REPUBLIC ACT No. 1383 AN ACT CREATING A PUBLIC CORPORATION TO BE KNOWN AS THE NATIONAL WATERWORKS AND SEWERAGE AUTHORITY.

Section 1. Creation of the National Waterworks and Sewerage Authority; its general purposes; zone and extent of jurisdiction comprised by it; domicile and place of business of the corporation. For the purpose of consolidating and centralizing all waterworks, sewerage and drainage systems in the Philippines under one control, direction and general supervision, there is hereby created a public corporation to be known as the National Waterworks and Sewerage Authority, which shall be organized within one month after the approval of this Act. The National Waterworks and Sewerage Authority shall own and/or have jurisdiction, supervision and control over all territory now embraced by the Metropolitan Water District as well as all areas now served by existing government-owned waterworks and sewerage and drainage systems within the boundaries of cities, municipalities, and municipal districts in the Philippines, including those served by the Waterworks and Wells and Drills Sections of the Bureau of Public Works: Provided, That the Board of Directors of the National Waterworks and Sewerage Authority, in the interest of the public service, may from time to time extends its territory by the admission or inclusion of any areas served by such works located in any other city, municipality or municipal district in the Philippines. The jurisdiction of the National Waterworks and Sewerage Authority shall extend to the construction, maintenance, operation and control of non-selfsupporting and/or non-revenue producing water systems and sanitary works, whether undertaken at the expense of the Authority or through subsidy of the National Government as provided in section ten of this Act. The domicile and place of business of the Authority shall be in the City of Manila. Section 2. Powers and general functions of the Authority. The powers, functions, and activities of the National Waterworks and Sewerage Authority shall be the following: (a) To have continuous succession under its corporate name until otherwise provided by law; (b) To prescribe its by-laws; (c) To adopt and use a seal and alter it at its pleasure; (d) To sue and be sued in any court; (e) To construct, maintain, and operate mains, pipes, water reservoirs, machinery, and other waterworks for the purpose of supplying water to the inhabitants of its zone, both for domestic and other purposes; to purify the source of supply, regulate the control and use, and prevent the waste of water; and to fix water rates and provided for the collection of rents therefor; (f) To construct, maintain, and operate such systems of sanitary sewers as may be necessary for the proper sanitation of the cities and towns comprising the Authority, and to charge and collect such sums for construction and rates for this service as may be determined by the Board to be equitable and just; (g) To construct, maintain and operate such storm drains, artesian wells and springs as may be needed and requested by any city or municipality, and to take control of and administer all such storm drains artesian wells and springs as may now be in actual operation, the respective city, municipality or municipal district concerned to appropriate sufficient funds for the purpose; (h) To acquire, purchase, hold, transfer, sell, lease, rent, mortgage, encumber, and otherwise dispose of real and personal property, including rights and franchises, within the Philippines, as authorized by the purposes for which the Authority was created and reasonably and necessarily required for the transaction of the lawful business of the same, unless otherwise provided in this Act; (i) To construct works across, or otherwise, any stream, watercourse, canal, ditch, flume, street, avenue, highway, or railway, as the location of said works may require, Provided, That such works be constructed in such manner as to afford security for life and property: And, Provided, further, That the stream, watercourse, canal, ditch, flume, street, avenue, highway, or railway so crossed or intersected be restored to their former state as near as may be, or in a manner not to impair unnecessarily their usefulness. Every person or entity whose right of way is crossed or intersected by said works shall not obstruct the forming of such crossing or intersection and shall grant the Authority the proper authority, upon payment of just compensation, for the execution of such work. The Authority is hereby given the right of way to locate, construct, and maintain such works over and through any of the lands which are now or may be the property of the Government of the Republic of the Philippines or any of its branches and political sub-divisions; (j) To exercise the right of eminent domain for the purpose for which the Authority was created, in the manner provided by law for condemnation proceedings by the national, provincial, and municipal governments; (k) To issue such regulations as may be necessary for the sanitary protection of watersheds, reservoirs, water mains, springs, and other water sources for the proper operation of sanitary sewers, and for the protection of the water and sewer service, as soon as established, any violation of which shall be punished by a fine of not more than five hundred pesos or by imprisonment for not more than six months, or both such fine and imprisonment in the discretion of the court; (l) When essential to the proper administration of its corporate affairs or when necessary for the proper transaction of its business or for carrying out the purposes for which it was organized, to contract indebtedness and issue bonds, subject to the approval of the Secretary of

