Measuring ophthalmologic surfaces by means of moire deectometry

Matthias Rottenkolber Halina Podbielska, MEMBER SPIE Technical University of Wroclaw Institute of Physics Bio-Optics Group Wybrzeze Wyspianskiego 27 50 370 Wroclaw, Poland E-mail: podbiels@rainbow.if.pwr.wroc.pl Abstract. A new technique for measuring ophthalmologic surfaces such as aspheric contact lenses and the human cornea is proposed in this paper. The method is based on the principle of moire deectometry. In moire deectometry, two fringe patterns (deectograms) are generated, each providing a piece of information about the measured wavefront. Compared with interferometric techniques, interpretation of the fringe patterns obtained is more difcult. Therefore synthetic deectograms for surfaces with known parameters are generated. Computer simulation of deectograms in the case of aberrations introduced by an aspherical object is also performed. Experimental results for various curved surfaces, including contact lenses and the human cornea, are demonstrated. 1996 Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers.
Subject terms: examination of ophthalmologic surfaces; moire deectometry; synthetic deectograms. Paper 10075 received July 17, 1995; accepted for publication Oct. 19, 1995. This paper is an extended version of a paper presented at the SPIE conference on Optical Biophysics, February 1995, San Jose, CA. The paper presented there appears (unrefereed) in SPIE Proceedings Vol. 2390.

Introduction

The precise knowledge of ocular parameters, e.g., intraocular distances, corneal shape and thickness, the exact shape of contact lenses, the refractive power of the cornea and of the eye lens, is important in many elds of modern ophthalmology. The accurate and reproducible measurement of the radius of the cornea is essential for proper diagnosis and treatment, especially when performing laser surgery for correction of the impaired vision. Recently, excimer lasers have entered the clinical scene and are used for reshaping the corneal surface.1 6 Thin layers of the cornea are ablated with the laser beam and thus the required change in the tension of the cornea is obtained. For a precise operation procedure, as well as for monitoring the curvature after the operation, an accurate measurement of the topography is necessary. There are different methods for determining corneal curvature.7 Keratoscopy or videokeratometry,8 12 which belong to these methods, are based on the projection of a fringe structure onto the corneal surface and calculation of the surface topography from the fringe pattern.11,13 Various mathematical models can be applied.14 Since in these techniques white light is used for illumination, the examined surface has to be diffusely reective. This means that some diffusers or even uorescent dyes have to be applied directly into the eye. Furthermore, the accuracy of the measurement is not sufcient in many cases. Another approach to solve the problem discussed here employs the confocal laser scanning ophthalmoscope.15 Thus, corneal topography can be reconstructed from the intensity distribution pattern. However, the scanning is a time-consuming procedure. In the past few years, new techniques for ophthalmologic measurements, based on interferometry have been developed. A special interferometric method, which uses light
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of low coherence length and the Doppler principle, was used to measure intraocular distances along the vision axis of the human eye in vivo.16 19 The fundus prole of the human eye can be determined by means of the special scanning-laser interferometer.20 The special technique of optical coherence tomography is under development and can be a powerful diagnostic tool in ophthalmology.21 A new approach using dual-beam coherent illumination for determining the central corneal radius was has also been described.22 Ophthalmic structures and their substitutes, such as soft or hard contact lenses, can be treated as optical surfaces. Therefore one can try to apply the optical testing methods that are ordinarily used for examination of optical devices. Traditional methods, such as Newton fringes, are not suitable for measurements in vivo. On the other hand, ordinary interferometric methods do not give the absolute value of the measured curvature. The technique proposed here can overcome these restrictions. Recently, a new technique based on Fourier analysis method was proposed for decomposition of the information from complex topographic images into rational optical components.23 TwymanGreen interferometry can also be helpful for topographic measurement of ophthalmologic surfaces.24 Fundamentals of Moire Deectometry Moire deectometry is a kind of grating shear interferometry.2526 It can be used to study phase object or specular reective surfaces. The wavefront impinges a pair of gratings that are placed at a certain distance from one another Fig. 1 . The wavefront produces a distorted shadow by passing grating G1, which corresponds to the geometric properties of the initial wavefront. This shadow 2
1996 Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers

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Rottenkolber and Podbielska: Measuring opthalmologic surfaces . . .

