Introduction

An automobile has been used to move human beings or something since the automobile was invented and the automobile technology has been developed within the last few years. Recently, the automobile is thought as daily necessaries because we spend much time in an automobile and enjoyed the entertainment such as game, e-mail, DVD, mp3, and internet etc. in the car. In nowadays, the intelligent car with adaptive cruise control, lane keeping technology, auto-parking system, tire pressure monitoring system (TPMS), and prevent pre- crashing system has been equipped because we need the convenient and intelligent car [1-3]. These new automobile technologies are made possible by the development of semiconductor technology, optical technology and software technology. The use of electronic components in automobiles is set to accelerate and with ongoing efforts to improve safety and comfort. 250 electronic components are used in a car, for example, 50 MCUs are used in a car. Therefore, car makers in Europe and Japan are developing for safety such as both collision safety and preventive safety and new car technology for intelligent car such as intelligent transport system (ITS), rear view camera system, Road-to-vehicle and Inter-vehicle Communication Systems, auto-parking system, hybrid car, electric car, and hydrogen fueled car [4]. In addition, some vehicle networks will enter commercial use, such as the FlexRay interface instead of CAN bus for onboard local area network (LAN), which supports high-speed transfer, and MOST (media oriented systems transport) or IDB-1394, which can move multimedia data, that is audio and video signals, from multiple camera systems or multimedia devices, such as DVD, navigation system, mp 3, TV tuner, and CD changer etc. at once. Car makers are beginning to develop equipment for highend vehicles with systems to sense roadway conditions using cameras, radar, sensors and such in an effort to avoid accidents. The traffic accident is increasing as automobile production has been increasing. It is important to prevent accidents and to protect the driver and pedestrian when accidents were occurred. Therefore, pre-crashing system will be demanded. The pre-crash system is to prevent front-end, rear-end, right-turn and left-turn.

Accidents on roads with poor visibility by using sensor network to find invisible vehicles, which are
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to be detected by autonomous on-vehicle sensors. The pre-crashing system is processing the sensor data and controlling the vehicle to prevent front-end, rear-end accidents and accidents caused by careless driving. The development of such systems to automatically control vehicles and avoid accidents will accelerate in the future. The ACC vehicle controller has twofold objectives. One is to maintain the velocity set by the driver under no lead vehicle situation. This is a cruising state of ACC vehicle similar to conventional cruise control system. Second is to maintain the safe distance (or spacing) from lead vehicle while adapting to its velocity. This is a vehicle following state of the ACC vehicle.The ACC system must be able to swap between speed controller and the headway controller without affecting the overall performance of the vehicle. The ACC system comprises the following subsystems, a break actuation system, a throttle actuation system, a range sensor system, a vehicle controller and a user interface. ACC is not a collision avoidance system but certainly can be equipped with collision warning system. ACC is thus meant for assisting in driving and not to replace driver. Thus it assumes driver in a ready position to react in an emergency situation. Driver can regain the control at any time simply by actuating either break or throttle pedal or by turning off the ACC system.

Design and Implementation

The fabricated auto-braking system has the sensor part and signal processing part to prevent an accident as shown in Figure 1. It performed monitoring the environment and sensor signal processing. The sensor embedded in vehicle will detect the road environment, such as self-velocity, distance from front vehicle, and surroundings vehicles, using infrared sensor and ultrasonic sensor. These sensors were operated all the time during driving. The processing part accepted the signal from sensors and processed the signals and generated the instructions and transferred the generated instruction to control unit of transmission and brake of vehicle. There are three cases occurred in real situations. One case is that the distance between the front car and drivers car is far enough to defend crashing and self-velocity is the same velocity of front car or slower than that of front car. In this case, the drivers car is continuously running without changing its velocity. Another case is that the distance between the front car and drivers car is near and self-velocity is slower than that of front car. In this case, the drivers car is also continuously running without changing its velocity. Another case is that the distance between the front car and drivers car is near and self-velocity is faster than that of front car. In this case, the drivers car is continuously running only when the driver reduce speed. But if the driver does not reduce speed, the auto-braking system may forcibly reduce the speed of drivers car to protect an accident. The reason is that if the driver does not reduce speed, the accident will be occurred and the driver will be hurt.

The important thing in auto-braking system is detect the distance and speed of front vehicle to prevent a traffic accident. We chose an ultrasonic sensor used to detect the distance between a front car and drivers car.

FLOW CHART

Physical Layout The ACC system consists of a series of interconnecting components and systems. The method of communication between the different modules is via a serial communication network known as the Controller Area Network (CAN).

ACC Module
The primary function of the ACC module is to process the radar information and determine if a forward vehicle is present. When the ACC system is in 'time gap control', it sends information to the Engine Control and Brake Control modules to control the clearance between the ACC Vehicle and the Target Vehicle.

Engine Control Module

The primary function of the Engine Control Module is to receive information from the ACC module and Instrument Cluster and control the vehicle's speed based on this information. The Engine Control Module controls vehicle speed by controlling the engine's throttle.