Finance. The bonded indebtedness of the Authority, of all classes, shall not at any time exceed one hundred fifty million pesos, and the issue thereof shall be subject to the conditions set forth in section five of this Act; and (m) To transact the business for which it was organized and exercise such powers and do such things as may be reasonably necessary to carry out the purposes for which it was established. Section 3. Board of Directors; its members, reports to the President and Congress of the Philippines. Unless otherwise provided by law, all corporate powers of the National Waterworks and Sewerage Authority shall be exercised, its business managed, and its properties kept and preserved, by a Board of Directors to be composed of five members: a chairman, three other members, and the general manager of the Authority who will be an ex officio member. Two of them must possess knowledge of waterworks, public works and/or sanitary engineering one, knowledge of public health; and one, knowledge of business management and finance. The chairman and the three other members of the Board shall be appointed for a term of six years by the President of the Philippines with the consent of the Commission on Appointments. The Board shall render annual reports to the President and the Congress of the Philippines. Section 4. First meeting of the Board; quorum; votes necessary, in general, for adopting resolutions; appeal; per diems of the members; secretary of the Board and his salary. The chairman of the Board shall immediately after the formation thereof, fix a time and place for the first meeting, at which the Board shall adopt rules of procedure and fix a time and place for holding regular meetings. Not less than three members of the Board shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business, and two affirmative votes shall be necessary for the adoption of any resolution or motion, except as herein otherwise provided. For actual attendance at meetings, the chairman of the Board shall receive a per diem of thirty pesos, and each member of the Board of Directors, except the general manager of the Authority, shall receive a per diem of twenty-five pesos. The Board shall appoint its secretary and fix his salary. Section 5. Resolution to incur indebtedness and issue bonds; their conditions, privileges, and exemptions; sinking funds; guaranty. Whenever the Board may deem it necessary for the Authority to incur indebtedness or issue bonds, it shall by resolution so declare and state the purpose for which the proposed debt is to be incurred and the conditions of the bonds. In order that such resolution be valid, it shall be passed by the affirmative vote of at least three members of the Board and approved by the Secretary of Finance. The bonds shall not be sold at less than par; shall be redeemable at the pleasure of the Board after ten years from date of issue, and payable forty years after date of issue; shall bear interest at an annual rate as determined by the Secretary of Finance; and shall be in registered form and transferable at the office of the National Treasurer. The said bonds are hereby declared exempt from taxation by the Government of the Republic of the Philippines, or by any authority, branch, division or political subdivision thereof, which fact shall be stated upon the face of said bonds. The bonds shall be receivable as security in any transaction with the Government of the Republic of the Philippines in which such security is required. A sinking fund shall be created for the payment of the bonds issued under the provisions of this Act in such a manner that the total amount thereof on each annual due date of the bonds issued shall be equal to the total of annuity of such a sum for each million pesos of the bonds outstanding that, together with interest at a rate to be determined by the Secretary of Finance, shall be sufficient to retire the bonds at maturity. The sinking fund shall be under the custody of the Central Bank of the Philippines, which shall invest the same in such manner as the Monetary Board and the Secretary of Finance may approve in accordance with Act Numbered Three thousand fourteen, and shall credit to the same the interest on investment and other incomes accruing to it. The Government of the Republic of the Philippines hereby guarantees the payment by the National Waterworks and Sewerage Authority of both the principal and the interest of the bonds issued by said Authority by virtue of this Act, and shall pay such principal and interest in case the said Authority fails to do so, and there are hereby authorized to be appropriated, out of any funds in the National Treasury not otherwise appropriated, the sums necessary to make the payments guaranteed by this Act: Provided, That the sums so paid by the Government of the Republic of the Philippines shall be refunded by the National Waterworks and Sewerage Authority, and if said Authority fails to refund the same within thirty days after such payment has been made by the Government of the Republic of the Philippines, the National Treasurer is hereby authorized and directed to retain out of the revenues of the City of Manila and the cities, municipalities and municipal districts included in the Authority, that may come into his possession as belonging to said cities, municipalities and municipal district, the sums necessary to refund the payments made by the Government of the Republic of the Philippines in any proportion which the Auditor General may approve and which will insure their collection. Section 6. Conduct of affairs and current business; officers and employees of the Authority. The affairs and current business of the National Waterworks and Sewerage Authority shall be conducted under the direction of the Board, by a general manager, an assistant general manager, a chief engineer, an auditor, a treasurer, and such additional officers and employees as the Board may provide. The duties and powers as well as the compensation of said officers and employees shall be such as may be defined and prescribed or fixed by the Board which shall not be inconsistent with the provisions of this Act and other existing laws. The general manager, assistant general manager, chief engineer and treasurer shall be appointed by the President of the Philippines with the consent of the Commission on Appointments, and may be removed for cause by the President of the Philippines. All other officers and employees of the Authority shall be subject to the Civil Service Law, rules and regulations, except those whose positions may, upon recommendation of the Board of Directors, be declared by the President of the Philippines as policy-determining, primarily confidential, or highly technical in nature.