Fig. 2 The coordinate system used for calculation: the beam direction is given by spherical coordinates and , which can be expressed in terms of x and y . x lies in the x - z plane and y in the y - z plane. is used for the x plane rotation around the z axis to generate a two-dimensional surface (see text).

Fig. 1 Basic moire deectometer setup for measuring curved surfaces.

T 1 x,y

rect

2 x p

x,y d

x np .
n

This intensity distribution is superposed by multiplication with that of the reference grating G2: is compared with the second reference grating. The result ing superposition of intensities leads to a moire pattern called a moire deectogram.2731 The sensitivity can be adjusted by varying the distance d between the gratings and the grating pitch p. The local displacement x of the shadow at G2, caused by a ray creating an angle with the optical axis, is given by x d. The accuracy in determination of the angle depends on the distance d of the gratings and on the spatial frequency l/ p of the gratings. Assuming that the minimal detectable displacement is dx p, one can nd the minip/d. mum resolvable deection angle If Ronchi rulings are used and these two gratings are oriented parallel to each other, the resulting fringe pattern indicates contours of constant deection angles that are directly related to the partial derivatives of the impinging wavefront i.e., to the components of normals to the wavefront; Fig. 2 . The resolution of the deection angles is limited by diffraction effects. Generally, the distance d between the two gratings has to be chosen smaller than pa/ . This is the case only when the lowest 1st and 0th diffraction orders overlap and form a deectogram a is the aperture size . When a pair of gratings with a 0 angle between the stripes is used, such a conguration is called the innite fringe mode. In this case, in the moire deectogram, a contour map of ray deections with an increment p/d between adjacent fringes is observed. The information about the wavefront that enters grating G1 can be treated as a phase modulation at the location G2 of the intensity transmission function T 1 . This can be represented by the convolution of a locally displaced rectangular function with a Dirac comb: I x,y rect 2 x p
m

x,y d

x np
n

2x * rect p m

x mp ,

where the right-hand term in brackets denotes the intensity transmission function of the grating G2 that has not been distorted and m and n are the indices of the grating stripe numbers. Equation 2 can be used for further numerical calculations. Figure 1 shows a possible setup for determination of the topography of a spherical or nearly spherical curved surface. An observation lens L1 is used to convert the spherically curved wavefront reected from the investigated surface to a plane wave which is then evaluated by the pair of gratings G1 and G2. If the center of curvature S coincides with the focus F, no fringes will be visible in the deectogram plane. From the minimal resolvable angle one fringe on the deectogram , one can nd a minimum measurable difference dR in the radius R of the surface S: dR f 2 p/ad. 3 Computer-Generated Deectograms for FirstOrder Aberrations

In rst-order aberration theory, the wavefront distortion W(x,y) can be expressed as: W x,y A x2 y2
2

By x 2 y 2 Ey Fx,

C x 2 3y 2 3

D x2 y2

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Rottenkolber and Podbielska: Measuring opthalmologic surfaces . . .

where A denotes the parameter for spherical aberration, B stands for coma, C for astigmatism, D is the defocusing parameter, and E and F are the tilting parameters. The deection angles x and y are given by the partial derivatives of the wavefront W: W x W y 4xA x 2 y 2 2Bxy 2Cx 2Dx F,

where L is the ray matrix of the observation lens, T x H , T Hx are the translation matrices from the principal plane HH to the x plane and vice versa, T Hx is the translation matrix from the principal plane HH to the deectogram plane, and R stands for the reection at the object. M is the matrix for the specimen and can be represented by: 1 2 R x 1

4
y

M 0

4yA x 2 y 2

2B x 2 3y 2

6Cy

2Dy

E.

