12

CONTENTS
_.1 ~ ') __3

Drying andDried Food Quality

Xiao Oong Chen

Introduction Color Microbial Inactivation 12.3.1 Decimal Reduction Time D 12.3.2 Thermal Resistance Constant z. 12.3.3 Thermal Death Time F 12.3.4 Relationships between Chemical Kinetics and Thermal Processing Parameters .f Concluding Remarks ations .-:

323 327 330 330 331 331 331 337 337 338

"'

...
'\

""'--

........

rerences

INTRODUCTION
. ing is used conventionally and effectively to maintain the quality of foodstuffs ~cceptable levels (i.e., edible). Dried food particles are usually used as ingredi. (spices or dairy powders, etc.) or bulk cooking materials (rice, flour, etc.). The r motivation for use of drying as a preservation technique is well understood is illustrated graphically in Figure 12.1. Sun drying is probably the oldest prac.. and is still popular in some parts of the world today. Water activity (aw) values extensively used to predict the stability of foodstuff with respect to microbial =wth and enzymatic chemical and physical changes (such as glass transition) that lead to food degradation during storage (Christian 2000). The water activity of 'ood system indicates how tightly water is bound, structurally or chemically, in rood matrix (Scott 1957, Labuza 1975). In other words, the water activity of the describes the energetics of water in a food system, and hence its availability to " a solvent and participate in chemical or biochemical reactions (Labuza 1977). quality attributes for dried foods may be appearance related (color in particu. enaturation of proteins leading to solubility problem/textural changes, nutrient erioration, fat crystallization or recrystallization, mechanical property changes, - bial changes, etc. During the conventional drying at higher temperatures, all uality attributes are usually deteriorating due to thermal and concentration 323

------------------------

324

Processing Effects on Safety and Quality of F

Structural transformations

~
I J
I I

, ,
,

/ ----

---, I
Nonenzymatic browning, enzyme activity, loss of lysine
I I I I I

I I

"
0,2 0,6

0.8

1.0

Critical aw FIGURE 12.1

Water activity

Stability map for food materials. (Modified from Roos, Y.H'., LOl: '

475,2002.) .' effects. Therefore, the fundamentalquestion is as to what is perceived/measu be a good quality of dried materials. Around the world, traded food material. usually stored and transported in large quantities in dried solid formo Hence d . plays a key rol e in our world economy and indeed in our life. Products that could be adversely affected by the mixed-in dried materials thz become unstable are ~eatproductrange Vegetarian product range Dairy product range Poultry product range Fishery product range Canned foods (if ingredients were dried first and then mixed in) Ready meals (if ingredients were dried first and then added in) Microbial aspects can be separated into two groups: good ones and bad ones good ones may be probiotic bacteria that are intentionally added for improvi r digestive ~ealth. The bad ones would be the spoilage microorganisms (Feathe . 2008),. such as Pathogens

Escherichia coli 0157:H7 Salmonella spp. Listeria monocytogenes Clostridium perfringens Staphylococcus aureus
Parasites

Trichine llosis

ying and Dried Food Quality

325

- shown in Figure 12.1, the minimum water activity of 0.6-0.7 can be seen, which the limit beyond which a microorganism or group of microorganisms can no lonreproduce for most food materials. Pathogenic bacteria cannot grow below a arer activity of 0.85-0. 86, whereas yeast and moulds are more tolerant to a smaller ter activity of 0.8. Usually there is no growth when water activity is below 0.62. ~oCse criticallimits may also change somewhat depending on the pH, salt content, nimicrobial additives, heat treatment, and temperature involved (Rahman 2007). Thermal processing is designed to make foods safe as most of the microorgan"<OlS are heat liable. Depending on the natural pH of the product, pasteurization * pically 80C-100C) is of the choice for 4.0~ pH ~ 4.6 (foods are classified as foods) and sterilization (115C-125C) is needed for pH > 4.6 (low-acid foods). se below pH 4.0 are called high-acid foods (Britt 2008). pH is defined by pH

= -loglO

[H+ ]

(12.1)

.. ....

-\ ..... '"

oere [H+] is the concentration of H+ ions (mol L -1). Most organisms grow best at

tral pH but a few can grow at pH < 4.0. Bacteria are more fastidious about their environments than yeast and moulds. Limiting microbial growth using pH alterailJf1 is a basic food preservation principle (Figure 12.2). Drying can be conducted at elevated temperatures (hot-air drying and superheatedm drying at 'normal or higher pressures), moderate temperatures (in heat-pump . ing, vacuum drying, or low-pressure superheated-steam drying), or low tempera"5 (freeze drying either at atmospheric level or under vacuum). The "hot" processes bring the foods to some high temperatures, hence may be viewed as a kind of

..
\'.