The Auditor shall be appointed by the Auditor General with the approval of the President of the Philippines, and may be removed for cause in like manner. Section 7. General Manager, Assistant General Manager, Chief Engineer, Treasurer, and Auditor of the Authority; their functions; salaries. The general manager, assistant general manager, chief engineer, treasurer and auditor of the National Waterworks and Sewerage Authority shall each receive an annual salary which shall be fixed by the Board with the approval of the Secretary of Finance. The general manager shall represent the Authority in all its business matters; shall submit to the Board an annual report and such partial reports as he may be required by it or he may see fit to render from time to time, regarding the condition of the business, or of any part of the business of the National Waterworks and Sewerage Authority; and shall perform such other executive duties as may be prescribed by law or may be required of him by resolution of the Board. The assistant general manager shall perform such duties as may be required of him by the Board or the general manager. He shall act as general manager in case of the temporary absence or disability of the general manager. The chief engineer and treasurer shall perform such duties as may be required of them by the Board or the general manager. The Auditor shall be the representative of the Auditor General who is hereby designated ex officio auditor of the National Waterworks and Sewerage Authority. The Auditor shall be the chief of its auditing and accounting department. He shall audit, examine and settle all accounts of the National Waterworks and Sewerage Authority according to existing law and regulations, and shall perform such other duties as the Auditor General, the General Manager or the Board may require of him from time to time. The employees of the Auditor's office shall be appointed by the Auditor General, who, with the approval of the Board, shall fix the number and salaries of the said employees. Section 8. Dissolution of the Metropolitan Water District; transfer to the Authority of its records, assets and liabilities; transfer to the Authority of entities, waterworks and sewerage systems in the cities, municipalities, municipal districts, and other government waterworks, and sewerage systems. The present Metropolitan Water District created under Act Numbered Two thousand eight hundred thirty-two, as amended, is hereby dissolved and its records, assets and liabilities are transferred to the Authority. All existing government-owned waterworks and sewerage systems in the cities, municipalities, and municipal districts, including springs and other water sources, as well as the waterworks and sewerage bonds, sinking funds, and all indebtedness in general of the said Metropolitan Water District, and government-owned waterworks and sewerage systems, are transferred to the National Waterworks and Sewerage Authority, and the Board is hereby authorized and directed to receive and assume all such assets and liabilities on behalf of the said Authority and in turn to pledge such assets as security for the payment of the waterworks and sewerage bonded debt. The net book value of the properties and assets of the Metropolitan Water District and of government-owned waterworks and sewerage systems in cities, municipalities, or municipal districts, and other government-owned waterworks and sewerage systems shall be received by the Authority in payment for an equal value of the assets of the National Waterworks and Sewerage Authority. Any reference made to the Metropolitan Water District or to any existing government-owned waterworks and sewerage systems in any city, municipality or municipal district and any waterworks and sewerage system under the Bureau of Public Works, in any Act or Executive Order or Proclamation of the President of the Philippines or in any city or municipal ordinance which is still in force, shall be deemed to be a reference to the National Waterworks and Sewerage Authority created by this Act. Section 9. Possession by the Authority of all water and sewer systems within its territory; charging and collection of uniform rates. The National Waterworks and Sewerage Authority shall own and control all the water and sewer distributing systems of the City of Manila and the nearby municipalities comprising the Metropolitan Water District, as well as the water and sewer distributing systems of all other cities, municipalities and municipal districts in the Philippines, and shall charge and collect a uniform rate for all services rendered in each city, municipality, or municipal district, whether to any person, corporation, firm, government body, municipal entity or religious or charitable institutions: Provided, That the Public Service Commission shall exercise no control, supervision or jurisdiction whatsoever over the National Waterworks and Sewerage Authority in the fixing of rates or over its properties. The Authority shall exist as an independent agency of the Government under the Department of Public Works and Communications for administrative purposes. Section 10. National Subsidy for Non-Revenue Producing Water Systems and Sanitary Works. Non-self-supporting and/or non-revenue producing water systems and sanitary works, such as springs, artesian wells, and drainage systems, shall receive from the National Government a subsidy to be provided in the Annual Appropriation Acts for the construction, operation, maintenance, and control of those works once completed. The amount of the subsidy shall be determined by the Budget Commissioner who shall base such determination upon recommendation of the National Waterworks and Sewerage Authority. The accounting and disbursing of funds for this particular item of expense shall be undertaken separately in the account books of the Authority. Section 11. Letting of contracts for public works of the Authority. All construction and repair works authorized by the Authority, involving an estimated cost of ten thousand pesos or more, shall be let by the General Manager with the approval of the Board of Directors to contract under the usual bidding procedure of the Government, except in the case of construction or repair of water, sewer, and pipe lines or storm drains, and such other projects which, in the discretion of the Board, due to its urgent nature, should be undertaken by the Authority by administration. Section 12. Repeal or modification. All Acts, executive orders, administrative orders and proclamations or parts thereof consistent with any of the provisions of this Act are hereby repealed or modified accordingly. Section 13. Effective date of this Act. This Act shall take effect upon its approval. Approved: June 18, 1955.