Brake Control Module

The primary function of the Brake Control Module is to determine vehicle speed via each wheel and to decelerate the vehicle by applying the brakes when requested by the ACC Module. The braking system is hydraulic with electronic enhancement, such as an ABS brake system, and is not full authority brake by wire.

Instrument Cluster
The primary function of the Instrument Cluster is to process the Cruise Switches and send their information to the ACC and Engine Control Modules. The Instrument Cluster also displays text messages and telltales for the driver so that the driver has information regarding the state of the ACC system.

CAN
The Controller Area Network (CAN) is an automotive standard network that utilizes a 2 wire bus to transmit and receive data. Each node on the network has the capability to transmit 0 to 8 bytes of data in a message frame. A message frame consists of a message header, followed by 0 to 8 data bytes, and then a checksum. The message header is a unique identifier that determines the message priority. Any node on the network can transmit data if the bus is free. If multiple nodes attempt to transmit at the same time, an arbitration scheme is used to determine which node will control the bus. The message with the highest priority, as defined in its header, will win the arbitration and its message will be transmitted. The losing message will retry to send its message as soon as it detects a bus free state.

Cruise Switches
The Cruise Switches are mounted on the steering wheel and have several buttons which allow the driver to command operation of the ACC system. The switches include: 'On': place system in the 'ACC standby' state 'Off'': cancel ACC operation and place system in the 'ACC off' state Brake Switches There are two brake switches, Brake Switch 1 (BS1) and Brake Switch 2 (BS2). When either brake switch is activated, Cruise Control operation is deactivated and the system enters 'ACC standby' state. Brake Lights When the Brake Control Module applies the brakes in response to an ACC request, it will illuminate the brake lights to warn vehicles behind the ACC vehicle that it is decelerating.

Initialization When the ignition key is in the off position, no power is applied to any of the systems. When the key is cycled to the on position, the ACC system initializes to the 'ACC off' state. Engaging Cruise Control Entering 'ACC standby' - Before active cruise control can be engaged the driver must first enter 'ACC standby'. This is performed by the driver pressing the ACC 'On' button. If no system faults are present, the ACC system will transition to the 'ACC standby' state. Entering 'ACC active' The driver enters the 'ACC active' state by pressing the 'Set' or 'Resume' button. If a prior set speed is present in memory, the system uses this prior value as the target speed when Resume is pressed, else, the current speed of when the Set button was pressed will become the target speed. The following conditions must be true for the system to enter 'ACC active' in response to the cruise switches: Brake Switch 1 = brake not applied Brake Switch 2 = brake not applied Vehicle Speed >= 25 mph When entering active ACC control, the vehicle speed is controlled either to maintain a set speed or to maintain a time gap to a forward vehicle, whichever speed is lower. Operation During Speed Control Mode (ACC Speed Control) Operation during this mode is equivalent to that of conventional speed control. If no forward vehicle is present within the Time Gap or clearance of the system, the vehicle's speed is maintained at the target speed. The engine control system controls the engine output via throttle control to maintain the vehicle speed at the target speed.

Operation During Follow Mode (ACC Time Gap Control) The ACC system enters follow mode or 'ACC time gap control' if the radar detects a forward vehicle at or within the clearance distance. During this mode of operation, the ACC system sends a target speed to the Engine Control Module and deceleration commands to the Brake Control module to maintain the set time gap between the vehicles. Deceleration control The ACC system decelerates the vehicle by lowering the target speed sent to the Engine Control Module and sending a brake deceleration command to the Brake Control Module. The maximum allowed braking effort of the system is 0.2 [g]. During brake deceleration events, the Brake Control Module activates the brake lights. Acceleration control The ACC system accelerates the vehicle by increasing the target speed sent to the Engine Control Module. The Engine Control Module tries to maintain the target speed and can accelerate the vehicle at a rate of up to 0.2 [g] of acceleration. Adjusting the time gap The driver can adjust the time gap via the 'Time Gap +' and 'Time Gap ' switches. Pressing the 'Time Gap +' switch causes the time gap value to increase and therefore the clearance between the two vehicles to increase. Pressing the 'Time Gap ' switch causes the time gap value to decrease and therefore the clearance between the two vehicles to decrease. Reaction to a slow moving or stopped vehicle Situations may occur such that the ACC system is not able to maintain the time gap within the deceleration authority of the system, 0.2 [g]. The clearance between the ACC vehicle and the forward vehicle may be rapidly decreasing or the minimum vehicle speed of 25 [mph] may be reached. Under these situations the ACC system enters 'ACC standby' and alerts the driver by displaying a "Driver Intervention Required" text message on the instrument cluster and by turning on an audible chime. If the brakes were being applied by the ACC system, they will be slowly released. At this point the driver must take control of the vehicle.

Transitioning Between Speed Control and Follow Modes The ACC system automatically transitions between Speed Control and Time Gap (Follow) Modes. The mode of operation is determined by the lower of the set speed for Speed Control Mode and the target speed to maintain the gap between the ACC vehicle and a forward vehicle. Basically, if no vehicle is present within the clearance distance, the system will operate in Speed Control mode, else, it will operate in Time Gap mode. Canceling Cruise Control Operation Cruise Control operation may be canceled by the operator or automatically via the ACC system. Either of the following conditions will deactivate ACC: Brake pedal is pressed 'Off' button is pressed Vehicle Speed < 25 mph An ACC system fault is detected.