" -.

Increasing temperature 80C-lOOC 115C-l25C

~ ...

..
""

" ~
:::: ~ ...

-.

.c :~ ..
v

::l "O

eo c:: 0
<lJ

~ '~ "

'" ...

aw

= 0.85
Stable foods I Stble foods

Lowest aw pl-I
=

4.6

Increasing pH

r;!l.

Tlermal pracessing actians for different pH level faads. (Madified fram U., Food Biodeterioration and Preservation, ed., Tucker, G., Blackwell Publishing ~~_. xfard, U'K, 2008.) O
URE 12.2

326

Processing

Effects on Safety and Quality

of Fo

_ .;J'"
"00,

.........

:lI, :lI,

-.
-,

~,

.-. "'.

'--.
"';:
-e: <:. -;

. .!!

thermal processing. The combination of the temperature change and the water con change, and in many ways, their gradient variations during drying can make the q ity of the product surface and the product core to be drastically different. Foodstuffs themselves are complex biological materials, which are rriain sour of various nutrients, and intended to be used for getting energy and health purp _ When food material s are exposed to drying conditions, the native physical stare the food material is altered leading to changes in microstructure, quality, and sae of food materials. In general, drying processes help maintaining the "accepta to-excellent" edible status of various foodstuffs, which have useful life-supporut components such as proteins, vitamins, probiotics, enzymes, etc. Low-temper . drying maintains good qualities of the original products and limits the water activ related growth factors but do not alter the potential for the growth of the bad qu if the food gets into an inappropriate environment. The shelf life of the food 'is extended by a drying .process that ensures the \\ activity to be lower than the critical minimum water activity, thus controlling bioactivity of various useful and harmful biological compounds. Drying inv removal of excess water from the food matrix until a "safe" moisture level is achie at which minimum or no physical, chemical, and microbioIogicaI reactions oe The required moisture level (water content or water activity) in dried products preventing spoilage is different due to dissimilar responses and inactivation me nisms exhibited by different bioactive compounds. For thermal deactivation of microorganisms, three stages are considered: pret ment, heat treatment, and posttreatment. Treating the drying process as a the ' treatment process, it is appropriate to discuss the effects of drying on microo _ isms aIso for three stages: predrying, in-drying, and postdrying. Predrying tions such as osmotic dehydration, evaporation, freeze concentration, mem separation, and extraction are empIoyed to remove the excess water from the I ' feed prior to the drying operation. The selection of predrying operation depen the extent of the prior-water removal, the type and physical form of the mal and the expected damage during processing. Fundamental principIes of the removal during predrying processes vary from process to process. During 0_ dehydration of food materiaIs, for instance dipping fruits or vegetabIes in con trated syrup, the mutual diffusion of both sugar and water molecules in op directions removes the water from the fruits or vegetabIes. Postdrying proc include cooling, handling (including conveying), packaging, storage, rehydrec etc., which are basically product-specific operations (Chen and Patel 2008). High-ternperature drying processes require a strong heat supply for remo" moisture from the food sampIe. The heat can be supplied in many ways, s ~ microwave, radio frequency, hot gas stream including air, superheated stea The hot gas stream is the most frequently used heat source for large-scale mercial industries due to easier availability, easier heat recovery, and cheape . compared to other heat sources. The driers are often named according to ho is supplied or what is the drying medium, for instance, solar drier, superbe steam drier, heat-pump drier, and microwave drier. Heat can be supplied thr: direct contact conduction, for example, belt drying, drum drying, and tunn . ing. Radiation is aIso frequentIy used as the way of heating for batch-scale operations, for example, infrared drying.

-ing and Dried Food Quality

327

\ hat the drying do es to the product in terms of color and microbial status is ghl ighted here. Of course the mechanical properties of the dried products are comely different from the original and the variability is very large. Shrinkage and . -~ sity change is also of great importance but these can be found elsewhere in exten literatures (Aguilera and Stanley 1999). COLOR or, ftavor, taste, and shape (appearance) are the four important factors affecting - ple's desire toward having foods in the first instance. Texture plays a subsequent -. . an important roleo "Color" forms a first impression about a cooked food or a od product. Vision psychology, science of color, color psychology, the technolo- that measure color and the computer imaging have all be en developed in order esign foods, quantify color, improving the quality of the foods. These are commatters and in engineering practice, only the major yet straightforward issues addressed. The color of the product affects the perception of the goodness or badness of the product. Birren's statistical analysis is frequently used (Li 1998). measurement of color is usually conducted with the CIELAB system, or the - '-b* system established in 1976. The parameters L*, a', and b" are measured ugh a colorimeter such as the Hunter Lab instrument. A schematic diagram wing the L*, a', and b' coordinate system is shown in Figure 12.3. L* = O corsponds to black; L* = 100 denotes white; therefore, L* represents the brightness, is, 0-100 gray scales. As a*~ +a, the color approaches to the pure red, and as ~ -a, the color approaches to pure green, =b toward the pure blue, and +b toward pure yellow. The product color would be a combination of a' and b' at the same

,..,..