From Eq. 4 we see that, except for the cases of pure coma and astigmatism, x and y are symmetrical, i.e., the deectograms are symmetrical also. Figure 3 shows the case of pure coma A, C, D, E, F 0, B 1.0 m 2, calculated numerically from Eq. 2 . Figure 3 a is a three-dimensional 3D plot of the wavefront W(x,y). Figures 3 b and 3 c show the distribution of the deection angles x and y . In Figs. 3 d and 3 e , the calculated x and y deectograms are displayed for the case of p/d 8 10 5 and the aperture size 10 10 mm. 4 Synthetic Deectograms Generated for Aspherical Objects

We examine only small deviations from an ideally spherical surface. For this reason, we can approximate R(x ) by: 1 R x 1 R0 R x R2 0 . 8

Now the matrix elements of the system matrix S can be calculated: S 11 1 2 R 2 R , f2 2 f2 2f R0 2 R 1 1 1 , R0 f f R0

2

1 1 , R0 f

S 12

Let us consider a relation between the geometry of the emerging wavefront W(x,y) and the surface topography of the object to be examined. Deviations of an ideal plane wave can only arise if the surface geometry R(x ,y ) of the specimen deviates from an ideal spherical surface with the radius of curvature R 0 . This relation will be calculated applying a ray matrix approach,32 i.e., the relation between the variables x and x deectogram plane depending on R(x ,y ) and the dependence of the deection angle x on the local radius of curvature R(x ,y ) will be taken into consideration. Since in the paraxial approximation the x and y coordinates can be treated independently, we briey illustrate the process for the one-dimensional case [x,x ,R(x )] see Fig. 4 . In the ray matrix approach, a ray is represented by a vector r ( ,x), where the rst component corresponds to the angle between the ray and the optical axis and the other component x represents the distance from the optical axis. Any changes introduced by an optical system refraction, translation, or reection result in a modied vector r 2 , which can be calculated by multiplication with the system matrix S. This approach has the advantage of making it easier to treat more complicated optical systems a more general approach that does not require paraxial approximation is shown in Ref. 33 . In our case, the system matrix S is given by seven transmission stages: starting vector r 1 , lens L1translation HH x-planereection on specimentranslation xplane HH lens L1translation HH x -plane. S can be represented by the following expression: S T Hx LT x H RM T Hx L and r 2 Sr 1 ,
1126 Optical Engineering, Vol. 35 No. 4, April 1996

9 ,

S 21 D 2 S 11

S 22 D 2 S 12 1 2 R

where R 0 is the basic radius of curvature of the object examined on the optical axis, D 2 is the distance between the deectogram plane and the principal plane of objective L1, and f is the focal length of the objective. The deection angle x between the optical axis and the resulting ray vector r 2 can be derived from Eq. 9 and is given by:
x

r 21 S 12x

2 R x f R0

x .

10

The relation between x and x is described by the following formula: x S 22 f x . R0 11

From Eqs. 10 and 11 we are able to map the change in radius of curvature to the deection angle and the location in the deectogram plane. This solution can be expanded to the general two-dimensional 2D case, if the x, x , and x axes are rotated around the z axis by an angle Fig. 2 . As shown in Eqs. 9 through 11 , the difference in radius of curvature R for determining the deection angles is required. Taking into account the second-order elliptical surfaces, R 2 and R for the x z plane will be given as:

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Rottenkolber and Podbielska: Measuring opthalmologic surfaces . . .

Fig. 3 (a) Geometry of wavefront W ( x , y ) for the case of pure coma, parameter B 1.0 m 2, (b) distribution of deection angle x , (c) distribution of deection angle y , (d) computer-generated x deectogram generated from Eq. (2), with pitch p 100 lines/mm, with distance between the gratings d 125 mm [( p / d ) 8 10 5], and (e) computer-generated y deectogram with same parameters. The aperture size is 10 10 mm.

R2 R

, ,

R 2 cos2 R0 R2 ,

R2 1 R2 2 ,

1/2

sin2

, 12

and the z where is the angle between the radius R 2 axis Fig. 5 . which deFrom Eq. 12 and radius function R 1 scribes the rotation around the z axis, we can construct any ellipsoid with the three main axes R 1 0 radius in the
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Rottenkolber and Podbielska: Measuring opthalmologic surfaces . . .

Fig. 4 Optical arrangement for calculating the relation between the radius of curvature and the corresponding deection angle and location in the deectogram plane. Coordinate systems: x , plane principal plane of objective; x , coordinate system for object, x , deectogram plane; parameters: r 1 , incident (collimated) ray vector; r 2 , resulting ray vector after passing L1 and the object twice, x , deection angle; R 0, basic radius of curvature of the object on the optical axis; and f , focal length of L1.