Electromagnetic Braking
Rolling
Eddy currents are used widely in our daily lives. In fact, many lives depend on them. In the diagram below we have a rotating metal disc that is free to rotate on an axle. If we lower the disc into the poles of the horseshoe magnet shown it will stop quickly. Why? Look at the diagram below.

A simple disc about to be stopped quickly by eddy currents. As the disc enters the magnetic field a series of eddy currents will be produced (as explained by Lenzs law). This produces a magnetic field that will oppose the change brought about by the rotating disc. If the magnetic field of the horseshoe magnet is coming out of the page then the induced magnetic field will be into the page. The induced current will be in a clockwise direction to produce this field. This will bring the disc to a halt very quickly and will result in a small amount of heat

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being produced by the eddy currents.

The diagram below shows the same disc from a view side on with the magnetic field coming out of the page. In (a), the disc has just started to rotate in a uniform magnetic field and no eddy currents have formed. In (b), the disc is shown a short time later when eddy currents have been formed. These currents will oppose the motion of the disc, slowing it down and finally stopping it.

The effect of placing a rotating disc in a magnetic field

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Working
This system works on magnetic theory. In this system magnetic field is generated by which brake is introduced. In our system when a magnetic strip is swing between two magnets then a magnetic force is applied which stops the strip because of the strong attraction force of magnet. In this system two magnets of same pole say N-pole is situated in the wood block in front of each other. If the magnet is moved by the screw then both magnets comes near to each other then they will try to repulse to each other. If at that time a magnetic strip is passed between them then both magnets will try to attract it. Because of this strong attraction force it will oppose the motion of strip and strip will stop without disturbance. Since both magnets will try to attract the strip so strip cannot move any one side it will stop at the middle of the magnets. Thus it will work easily and the brake is introduced. This is a new invention. Most of the scientists are trying to make a brake which can be use in bike, cars, and other vehicle on this principle. This is very easy to maintain and its cost is also as low as disc brakes, drum brakes and hydraulic brakes. We can use lever system to apart the magnets from its position. On this system there is a lot of chances to make a lot of invention. It is really a great think. Several features of magnetic brakes:

Magnetic brake doesnt require any interfacing relay.\ It works optimally with less wiring as well. Due to its non-grease bearings, the pins of our magnetic brake do not require any friction Its cost is as low as disc brakes, drum brakes etc. It is easy to install. It can retain its performance continuously. Fewer objects are used.

buster.

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Uses Of Magnetic Brakes:

Magnetic brakes is very use full in different places. It is used into the Railways as A Magnetic Track Brake. Although it can be used for secondary purposes like holding the train while performing

system tests, use as a parking brake and also for cleaning the rail head for adhesion in for instance leaf fall conditions. The magnetic brake is generally used on Multiple Units and Coaches and in rare cases on Magnetic Brakes Is used in bikes, cars, Rollercoaster, Railways etc. Magnetic Brakes are Useful in quick and Fast response where needed. The use of magnetic track brakes is mainly to boost emergency brake performance for the higher speed brackets. locomotives, due to the space limitations in locomotive bogies.

Applications of this principle

The common application for eddy currents is in electromagnetic braking in heavy vehicles and industrial machinery. Electromagnetic drum brakes are extensively used for speed reduction. They are found in lifts, belt transport, port handling, the metallurgical industry and building machinery. As usual, human ingenuity has seen many other applications of this concept other than straight line braking in vehicles. Another use is in electromagnetic braking of molten material in the outlet channel of an electric furnace.

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About Our Project

As the above information we are constructing foot control electromagnetic braking system. In this project we are using one manual foot pad with scaling positioning sensor. These sensors give input to controlling circuit. This controlling circuit control provides current to electromagnet for applying brake to the rotating dice.

Construction
Step-1 We take 4 electromagnetic coil and test then with providing power supply.

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Step-2 Now we take one metallic dice and arrange electromagnet as shown below diagram

Step-3 We rotate to the dice manually and then we give power supply to electro magnate then we see sudden braking applied.

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Step-4 Now we plane to make our project fully automated with control with footpad as we can use in commercial market. First we take one plastic tyre and fix it on wooden frame with help of bearing and metal shaft as shown below.

Step-5 We provide rotation to the tyre with help of motor with connecting chain and sprocket.

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Step-6 As our above experiment we connect one dice with plastic wheel shaft and arrange 4 electromagnet according to experiment.

Step-7 We use one manual spring based footpad (dummy) and fix 6 interrupter positioning sensors
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(IR sensor) with them.

Interrupter positioning sensors (IR sensor)

Step-8 These sensor give footpad position value to controlling circuit, according to footpad position controlling circuits give power supply to electromagnet for applying brake.
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Step-9 Case-1 Motor is rotating to wheel in below diagram. Footpad is free for rotation.

Case-2 Footpad applied for braking and controlling circuit applied brake as shown below.