Prof. Stephen A. Nelson Tulane University Streams and Drainage Systems

EENS 111 Physical Geology

This page last updated on 15-Oct-2003

Streams A stream is a body of water that carries rock particles and dissolved ions and flows down slope along a clearly defined path, called a channel. Thus, streams may vary in width from a few centimeters to several kilometers. Streams are important for several reasons:

Streams carry most of the water that goes from the land to the sea, and thus are an important part of the water cycle. Streams carry billions of tons of sediment to lower elevations, and thus are one of the main transporting mediums in the production of sedimentary rocks. Streams carry dissolved ions, the products of chemical weathering, into the oceans and thus make the sea salty. Streams are a major part of the erosional process, working in conjunction with weathering and mass wasting. Much of the surface landscape is controlled by stream erosion, evident to anyone looking out of an airplane window. Streams are a major source of water and transportation for the world's human population. Most population centers are located next to streams.

Geometry and Dynamics of Stream Channels The stream channel is the conduit for water being carried by the stream. The stream can continually adjust its channel shape and path as the amount of water passing through the channel changes. The volume of water passing any point on a stream is called the discharge. Discharge is measured in units of volume/time (m 3/sec).

Cross Sectional Shape - varies with position in the stream, and discharge. The deepest part of channel occurs where the stream velocity is the highest. Both width and depth increase downstream because discharge increases downstream. As discharge increases the cross sectional shape will change, with the stream becoming deeper and wider.

Long Profile - a plot of elevation versus distance. Usually shows a steep gradient near the source of the stream and a gentle gradient as the stream approaches its mouth.

Base Level - base level is defined as the limiting level below which a stream cannot erode its channel. For streams that empty into the oceans, base level is sea level. Local base levels can occur where the stream meets a resistant body of rock, where a natural or artificial dam impedes further channel erosion, or where the stream empties into a lake.