Fig. 6 Radius function R 1( ) for simulations 1 and 2: the solid function produces a surface with 90-deg astigmatism ( 0), the dotted curve is used for producing a 45-deg astigmatism ( /4).

direction of the x axis , R 1 /2 radius in the direction 0, radius along the z of the y axis and R 2 axis . For the simulations shown below, R 1 was chosen to be in the following form: R1 r 2 cos2 1 r 2 sin2 2
1/2

13

Figure 5 illustrates the generation of the surface. is the angle between the R-z plane and the x -z plane, is an additional parameter for generating an arbitrary astigmatism. The surface generation models are illustrated in Figs. 5 a and 5 b . The surface has a radius of curvature R 0 on the optical axis z the second main axis of the ellipse . The origin of the coordinate system coincides with the focal point of the observation lens L1; the rst main axis of the ellipse is given by R 1 , which is variable when rotating around the z axis. Figure 5 b shows the model for simulation 3 where the second main axis has a length R 2 and differs from R 0 .

The function R 1 for simulations 1 and 2 is plotted in Fig. 6. The solid function produces a surface with 90-deg astigmatism; the dotted curve is used for producing a 45-deg astigmatism. In order to gain more knowledge concerning the interpretation of deectograms, the transmission of basic aberration types into the deectograms was studied by numerical generation. Depending on the type of aberration, one can obtain different forms of symmetry in the single deectogram and in both the x and y deectograms. Table 1 summarizes the parameter values for different simulations 1 to 3 . The parameters r 1 and r 2 were chosen to simulate a human cornea physiological values are described in Refs. 24 and 34 . Figure 7 a shows the difference in radius of curvature R for simulation 1 90-deg astigmatism . In Figure 7 b the 3D plot of x deection angle x calculated from Eqs. 10 through 11 is demonstrated. The 3D plot of y deection angle y is drawn in Fig. 7 c . Figure 8 demonstrates the result of the deectograms for simulation 1. Figure 9 presents the x and y deectograms for simulation 2 45-deg astigmatism . The object has an aspherical is given by: surface and the rotation function R 1
1/2

R1

r 2 cos2 1

r 2 sin2 2

14

Fig. 5 Model for simulations 1 and 2; the specimen has a radius of curvature R 0 on the optical axis z (second main axis of the ellipse). The origin of the coordinate system coincides with the focal point of the observation lens L1. The rst main axis of the ellipse is given by R 1 ( ), which is variable when rotating around the z axis (for the function R 1( ) see text). (a) The rotated surface forms an ellipsoid and (b) model for simulation 3; the second main axis has a length R 2 and differs from R 0 . 1128 Optical Engineering, Vol. 35 No. 4, April 1996

with r 1 7.98 mm, r 2 7.86 mm, the aperture diameter 30 mm, p/d 2 10 5, and R 2 R 0 7.86 mm. In Figure 10 the result for a distorted symmetrical ellipsoid is illustrated simulation 3 . The object is aspherical is symmetrical ellipsoid and the rotation function R 1 given by: R 1 const 7.80 mm, R 2 7.87 mm; the aperture diameter is 30 mm, p/d 2 10 4 and, R 0 7.86 mm. The deectograms appear smaller because of a different radius of curvature on the optical axis. The low-density fringe spacing in the outer region horizontal in the x deectogram indicates the locations where the ellipsoid intersects the sphere with radius R 0 Fig. 5 b . 5 Experimental Results The optical arrangement used in our experiment is presented in Fig. 11 a . In order to recover complete informa-

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Rottenkolber and Podbielska: Measuring opthalmologic surfaces . . . Table 1 Overview of the parameters used in the simulations. Sim. No. 1 2 3

R 1( ), rotation around z axis

Eq. (13), r 1 7.98 mm, r 2 7.86 mm, 0; see Fig. 6 Eq. (13), r 1 7.98 mm, r 2 7.86 mm, /4; see Fig. 6 R 1 const. 7.80 mm, 0

R 2( ), function in x z plane
Eq. (12), R 2 7.86 mm Eq. (12), R 2 7.86 mm Eq. (12), R 2 7.87 mm