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Block Diagram

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Circuit

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Circuit working
Our project is working on 220v ac supply we use three transformer in our project
1. 2.

1st for motor (55 0 55v step-down) because motor is running on 11ov ac supply. 2nd for electromagnet (6-30v out multi tap transformer) electromagnet work on 6-30 v

supply

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3.

3rd for controlling circuit (12v step-down) circuit is working in 12v and 5v supply.

In our circuit we have 6 interrupter sensor which give footpad position input to controlling IC from 3 to 8 number pin and controlling ic AT89S52 sense footpad input and control different for electromagnet with help of ic uln2003 to operate relay for applying braking by passing different power supply. Our controlling circuit is working on 5v dc supply this supply if generated with help of 7805 regulator and relay is operated by 12v dc supply.

Executive Summary
Objective: Design an electromagnetic braking system Replacing the conventional braking system

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Less cost with greater performance No need for maintenance and/or replacement

Research: Other types of electromagnetic braking system Electromagnetic braking system with brake pads Electromagnetic current braking system

Conclusions: Good results with current design, a larger budget would improve performance The project proves the theory and shows the potential for a full functional system

Components Used
Atmel at89s52 Microcontroller Uln2003 IC Dc motor (as engine)

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Spindle assembly Four 24V DC electromagnets Pedals IR Interrupter Led Diode Resistance Relay Capacitor Regulator 7804 6-30v out multi tap transformer Transformer

Component Details

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1.

Atmel at89s52 Microcontroller

A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO MICROCONTROLLER

Microcontrollers, as the name suggests, are small controllers. They are like single chip computers that are often embedded into other systems to function as processing/controlling unit. For example, the remote control you are using probably has microcontrollers inside that do decoding and other controlling functions. They are also used in automobiles, washing machines, microwave ovens, toys ... etc, where automation is needed.

KEY FEATURES OF MICROCONTROLLERS:

HIGH INTEGRATION OF FUNCTIONALITY

Microcontrollers sometimes are called single-chip computers because they have on-chip memory and I/O circuitry and other circuitries that enable them to function as small standalone computers without other supporting circuitry.

FIELD PROGRAMMABILITY, FLEXIBILITY

Microcontrollers often use EEPROM or EPROM as their storage device to allow field programmability so they are flexible to use. Once the program is tested to be correct then large quantities of microcontrollers can be programmed to be used in embedded system.

Obstacles Sensor Unit

In this unit the dc supply is first converted into 5V using regulator LM7805 and supplied to the

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complete circuit. The high-efficiency IRLED driven by pnp transistor tbc369 with a modulating frequency of about 20 khz (available from pin no 5 of the IC LM567, the versatile PLL tone decoder IC), emit infrared light. At this juncture the output at pin no 8 is high and this condition is maintained until IC LM567 receives a valid 20 khz signal at its pin 3.

Motor relay

Whenever the IR beam is radiated by IRLED is reflected by a nearby object (obstacles), LM567 receives 20khz reflected signal at its pin 3 on detection by photo diode. As a result LM567 pulls its

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output pin low. If the output at pin 8 is high then it will switch the transistor in ON state and it will ground the collector. As the collector of first npn transistor is grounded, the next transistor will not switch and the output at second npn transistor is high, because of collector of second transistor connected to VCC. Whereas when the obstacle is detected the output at pin 8 is low and thus the collector of second transistor is grounded and the output to the microcontroller is low. When a low signal is sent to the microcontroller it will come to know an obstacle is detected. The obstacle sensor logic is used for left, right and front sensors. Respectively, 10(left), 11(right) and 12 (front) pins of microcontroller are connected to their own obstacle sensors.

Uln2003 IC
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A ULN2803 is an Integrated Circuit (IC) chip with a High Voltage/High Current Darlington Transistor Array. It allows you to interface TTL signals with higher voltage/current loads. In English, the chip takes low level signals (TLL, CMOS, PMOS, NMOS - which operate at low voltages and low currents) and acts as a relay of sorts itself, switching on or off a higher. A TTL signal operates from 0-5V, with everything between 0.0 and 0.8V considered "low" or off, and 2.2 to 5.0V being considered "high" or on. The maximum power available on a TTL signal depends on the type, but generally does not exceed 25mW (~5mA @ 5V), so it is not useful for providing power to something like a relay coil. Computers and other electronic devices frequently generate TTL signals. On the output side the ULN2803 is generally rated at 50V/500mA, so it can operate small loads directly. Alternatively, it is frequently used to power the coil of one or more relays, which in turn allow even higher voltages/currents to be controlled by the low level signal. In electrical terms, the ULN2803 uses the low level (TTL) signal to switch on/turn off the higher voltage. The ULN2803 comes in an 18-pin IC configuration and includes eight (8) transistors. Pins 1-8 receive the low level signals, pin 9 is grounded (for the low level signal reference). Pin 10 is the common on the high side and would generally be connected to the positive of the voltage you are applying to the relay coil. Pins 11-18 are the outputs (Pin 1 drives Pin 18, Pin 2 drives 17, etc.).