When a natural or artificial dam impedes stream flow, the stream adjusts to the new base level by adjusting its long profile. In the example here, the long profile above and below the dam are adjusted. Erosion takes place downstream from the dam (especially if it is a natural dam and water can flow over the top). Just upstream from the dam the velocity of the stream is lowered so that deposition of sediment occurs causing the gradient to become lower.

Velocity - A stream's velocity depends on position in the stream channel, irregularities in the stream channel caused by resistant rock, and stream gradient. The average velocity is the time it takes a given particle of water to traverse a given distance. Stream flow can be either laminar, in which all water molecules travel along similar parallel paths, or turbulent, in which individual particles take irregular paths. Turbulent flow can keep sediment in suspension longer than laminar flow and aids in erosion of the stream bottom. Average linear velocity is generally greater in laminar flow than in turbulent flow.

Discharge - The discharge of a stream is the amount of water passing any point in a given time. Q=AxV

Discharge (m3/sec) = Cross-sectional Area [width x average depth] (m 2) x Average Velocity (m/sec). As the amount of water in a stream increases, the stream must adjust its velocity and cross sectional area in order to form a balance. Discharge increases as more water is added through rainfall, tributary streams, or from groundwater seeping into the stream. As discharge increases, generally width, depth, and velocity of the stream also increase.

Load - The rock particles and dissolved ions carried by the stream are the called the stream'sload. Stream load is divided into three parts.

Suspended Load - particles that are carried along with the water in the main part of the streams. The size of

these particles depends on their density and the velocity of the stream. Higher velocity currents in the stream can carry larger and denser particles.

Bed Load - coarser and denser particles that remain on the bed of the stream most of the time but move by a process of saltation (jumping) as a result of collisions between particles, and turbulent eddies. Note that sediment can move between bed load and suspended load as the velocity of the stream changes.

Dissolved Load - ions that have been introduced into the water by chemical weathering of rocks. This load is invisible because the ions are dissolved in the water. The dissolved load consists mainly of HCO3(bicarbonate ions), Ca+2, SO4-2, Cl-, Na+2, Mg+2, and K+. These ions are eventually carried to the oceans and give the oceans their salty character. Streams that have a deep underground source generally have higher dissolved load than those whose source is on the Earth's surface.

Changes Downstream As one moves along a stream in the downstream direction:

Discharge increases, as noted above, because water is added to the stream from tributary streams and groundwater. As discharge increases, the width, depth, and average velocity of the stream increase. The gradient of the stream, however, will decrease.

It may seem to be counter to your observations that velocity increases in the downstream direction, since when one observes a mountain stream near the headwaters where the gradient is high, it appears to have a higher velocity than a stream flowing along a gentle gradient. But, the water in the mountain stream is likely flowing in a turbulent manner, due to the large boulders and cobbles which make up the streambed. If the flow is turbulent, then it takes longer for the water to travel the same linear distance, and thus the average velocity is lower. Also as one moves in the downstream direction,

The size of particles that make up the bed load of the stream tends to decrease. Even though the velocity of the stream increases downstream, the bed load particle size decreases mainly because the larger particles are left in the bed load at higher elevations and abrasion of particles tends to reduce their size. The composition of the particles in the bed load tends to change along the stream as different bedrock is eroded and added to the stream's load.

Floods Floods occur when the discharge of the stream becomes too high to be accommodated in the normal stream channel. When the discharge becomes too high, the stream widens its channel by overtopping its banks and flooding the low-lying areas surrounding the stream. The areas that become flooded are called floodplains. Channel Patterns

Straight Channels - Straight stream channels are rare. Where they do occur, the channel is usually controlled by a linear zone of weakness in the underlying rock, like a fault or joint system. Even in straight channel segments water flows in a sinuous fashion, with the deepest part of the channel changing from near one bank to near the other. Velocity is highest in the zone overlying the deepest part of the stream. In these areas, sediment is transported readily resulting in pools. Where the velocity of the stream is low, sediment is deposited to form bars. The bank closest to the zone of highest velocity is usually eroded and results in a cutbank.