R 0 , basis radius R 0 7.86 mm R 0 7.86 mm R 0 7.86 mm

p/d
2 10 2 10 2 10
5

tion about the specimen properties, two evaluation paths with two pairs of gratings are required. An IR laser diode Model Sharp LH0015, 830 nm is used as a light source. The light passes through mirror M1, beam splitter

BS1, beam splitter BS4, and the objective lens L1, and then targets the specimen. The wavefront reected from the object is split into two waves by the beam splitter BS1. These two waves serve as two evaluation wavefronts, one for the x and one for the y direction. In this setup, the two-grating arrangement was replaced by just one grating and mirrors M2 for the x path and M3 for the y path. The lines of the x grating are perpendicular to the plane of drawings, while the y grating lines are parallel to this plane. The effective distance between the two gratings was chosen to be d 44 mm and the grating pitch p 78 lines/mm p/d 2.91 10 4 . The deectograms are imaged via the lenses L5 and L6 onto two CCD cameras. The

Fig. 7 (a) Difference in radius of curvature R for simulation 1, (b) 3D-plot of x deection angle x as calculated from Eqs. (10) and (11), and (c) 3D-plot of y deection angle y .

Fig. 8 The x and y deectogram for simulation 1; the specimen is aspherical (deformed ellipsoid); the rotation function R 1( ) is given by R 1( ) [r 2 cos2 r 2 sin2 ]1/2 with r 1 7.98 mm, r 2 7.86 mm, the 1 2 aperture diameter is 30 mm, the ratio p / d 2 10 5, R 2 R 0 7.86 mm. Optical Engineering, Vol. 35 No. 4, April 1996 1129

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Rottenkolber and Podbielska: Measuring opthalmologic surfaces . . .

Fig. 9 The x and y deectograms for simulation 2; the specimen is aspherical in (deformed ellipsoid); the rotation function R 1( ) is given by R 1( ) [r 2 cos2( /4) r 2 sin2( /4)]1/2, with r 1 7.98 1 2 mm and r 2 7.86 mm, the aperture diameter is 30 mm, p / d 2 10 5, R 2 R 0 7.86 mm.

pupil stops S1 and S2 suppress higher-order diffraction arising from the gratings. A Minolta objective with a focal number f 50/1.7 was taken as the lens L1. The elements PBS1, quarter wave plate L3, and quadrant diodes, L2, L4, and M6 act as a distance measurement system working after the principle of focus locking. Collimated light from diode laser 2 is directed onto the movable mirror M6 and then targets the object under study by passing through BS5, PBS1, the quarter waveplate, BS4 and lens L1. The combination of the quarter wave plate and polarizing beam splitter forces the light reected from the measured object to go exclusively to the quadrant diode. The spot on the examined surface is imaged with lens L3 onto the quadrant diode. Now the mirror M6 is moved mechanically until the quadrant diode indicates minimum spot size. The driving current for adjusting mirror M6 is a measure for the unknown distance between setup and object under study. With this arrangement the distance can be measured with an accuracy of about 5 m. The images are acquired with a frame grabber FG-30 Hasotec for further processing. In order to demonstrate the accuracy of our deectometer, a comparative experiment was carried out. The deectogram for the weak aberrations introduced by the observations lens L1 was compared with the result of the same measurement done with a TwymanGreen interferometer
1130 Optical Engineering, Vol. 35 No. 4, April 1996

Fig. 10 The x and y deectograms for simulation 3; the specimen is aspherical (symmetrical ellipsoid); the rotation function R 1( ) is given by: R 1( ) const 7.80 mm, the aperture diameter is 30 mm; p / d 2 10 4, R 2 7.87 mm, R 0 7.86 mm. The deectograms appear smaller because of different radius of curvature on the optical axis [Fig. 5(b)]. The low-density fringe spacing in the outer region (horizontal in the x deectogram) indicates the locations where the ellipsoid intersects the sphere with radius R 0 .