Electromagnets
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An electromagnet is a type of magnet whose magnetic field is produced by the flow of electric current. The magnetic field disappears when the current ceases. Electromagnets are very widely used as components of other electrical devices, such as motors, generators, relays, loudspeakers, hard disks, MRI machines, scientific instruments, and magnetic separation equipment, as well as being employed as industrial lifting electromagnets for picking up and moving heavy iron objects like scrap iron. An electric current flowing in a wire creates a magnetic field around the wire (see drawing below). To concentrate the magnetic field, in an electromagnet the wire is wound into a coil, with many turns of wire lying side by side. The magnetic field of all the turns of wire passes through the center of the coil, creating a strong magnetic field there. A coil forming the shape of a straight tube (a helix) is called a solenoid; a solenoid that is bent into a donut shape so that the ends meet is called a toroid. Much stronger magnetic fields can be produced if a "core" of ferromagnetic material, such as soft iron, is placed inside the coil. The ferromagnetic core magnifies the magnetic field to thousands of times the strength of the field of the coil alone, due to the high magnetic permeability of the ferromagnetic material. This is called a ferromagnetic-core or iron-core electromagnet. The direction of the magnetic field through a coil of wire can be found from a form of the right-hand rule. If the fingers of the right hand are curled around the coil in the direction of current flow (conventional current, flow of positive charge) through the windings, the thumb points in the direction of the field inside the coil. The side of the magnet that the field lines emerge from is defined to be the North Pole. The main advantage of an electromagnet over a permanent magnet is that the magnetic field can be rapidly manipulated over a wide range by controlling the amount of electric current. However, a continuous supply of electrical energy is required to maintain the field.

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Electromagnets attract paper clips when current are applied creating a magnetic field. The electromagnet loses them when current and magnetic field are removed.

A simple electromagnet consisting of a coil of insulated wire wrapped around an iron core. The strength of magnetic field generated is proportional to the amount of current.

Magnetic field produced by a solenoid (coil of wire). This drawing shows a cross section through the center of the coil. The crosses are wires in which current is moving into the page; the dots are wires in which current is moving up out of the page.

DC Motor
One of the first electromagnetic rotary motors was invented by Michael Faraday in 1821 and consisted of a free-hanging wire dipping into a pool of mercury. A permanent magnet was placed in the middle of the pool of mercury. When a current was passed through the wire, the wire rotated

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around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a circular magnetic field around the wire. This motor is often demonstrated in school physics classes, but brine (salt water) is sometimes used in place of the toxic mercury. This is the simplest form of a class of electric motors called homopolar motors. A later refinement is the Barlow's Wheel. Another early electric motor design used a reciprocating plunger inside a switched solenoid; conceptually it could be viewed as an electromagnetic version of a two stroke internal combustion engine. The modern DC motor was invented by accident in 1873, when Znobe Gramme connected a spinning dynamo to a second similar unit, driving it as a motor. The classic DC motor has a rotating armature in the form of an electromagnet. A rotary switch called a commutator reverses the direction of the electric current twice every cycle, to flow through the armature so that the poles of the electromagnet push and pull against the permanent magnets on the outside of the motor. As the poles of the armature electromagnet pass the poles of the permanent magnets, the commutator reverses the polarity of the armature electromagnet. During that instant of switching polarity, inertia keeps the classical motor going in the proper direction. (See the diagrams below.)

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A simple DC electric motor. When the coil is powered, a magnetic field is generated around the armature. The left side of the armature is pushed away from the left magnet and drawn toward the right, causing rotation.

The armature continues to rotate.

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When the armature becomes horizontally aligned, the commutator reverses the direction of current through the coil, reversing the magnetic field. The process then repeats.

How the iron core works

The material of the core of the magnet (usually iron) is composed of small regions called magnetic domains that act like tiny magnets. Before the current in the electromagnet is turned on, the domains in the iron core point in random directions, so their tiny magnetic fields cancel each other out, and the iron has no large scale magnetic field. When a current is passed through the wire wrapped around the iron, its magnetic field penetrates the iron, and causes the domains to turn, aligning parallel to the magnetic field, so their tiny magnetic fields add to the wire's field, creating a large magnetic field that extends into the space around the magnet. The larger the current passed through the wire coil, the more the domains align, and the stronger the magnetic field is. Finally all the domains are lined up, and further increases in current only cause slight increases in the magnetic field: this phenomenon is called saturation. When the current in the coil is turned off, most of the domains lose alignment and return to a random
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state and the field disappears. However some of the alignment persists, because the domains have difficulty turning their direction of magnetization, leaving the core a weak permanent magnet. This phenomenon is called hysteresis and the remaining magnetic field is called remanent magnetism. The residual magnetization of the core can be removed by degaussing.