Meandering Channels - Because of the velocity structure of a stream, and especially in streams flowing over low gradients with easily eroded banks, straight channels will eventually erode into meandering channels. Erosion will take place on the outer parts of the meander bends where the velocity of the stream is highest. Sediment deposition will occur along the inner meander bends where the velocity is low. Such deposition of sediment results in exposed bars, called point bars. Because meandering streams are continually eroding on the outer meander bends and depositing sediment along the inner meander bends, meandering stream channels tend to migrate back and forth across their flood plain.

If erosion on the outside meander bends continues to take place, eventually a meander bend can become cut off from the rest of the stream. When this occurs, the cutoff meander bend, because it is still a depression, will collect water and form a type of lake called an oxbow lake.

Braided Channels - In streams having highly variable discharge and easily eroded banks, sediment gets deposited to form bars and islands that are exposed during periods of low discharge. In such a stream the water flows in a braided pattern around the islands and bars, dividing and reuniting as it flows downstream. Such a channel is termed abraided channel. During periods of high discharge, the entire stream channel may contain water and the islands are covered to become submerged bars. During such high discharge, some of the islands could erode, but the sediment would be re-deposited as the discharge decreases, forming new islands or submerged bars. Islands may become resistant to erosion if they become inhabited by vegetation

Erosion by Streams Streams erode because they have the ability to pick up rock fragments and transport them to a new location. The size of the fragments that can be transported depends on the velocity of the stream and whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. Turbulent flow can keep fragments in suspension longer than laminar flow. Streams can also eroded by undercutting their banks resulting in mass-wasting processes like slumps or slides. When the undercut material falls into the stream, the fragments can be transported away by the stream. Streams can cut deeper into their channels if the region is uplifted or if there is a local change in base level. As they cut deeper into their channels the stream removes the material that once made up the channel bottom and sides. Stream Deposits Sudden changes in velocity can result in deposition by streams. Within a stream we have seen that the velocity varies with position, and, if sediment gets moved to the lower velocity part of the stream the sediment will come out of suspension and be deposited. Other sudden changes in velocity that affect the whole stream can also occur. For example if the discharge is suddenly increased, as it might be during a flood, the stream will overtop its banks and flow onto the floodplain where the velocity will then suddenly decrease. This results in deposition of such features as levees and floodplains. If the gradient of the stream suddenly changes by emptying into a flat-floored basin, an ocean basin, or a lake, the velocity of the stream will suddenly decrease resulting in deposition of sediment that can no longer be transported. This can result in deposition of such features as alluvial fans and deltas.

Floodplains and Levees - As a stream overtops its banks during a flood, the velocity of the flood will first be high, but will suddenly decrease as the water flows out over the gentle gradient of the floodplain. Because of the sudden decrease in velocity, the coarser grained suspended sediment will be deposited along the riverbank, eventually building up a natural levee. Natural levees provide some protection from flooding because with each flood the levee is built higher and therefore discharge must be higher for the next flood to occur. (Note that the levees we see along the Mississippi River here in New Orleans are not natural levees, but man made levees, built to protect the floodplain from floods).

Terraces - Terraces are exposed former floodplain deposits that result when the stream begins down cutting into its flood plain (this is usually caused by regional uplift or by lowering the regional base level, such as a drop in sea level).

Alluvial Fans - When a steep mountain stream enters a flat valley, there is a sudden decrease in gradient and velocity. Sediment transported in the stream will suddenly become deposited along the valley walls in an alluvial fan. As the velocity of the mountain stream slows it becomes choked with sediment and breaks up into numerous distributary channels.

Deltas - When a stream enters a standing body of water such as a lake or ocean, again there is a sudden decrease in velocity and the stream deposits its sediment in a deposit called a delta. Deltas build outward from the coastline, but will only survive if the ocean currents are not strong enough to remove the sediment. As the velocity of a stream decreases on entering the delta, the stream becomes choked with sediment and conditions become favorable to those of a braided stream channel, but instead of braiding, the stream breaks into many smaller streams called distributary streams.