Fig. 11 b . A direct comparison can be carried out, if we consider the curvature of the wavefront along the x axis in the x deectogram and the corresponding x axis in the inteferogram. The left-hand side of Fig. 12 shows the x deectogram obtained with the setup shown in Fig. 11 a with a mirror placed in the focus of the observation lens L1. The fringes are due only to the aberrations of the objective. On the right-hand side, the corresponding interferogram obtained with a TwymanGreen interferometer is shown. Although both images display entirely different fringe structures, they indicate the same distortion of the measured wavefront. In both cases the eld of view has a diameter of 30 mm. Figure 13 displays the distribution of the deection angle along the line given in Fig. 12 a calculated numerically with the one-dimensional fast Fourier transform 1DFFT method.35 The sixth dark fringe counted from the left was arbitrarily assigned as the one that produces a deection angle equal to zero. Figure 14 demonstrates the results of the comparative study. As discussed earlier, the wavefront can be recon-

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Rottenkolber and Podbielska: Measuring opthalmologic surfaces . . .

Fig. 13 Distribution of the deection angle at x direction for the line near the center of the x deectogram from Fig. 12.

Fig. 11 Experimental setup: (a) dual-path moire deectometer for measuring aspheric surfaces, and (b) TwymanGreen interferometer used for comparative experiments.

the deection angle. The dotted curve shows the result obtained by interferometry. The correspondence of the two curves can be easily seen. Slight deviations on the righthand side may result from positional errors. This correlation experiment shows that deectometry can be as sensitive as interferometry. In Figs. 15 a and 15 b the deectograms of a dry, hard contact lens from Rodenstock Germany with a frontside radius R 8.86 mm are demonstrated. The x and y deectograms indicate a nearly spherical shape in the lower right area and a more parabolic topography in the outer regions equally spaced lines in the outer regions mean a linear progressive slope of the measured wavefront . Figure 16 shows the result of an in vivo measurement of a human eye. First, the corneal parameters were measured with a Zeiss keratometer: the maximum radius of curvature

structed by appropriate integration of the deection angles. In the simple one-dimensional case discussed here, the shape of the wavefront along a single line can be determined by integration of the curve of the deection angle given in Fig. 13. In Figure 14 the solid line a displays the distribution of the wavefront distortion along the line shown in Fig. 12 a obtained by integration of the curve of

Fig. 12 The x deectogram in (a) obtained with setup shown in Fig. 11(a) with a mirror placed in the focus of the observation lens L1. The fringes arise only from aberrations of the objective. (b) The corresponding interferogram obtained with a TwymanGreen interferometer. In both cases the view eld has a diameter of 30 mm.

Fig. 14 Results of the comparative study. The solid line (a) displays the distribution of the wavefront distortion along the line shown in Fig. 12(a). It was obtained by integration of the curve of the deection angle depicted in Fig. 13. The dotted curve shows the result obtained by the TwymanGreen interferometer. The correspondence of the two curves can be easily seen. Slight deviation to the right of the center may result from positional errors. Optical Engineering, Vol. 35 No. 4, April 1996 1131

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Rottenkolber and Podbielska: Measuring opthalmologic surfaces . . .

Experiments show that deectometry and interferometry can provide the same results even in a submicron range. The deectograms experimentally obtained for an aspheric contact lens were also presented. In this paper, the rst in vivo measurement of a human cornea taken with deectometry is described. The approach presented requires fast quantitative analysis of the deectograms. One of the possible solutions can be a two-dimensional FFT algorithm with a spatial carrier frequency.

Acknowledgments
Fig. 15 The x and y deectograms from a dry, hard contact lens (Rodenstock, Germany) with a front side radius R 8.86 mm.

The authors would like to thank Dr. hab. Henryk Kasprzak, Technical University Wroclaw, Poland, for helpful discussions. Special thanks go to ROTECH company Amerang, Germany for placing the equipment at our disposal.

of the cornea R max 7.9 mm at 0 deg which coincides with the x axis , R min 7.75 mm at 90 deg which coincides with the y axis . The diameter of the view eld is 30 mm and the effective measured corneal zone has a diameter of approximately 5 mm. Both images were recorded with two synchronized video recorders. The laser diode Fig. 11 a is pulsed pulse ratio of 1 ms in 40 ms videoperiod by a pulse generator, which also provides the synchronic signals for the CCD cameras and the video recorders. Since the eye is moving rapidly, this procedure allows the image to be stabilized during exposure. The average light power that targets the eye is about 5 W. The distance between the optical arrangement and the eye is adjusted to minimum fringe density in the x deectogram the absolute distance is 42.15 mm . One can see that if the aberrations caused by the objective L1 are subtracted, the x deectogram indicates a lower radius of curvature than that displayed in the y deectogram. 6 Conclusion