Uses of electromagnets
Electromagnets are very widely used in electric and electromechanical devices, including:

Motors and generators Transformers Relays, including reed relays originally used in telephone exchanges Electric bells Loudspeakers Magnetic recording and data storage equipment: tape recorders, VCRs, hard disks Scientific instruments such as MRI machines and mass spectrometers Particle accelerators Magnetic locks Magnetic separation of material Industrial lifting magnets
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Electromagnetic suspension used for MAGLEV trains

IR Interrupter
Components: IR Interrupter Multi I/O module Resistors Wire Tools: Soldering Iron Solder Voltmeter IR Sensor Card Concept Overview IR interruptors consist of an LED that emits infrared light and a photoresistor that detects it. When there's nothing in the way of the light beam, the interrupter has very low resistance. If the beam is blocked, the resistance increases. When connected via a voltage divider to the Teleo's digital in, the interruptor can be used to sense when an object is present between its two posts.

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Circuit Diagram

Component Selection
The IR interrupter we used is available in our store. It was wired using a 150 resistor on the emitter and a 1 k resistor from the +5V terminal to the digital in. These resistor values were chosen for 2 reasons. A proper voltage divider must be set up in order to get a good response range from the interrupter. We did this using a potentiometer and voltmeter simultaneously, an approach that let us vary the circuit's resistance constantly until the desired voltage range was found. If you were to use any different IR interrupter, it would be necessary to go through a similar process to find the right resistor value for that interrupter.

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The interrupter's LED emitter is rated at 1.2V and 0.03A. It would burn out if we wired it directly to the 5V terminal, so we'll need to limit the amount of current reaching it. To determine the necessary resistor value, we used Ohm's Law. V(voltage) = I(current) x R(resistance) 5V = .03A x R 5/.03 = R R = 166 We used a resistor slightly lower than the equation dictates because the LED will have some resistance that will make up the correct total. The exact resistance is not too critical.

Relay
It is often desirable or essential to isolate one circuit electrically from another, while still allowing the first circuit to control the second. For example, if you wanted to control a high-voltage circuit from your computer, you would probably not want to connect it directly to the a low-voltage port on the back of your computer in case something went wrong and the mains electricity ended up destroying the expensive parts inside your computer.

One simple method of providing electrical isolation between two circuits is to place a relay between

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them, as shown in the circuit diagram of figure 1. A relay consists of a coil that may be energized by the low-voltage circuit and one or more sets of switch contacts, which may be connected to the highvoltage circuit.

How Relays Work

In figure 2a the relay is off. The metal arm is at its rest position and so there is contact between the Normally Closed (N.C.) switch contact and the 'common' switch contact.

If a current is passed through the coil, the resulting magnetic field attracts the metal arm and there is now contact between the Normally Open (N.O.) switch contact and the common switch contact, as shown in figure 2b.

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Advantages of Relays
The complete electrical isolation improves safety by ensuring that high voltages and currents Relays come in all shapes and sizes for different applications and they have various switch cannot appear where they should not be. contact configurations. Double Pole Double Throw (DPDT) relays are common and even 4-pole types are available. You can therefore control several circuits with one relay or use one relay to control the direction of a motor. It is easy to tell when a relay is operating - you can hear a click as the relay switches on and off and you can sometimes see the contacts moving.

Disadvantages of Relays
Being mechanical though, relays do have some disadvantages over other methods of electrical isolation: Their parts can wear out as the switch contacts become dirty - high voltages and currents They cannot be switched on and off at high speeds because they have a slow response and Their coils need a fairly high current to energise, which means some micro-electronic circuits The back-emf created when the relay coil switches off can damage the components that are

cause sparks between the contacts. the switch contacts will rapidly wear out due to the sparking. can't drive them directly without additional circuitry. driving the coil. To avoid this, a diode can be placed across the relay coil, as will be seen in any Electronics in Meccano circuits that use relays with sensitive components.

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Transformer
Transformers are a major class of coils having two or more windings usually wrapped around a common core made from laminated iron sheets.

It has two coils named primary & secondary. If the current flowing through primary is fluctuating, then a current will be induced into the secondary winding. A steady current will not be transferred from one coil to other coil.

Transformers are of two types:

1. Step up transformer

2. Step down transformer

In power supply we use step down transformer. We apply 220V AC on the primary of step down transformer. This transformer steps down this voltage to 9V AC. We give this 9 V AC to rectifier circuit, which convert it to 5V DC.

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Regulator 7805

7805 IC is used as regulator in 5V power supply.

7805

1 - IN 2 - OUT 3 - GND

IN 7805 pin no.1 is input pin through which non-regulated signal is applied. Pin no.3 is grounded & the regulated output is taken from pin no.2.

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Capacitor
It is an electronic component whose function is to accumulate charges and then release it.

To understand the concept of capacitance, consider a pair of metal plates which all are placed near to each other without touching. If a battery is connected to these plates the positive pole to one and the negative pole to the other, electrons from the battery will be attracted from the plate connected to the positive terminal of the battery. If the battery is then disconnected, one plate will be left with an excess of electrons, the other with a shortage, and a potential or voltage difference will exists between them. These plates will be acting as capacitors. Capacitors are of two types: - (1) fixed type like ceramic, polyester, electrolytic capacitors-these names refer to the material they are made of aluminium foil. (2) Variable type like gang condenser in radio or trimmer. In fixed type capacitors, it has two leads and its value is written over its body and variable type has three leads. Unit of measurement of a capacitor is farad denoted by the symbol F. It is a very big unit of capacitance. Small unit capacitor are pico-farad denoted by pf (Ipf=1/1000,000,000,000 f) Above all, in case of electrolytic capacitors, it's two terminal are marked as (-) and (+) so check it while using capacitors in the circuit in right direction. Mistake can destroy the capacitor or entire circuit in operational.

