) Immunity to one disease confers no protection against other diseases. The immune system attacks one type of microbe, overcomes it, and provides future protection against that microbe but no others, thus a specific defense against invasion. The immune system consists of about two trillion specialized white blood cells called lymphocytes. Although many are distributed around the body (in blood and limbs), others are clustered in specific organs, particularly the thymus, lymph nodes, and spleen. The immune response results from the interactions among several types of lymphocytes and the molecules they produce. Two types of lymphocytes: B-Cell T-Cell

B-Cell T-Cell Arise from cells in the bone marrow Differentiates in the bone marrow and migrates Newly forming T-Cells migrate to the thymus and either to the spleen or lymph nodes differentiate early in development Immune responses consist of three steps: 1) Recognizing invaders 2) Launching an attack 3) Retaining a memory of the invader for future infections

Recognizing Microbial Invaders Antibodies & T-Cell Receptors Understanding Immune Response ( triggered by the binding of antigen to antibody) 1) How do immune cells recognize foreign molecules? 2) How do immune cells produce specific responses to many different molecules? 3) How do immune cells distinguish between foreign and self?

Antibodies Antibodies are either attached to the surface of B-Cells or dissolved in the blood plasma where they are called immunoglobulins (IG). They are Y-shaped molecules composed of four peptide chains, one large heavy chain and one small light chain on either side of the Y. Both heavy and light chains consist of a *constant region (similar not identical of all antibodies of the same class) and a variable region (differs per antibody). The combination of light and heavy chains results in an antibody with two function parts: the arms and the stem of the Y. The variable regions on the arms form highly specific binding sites for large molecules (generally proteins, polysaccharides and glycoproteins) that have particular shapes and electrical charges. These molecules or antigens may either be attached to the surfaces of cells, the bodys own or invading microbes, or dissolved in the blood or extracellular fluid such as snake venom. The stem of the antibody molecules determines the activity of an antibody. *e.g. the heavy chain constant regions forming the stem of one type of antibody may attach the antibody to the plasma membrane of a cell whereas in another type of antibody, the constant regions may bind to certain proteins in the blood