References
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In this paper the principle of moire deectometry for the measurement of wavefront aberrations is briey discussed. When measuring aspherical optical surfaces, as for example, contact lenses or the human cornea, it is necessary to nd a relation between the local radius of curvature and the deection angles respectively, as well as between the degree of distortion of the wavefront, depending on the properties of the object under study. A ray matrix approach was used to solve this problem.

Fig. 16 In vivo deectograms of the human cornea. The eye parameters are measured with a Zeiss keratometer: R max 7.90 mm at 0 deg (which coincides with the x axis), R min 7.75 mm at 90 deg (which coincides with the y axis). 1132 Optical Engineering, Vol. 35 No. 4, April 1996

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Rottenkolber and Podbielska: Measuring opthalmologic surfaces . . . 23. J. Hjortdal et al., Fourier analysis of photo-keratoscopic data, Ophthal. Physiol. Opt., pp. 171185 1995 . 24. H. Kasprzak, W. Kowalik, and J. Jaronski, Interferometric measurements of ne corneal topography, Proc. SPIE 2329, 3239 1994 . 25. K. Patorski, The self-imaging phenomenon and its applications, in Progress in Optics, Vol. 27, E. Wolf, Ed., North Holland, Amsterdam 1989 . 26. K. Patorski, Handbook of the Moire Fringe Technique, Elsevier, New York 1993 . 27. O. Kafri and I. Glatt, High sensitivity reectionTransmission moire deectometer, Appl. Opt. 27, 351355 1988 . 28. O. Kafri and A. Livnat, Reective surface analysis using moire deectometry, Appl. Opt. 20, 3098 3100 1981 . 29. I. Glatt and O. Kafri, Determination of the focal length of non paraxial lenses by moire deectometry, Appl. Opt. 26, 25072508 1987 . 30. E. Keren, K. Kreske, and O. Kafri, An universal equation for deter mining the focal length of lenses and lens systems using moire deectometry, Appl. Opt. 27, 13831385 1988 . 31. O. Kafri, The Physics of Moire Metrology, Wiley, New York 1990 . 32. M. V. Klein and T. E. Furtak, Optik, Springer-Verlag, Berlin 1988 . 33. M. Rottenkolber and H. Podbielska, Computer aided evaluation of deectograms from ophthalmologic surfaces, in Optical Biophysics, Proc. SPIE 2390, 142150 1995 . 34. C. Edmund, Corneal topography and elasticity in normal and keratoconic eyes, Acta Ophthalmol., Suppl. 193 1989 . 35. Th. Kreis and W. Juptner, Fourier-transform evaluation of interference patterns: the role of ltering in the spatial domain, SPIE Proc. 1162, 116 125 1989 . Matthias Rottenkolber received his DiplIng (MSc) in 1992 from the Technical Uni versity, Munchen, Germany. Since 1992 he has been with ITEC Consult, Munchen, Germany and has been working toward his PhD degree at the Institute of Physics at the Technical University in Wroclaw, Poland. His current scientic interests include electro-optic systems, holography, and experimental ophthalmology. Halina Podbielska graduated from the Technical University (TU) of Wroclaw in 1978. She obtained her MSc Eng Diploma in applied physics from the Faculty of Science. In 1982 she received her PhD from the Institute of Physics of TU Wroclaw in applied physics and in 1992 her Habilitation from the Faculty of Science. In 1987 she completed her medical studies and received her M.D. degree from the Faculty of Medicine. Following that she was the Alexander von Humboldt fellow at the University of Frankfurt/Main and University of Munster, Germany (19841986), visiting professor at the Academy of Science of Russia in St. Petersburg (1988) and at the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel (19891990). Her eld of research includes applied optics, especially interferometry and holographic measurements in medical sciences. She has published more than 50 papers in scientic journals and conference proceedings. She organized and chaired several SPIE conferences and has edited seven conference proceedings on biomedical optics. She holds three patents in endoscopic topography.

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