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Resistance
Resistance is the opposition of a material to the current. It is measured in Ohms (). All conductors represent a certain amount of resistance, since no conductor is 100% efficient. To control the electron flow (current) in a predictable manner, we use resistors. Electronic circuits use calibrated lumped resistance to control the flow of current. Broadly speaking, resistor can be divided into two groups viz. fixed & adjustable (variable) resistors. In fixed resistors, the value is fixed & cannot be varied. In variable resistors, the resistance value can be varied by an adjuster knob. It can be divided into (a) Carbon composition (b) Wire wound (c) Special type. The most common type of resistors used in our projects is carbon type. The resistance value is normally indicated by colour bands. Each resistance has four colours, one of the band on either side will be gold or silver, this is called fourth band and indicates the tolerance, others three band will give the value of resistance (see table). For example if a resistor has the following marking on it say red, violet, gold. Comparing these coloured rings with the colour code, its value is 27000 ohms or 27 kilo ohms and its tolerance is 5%. Resistor comes in various sizes (Power rating). The bigger, the size, the more power rating of 1/4 watts. The four colour rings on its body tells us the value of resistor value.

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Transistor
The name is transistor derived from transfer resistors indicating a solid state Semiconductor device. In addition to conductor and insulators, there is a third class of material that exhibits proportion of both. Under some conditions, it acts as an insulator, and under other conditions its a conductor. This phenomenon is called Semi-conducting and allows a variable control over electron flow. So, the transistor is semi conductor device used in electronics for amplitude. Transistor has three terminals, one is the collector, one is the base and other is the emitter, (each lead must be connected in the circuit correctly and only then the transistor will function). Electrons are emitted via one terminal and collected on another terminal, while the third terminal acts as a control element. Each transistor has a number marked on its body. Every number has its own specifications.

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There are mainly two types of transistor (i) NPN & (ii) PNP NPN Transistors: When a positive voltage is applied to the base, the transistor begins to conduct by allowing current to flow through the collector to emitter circuit. The relatively small current flowing through the base circuit causes a much greater current to pass through the emitter / collector circuit. The phenomenon is called current gain and it is measure in beta. PNP Transistor: It also does exactly same thing as above except that it has a negative voltage on its collector and a positive voltage on its emitter.

Diode
The simplest semiconductor device is made up of a sandwich of P-type semi conducting material, with contacts provided to connect the p-and n-type layers to an external circuit. This is a junction Diode. If the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type material (cathode) and the negative terminal to the N-type material (Anode), a large current will flow. This is called forward current or forward biased.

If the connections are reversed, a very little current will flow. This is because under this condition, the p-type material will accept the electrons from the negative terminal of the battery and the N-type material will give up its free electrons to the battery, resulting in the state of electrical equilibrium

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since the N-type material has no more electrons. Thus there will be a small current to flow and the diode is called Reverse biased.

Thus the Diode allows direct current to pass only in one direction while blocking it in the other direction. Power diodes are used in concerting AC into DC. In this, current will flow freely during the first half cycle (forward biased) and practically not at all during the other half cycle (reverse biased). This makes the diode an effective rectifier, which convert ac into pulsating dc. Signal diodes are used in radio circuits for detection. Zener diodes are used in the circuit to control the voltage.

Regulator 7804
3-Terminal 1A Positive Voltage Regulator Features Output Current up to 1A Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V Thermal Overload Protection Short Circuit Protection Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection Description The MC78XX/LM78XX/MC78XXA series of three terminal positive regulators are available in the TO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a wide range of applications. Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal shut down and safe operating area protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can
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deliver over 1A output current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators, these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and currents.

Power Supply
In alternating current the electron flow is alternate, i.e. the electron flow increases to maximum in one direction, decreases back to zero. It then increases in the other direction and then decreases to zero again. Direct current flows in one direction only. Rectifier converts alternating current to flow in one direction only. When the anode of the diode is positive with respect to its cathode, it is forward biased, allowing current to flow. But when its anode is negative with respect to the cathode, it is reverse biased and does not allow current to flow. This unidirectional property of the diode is useful for rectification. A single diode arranged back-to-back might allow the electrons to flow during positive half cycles only and suppress the negative half cycles. Double diodes arranged backto-back might act as full wave rectifiers as they may allow the electron flow during both positive and negative half cycles. Four diodes can be arranged to make a full wave bridge rectifier. Different types of filter circuits are used to smooth out the pulsations in amplitude of the output voltage from a rectifier. The property of capacitor to oppose any change in the voltage applied across them by storing energy in the electric field of the capacitor and of inductors to oppose any change in the current flowing through them by storing energy in the magnetic field of coil may be utilized. To
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remove pulsation of the direct current obtained from the rectifier, different types of combination of capacitor, inductors and resistors may be also be used to increase to action of filtering.