Drainage Systems

Drainage Basins and Divides - Drainage systems develop in such a way as to efficiently move water off the land. Each stream in a drainage system drains a certain area, called a drainage basin. In a single drainage basin, all water falling in the basin drains into the same stream. Drainage basins can range in size from a few km 2, for small streams, to extremely large areas, such as the Mississippi River drainage basin which covers about 40% of the contiguous United States (see figure 14.29 in your text). A divide separates each drainage basin from other drainage basins. Stream Order - The smallest streams in a drainage network have no tributary streams. These are called first order streams. Two first order streams unite to form a second order stream. Second order streams only have first-order streams as tributaries. Third order streams only have second and first order streams as tributaries, etc. As the order of the stream increases, the discharge increases, the gradient decreases, the velocity increases, and the channel dimensions (width and depth) increase to accommodate the increased discharge.

Drainage Patterns - Drainages tend to develop along zones where rock type and structure are most easily eroded. Thus various types of drainage patterns develop in a region and these drainage patterns reflect the structure of the rock. You study these drainage patterns in Lab, and examples are shown in figure 14.32 of your text.

Continental Divides - Continents can be divided into large drainage basins that empty into different ocean basins. For example: North America can be divided into several basins west of the Rocky Mountains that empty into the Pacific Ocean. Streams in the northern part of North America empty into the Arctic Ocean, and streams East of the Rocky Mountains empty into the Atlantic Ocean or Gulf of Mexico. Lines separating these major drainage basins are termed Continental Divides. Such divides usually run along high mountain crests that formed recently enough that they have not been eroded. Thus major continental divides and the drainage patterns in the major basins reflect the recent geologic history of the continents.

http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/geol111/streams.htm Lack of drainage systems exacerbated impact of deadly typhoon in the Philippines UN

People wading through flood water from Typhoon Ondoy in the Phillipines capital Manila 30 September 2009 Poor drainage systems and garbage disposal problems aggravated the impact of a typhoon that struck the Philippines at the weekend and killed hundreds of people, the United Nations disaster prevention agency says as it stressed the need for governments to make greater investments before other catastrophes strike.

National authorities have stated that at least 246 people died in the Philippines as a result of Typhoon Ondoy (internationally known as Ketsana), with the metropolitan area around the capital, Manila, among the hardest hit areas. More than 730,000 people have had to flee their homes and seek shelter with relatives or in evacuation centres.

An eight-member UN Disaster Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC) team arrived today in Manila to help local officials coordinate relief efforts, which have been focused on providing water, sanitation and hygiene services, as well as food stocks and health care.

Loren Legarda, a Philippine lawmaker and the Asia-Pacific champion for disaster risk reduction for the UN International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR), called on her Government to introduce more prevention measures to cut the risk from climate-related disasters.

Realities on the ground deserve priority for action, she said yesterday, according to a press release issued by ISDR in Geneva.

We must order massive cleaning of esteros [creeks] and all waterways to reduce our vulnerability to flooding and implement the solid waste management law. The public must be educated on simple doable actions such as proper waste disposal and waste segregation.

Margareta Wahlstrm, the Secretary-Generals Special Representative for Disaster Risk Reduction, called for more actions to reduce the risks from disasters.

Spending on disaster risk reduction is not a cost, but an investment for safer and more secure cities, she said. Under-investment in building and maintaining drains can trigger bigger disasters. News Tracker: past stories on this issue UN speeds assistance to Filipino children hit by tropical storm as death count climbs http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=32377&Cr=philippine&Cr1=

Drainage System Advantages & Disadvantages

By Josienita Borlongan, eHow Contributor updated January 03, 2011

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1.

Below Ground Drainage Water System

A good drainage system can keep water from accumulating in your garden.

In addition to installing a drainage system under your basement, a well-planned landscape requires a good drainage system too. Install a drainage system before laying down sod or creating your garden beds. Although considered by gardeners and farmers as beneficial, a drainage system has some disadvantages too. Learning the advantages and disadvantages of drainage systems will help you determine whether installing one will work best for your garden and the environment.

2. Advantage: Prevents Water Accumulation

o
Drainage systems can prevent water accumulation that can lead to flooding by directing the water away from your home. Water that over-accumulates in your yard may kill plants. Drainage systems also prevent the accumulation of stagnant water, which can encourage mosquitoes to breed.

Advantage: Reduces Soil Erosion

o
Over time, stagnant water accumulated can make soil muddy, which in turn can cause soil to erode. Drainage systems maintain balanced moisture in your garden to reduce soil erosion.

Advantage: Removes Toxic Materials and Disease Organisms

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Continuous, heavy rains may cause the water to rise, which can lead to flash floods, especially when you live near a big body of water. Often these flash floods bring contaminated water into your soil. Drainage systems can remove these toxic materials by draining them away from your yard.

Disadvantage: Expensive
o
Installing a drainage system is a costly investment. You'll end up paying a high price, especially if you hire a professional to install your drainage system. You may also need a permit to install drainage systems, especially if your particular project requires multiple channels and deep excavations.

Disadvantage: Maintenance
o
Regular maintenance of your drainage system will ensure that it functions properly at all times, says the University of Illinois. You have to ensure that the outlet ditches of your subsurface systems are free from blockages caused by sediment buildup. You'll need to check that debris does not seal the inlet covers. If a tile of your drainage system breaks, you have to replace it. Removing water-loving trees, such as willow, elm, soft maple and cottonwood, from within 100 feet of the drain will keep your drain from blockages caused by overgrown roots, fallen leaves and branches coming from these trees. Ochre, an iron oxide that can block your drain pipe, may also build up; therefore, you constantly have to be on the lookout for it.

Disadvantage: Can Contaminate Bodies of Water

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A research conducted by the University of Illinois has shown drainage systems can also contribute to contamination problems, especially when not properly maintained. According to the study, subsurface drainage systems can carry nitrate through the drain pipes, channeling it directly into the bodies of water such as streams, rivers and lakes.
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What are the advantages and disadvantages of drainage system?

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Answers.com > Wiki Answers > Categories > Technology > Computers > Computer Programming > Database Programming > What are the advantages and disadvantages of drainage system?

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Advantages of Drainage There is no doubt that a drainage system will improve your crop yield. The implementation of a corrugated polyethylene pipe drainage system gives you more control over the moisture content of the soil than was ever thought possible. With Global Positioning Systems (GPS) not only can you check the overall condition of the soil, you can see how yielding patterns improve when moisture content is altered with a drainage system. Installing a drainage system has a number of impressive benefits. Control over the moisture content of the soil:

Reduces the effect of droughts and excessive water from heavy rains or snow. Increases the temperature of the soil which loses its heat to excessive surface water. Improves aeration and the nitrogen content of the soil which results in earlier germination and better root development. Eliminates planting delays resulting in a longer growing season Removes toxic material and disease organisms Reduces soil erosion by creating better root systems Greater Profitability If you're looking for better productivity and a faster return on your investment, installing a tile drainage system comes out ahead of new machinery, land acquisition and new buildings. And it does it, convincingly. The profitability begins right from your first crop after installing drains.

Greater Productivity According to Ontario's Crop Insurance Program, tile-drained farms increase yields from 22% to 42% compared to untiled land. Improved Conditions for Earlier Planting and Extended Harvest Season Abruce Tile drainage system will ensure you can be on the field for planting at the earliest possible date. Those wet fall days should not stop you from getting your crops off the fields.

Better Soil Moisture Conditions With better soil moisture conditions, you can plant your whole field earlier and extend your harvest season. Why? Tile drainage reduces e xcess moisture where plants take root, encouraging deeper rooting. Reduced Compaction Improved soil conditions reduce compacting from fieldwork or harvest operations. A better air/moisture balance in the soil also contributes to better root growth and micro-organic health. Drought Resistance And with a properly drained field, your crops are more resistant to drought, because deeper roots are able to find and utilize moisture more efficiently. Better Use of Inputs Fertilizer is used more effectively on drained soils. A seedbed that has consistent and ideal moisture speeds germination and emergence. Herbicides applied to the soil adhere better to soil particles. Energy Saver Well-drained fields will also take less of your time and energy. You won't have to return to wet areas after they've dried out because you'll have uniform moisture across all of your tiled land. Increased Land Value One additional and compelling benefit of a tile drainage system? It's an assured way of increasing the value of your land whether you work the farm yourself or decide to sell.

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