Need of Power Supply

Perhaps all of you are aware that a power supply is a primary requirement for the Test Bench of a home experimenters mini lab. A battery eliminator can eliminate or replace the batteries of solidstate electronic equipment and the equipment thus can be operated by 230v A.C. mains instead of the batteries or dry cells. Nowadays, the use of commercial battery eliminator or power supply unit has become increasingly popular as power source for household appliances like transreceivers, record player, cassette players, digital clock etc.

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Applications
For automobile application Industrial application

Advantages
Brake cost will be less.

Free from wear adjustment. Less power consumption Less skill technicians is sufficient to operate. It gives simplified very operation. Installation is simplified very much. To avoid other burnable interactions viz.... (Diaphragm) is not used.

Disadvantages
Additional cost is required for automation

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Supports drivers with a roving eye.

The All-New Volvo S60 takes safety to a whole new level with innovations for both vehicles as well as pedestrians. The Pedestrian Detection Technology uses a digital camera and radar to

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constantly scan the road ahead, where shapes identified as people at risk will trigger a warning, thus applying brakes to the car if the driver is not able to do so. The Laser Assisted Automatic Braking does the same to prevent collision with vehicles up to 6 meters, making it a boon for the road.

Adaptive cruise control

The adaptive cruise control and collision warning with brake support integrated system allows the driver to set the vehicles speed and maintain it without using the accelerator pedal, and uses radar
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sensors to detect moving vehicles ahead and warns the driver of collision risks.

How it works
Adaptive cruise control is a radar-based system that can monitor the vehicle in front (up to 600 feet) and adjust the speed of the vehicle to keep it at a pre-set distance behind the lead vehicle, even in most fog and rain conditions. The system measures distance as a function of speed and can monitor the traffic ahead while ignoring stationary objects such as road signs and telephone poles. It also can determine how fast the vehicle is approaching the vehicle ahead. For example, when approaching a lead vehicle at a high rate of speed, the system will activate sooner than when approaching slower.

Driver Accommodations
Four distance settings accommodate a range of driving styles and road conditions. The driver can set distance, speed and the time gap between vehicles. With speed settings as low as 20 mph, the driver can set the system to work as well during normal commuting as it does on the highway. Offers three programmable alert time settings ranging from approximately 1.5 to 2.5 seconds.

Availability
Available on the Ford Edge, Ford Explorer, Ford Taurus, vand 2013 Fusion. Lincoln MKS, Lincoln MKT and Lincoln MKX.

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DIGRAM SHOWING THE SAME

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Collision warning and Brake Control How it works

The system provides an audible alert when it senses a reduction in traffic speed in vehicles ahead. When the danger of a collision is detected, it provides a red warning light that flashes on the windshield. If the drivers response is delayed, the system will pre-charge the brakes to prepare the vehicle for more aggressive braking to help avoid rear-end accidents. If the driver lifts quickly off of the accelerator indicating a desire to slow down, the system will apply the brakes to a nominal level to decelerate the vehicle faster than the driver can move their foot to the brake pedal. If the driver hits the brakes rapidly, the system is designed to provide full braking capability of the vehicle to avoid or mitigate the potential threat.

Testing The System

To test the system engineers use balloons as target practice at Fords test facility. The balloons play the role of the target vehicle, allowing engineers to prove out the feature without endangering test drivers or damaging real cars. About a dozen balloon cars, each weighing more than 40 pounds, are available in different sizes and designed to test the radar precision. Developed with Fords European research teams, the balloon cars allow the tests to be conducted in a far safer manner than if real cars were involved. The tarp-like balloons filled with air and sturdy enough to be used multiple times offer enough give to allow impact without injury.

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REFRENCES
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Fischetti, Mark (January 2006). "No More Gears". Scientific American 294: 92. Jones, Franklin D., Et Al. (1930). Ingenious Mechanisms For Designers And Birch, Stuart. "Audi Takes Cvt From 15th Century To 21st Century". Harris, William. "How Cvts Work". Avery, G., Tenberge, P., Electromechanical Hybrid Transmission Concept,

Inventors. Industrial Press.

Design, Simulation, Proc. Integrated Powertrains And Their Control, University Of Bath, Imeche, 2000. 6. Brace, C.J., Deacon, M., Vaughan, N.D., Horrocks, R.W., Burrows C.R., "An Operating Point Optimiser For The Design And Calibration Of An Integrated Diesel / Cvt Powertrain", Proceedings Of The Institution Of Mechanical Engineers Journal Of Automobile Engineering (Part D) Vol 213, May 1999, Pg 215-226, Issn: 0954-4070, 1999. 7. Brace, C.J., Deacon, M., Vaughan, N.D., Horrocks, R.W., Burrows C.R., "Integrated Seminar S540 'Advanced Vehicle Transmissions And Powertrain Passenger Car Diesel Cvt Powertrain Control For Economy And Low Emissions", Imeche International 8. Management' 25 -26 Sept 1997. Http://Www.Wikipedia.Org

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