White

More yellow
+b

More green -a

:'1--_---:::-~==::::::-~~-c*
.:

.:+a More
)

red

..
-b
More blue

'

Black URE 12.3 An illustration of the CIELAB color expression system. (Drawn by Chen, X.D., - rure diffusivity in food and biological material, plenary keynote at 15th Intemational Drying mposium (lDS 2006), Budapest, Hungary, August 20-23, 2006.)

328

Processing

Effects on Safety and Quality

of Fo

level of brightness L*, based on the basic idea that red, blue, and yellow can ma . up other colors by combination. The combination value of color is evaluated usi the following formula:

This is useful and is called "metric chroma." The greater the e' the purer the e '-r appears to be. The "metric Hue-angle" is defined as

Hue

= aretan ( ::

(L

where a* and b" may also be called the "color indices." These parameters may understood (based on Figure 12.3) based on our knowledge of two-dimensi geometry. A three-dimensional , parameter is then the following: ,
M.*

= ~( M*y + (l1a*y + (l1b*y

oo'

where M*, Sa", and I1b* are, respectively, the differences between two points in coordinate system given in Figure 12.3. .Equation 12.4 may be written as follows to be more practical, that is, by cho _ a reference point to benchmark the significance of change:

.,-:.., .!! e.
,-

...

.. "

For color "sensory" evaluation, l1E* is a very important quantity deterrnining (Li l' Trace level difference, l1E* = 0-0.5 Slight difference, M.* = 0.5 - 1.5 Noticeable difference, M.* = 1.5 - 3.0 Appreciable difference, M.* = 3.0 - 6.0 Large difference, M* = 6.0 - 12.0 Very obvious difference, M.* = >12.0 I~ is not c1ear yet about what is the relationship between the color perception water content. Color may be intensified (colorings concentrated) as water is rem On the other hand, as in hot-air drying, the surface temperature of the produ get ver y high which promotes heat-sensitivechemical reactions such as mallard tions, so the product exhibits a "cooked'' perception. It is important to emphas that the color as a quality of the manufactured food is a "surface phenomena," surface temperature and surface water content control should be the most imt'_.~. parameters to control. A fundamental approach may be demonstrated in a study on lycopene deg tion (red color change) in a drying process (Goula et al. 2006). Here, experimen

ing and Dried Food Quality

329

remperatures and water contents of the tomato pulp samples were fixed so that degradation kinetics can be worked out as functions of temperature and water
tent:

-=-k dt
,.: . >

de

.c

(12.6)

the nutrient (lycopene) is considered to degrade following a first-order reaction .hanism. e is the concentration of lycopene (kg rrr '). The rate constant kd (degralOn rate constant) is expressed as
2317

kd =0.121238

e00188W

.e

-T (min ")
2207

for

W 2 55 (wt%)

(12.7)

kd = 0.275271
re

eOOO241W

. e

-T (mi n -1)

for

W ~ 55 (wt%)

(12.8)

T is the product temperature

W is the product moisture
7
-<

(K) content in % (wet basis)

...

e combinations of the three colorparameters, L*, a", and b', may make better when correlating to the color changes or the rates of the changes to constituent ges (Kaur et al. 2006) (Figure 12.4): ....

.-.

<

URE 12.4 Color changes depending on drying methods (LPSSD stands for low pressure erheated-steam drying, which employed low temperatures of about 60bC-90C whilst the drying was conducted in the same temperature range). (Courtesy of Professor Sakamon .ahastin, KMUT, Thailand.)

330

Processing Effects on Safety and Quality of Fooo-

(a)

(b)

. ..... .
_."f'~

(e)

Photographs of shrimp dried using a jet spouted-bed drier at 120 e dried shrimp before storage, (b) dried shrimp stored under vacuum at 4C for 16 w and (e) dried shrimp stored under air at 4C for 16 weeks. (Courtesy of Professor Sak -, Devahastin, KMUT, Thailand.)
FIGURE 12.5
0

...;

.. ..

e-

No matter what the numerical system is used for: quantifying color, visualiza by the bare eyes (sensory) cannot be replaced. As mentioned earlier, drying pr ~ usually alters the product color (to not as sharp and fresh as the original). Figure . ~ shows some photos of the products before and after drying. In addition to the perature effect on reactions, the availability of oxygen also affects color.

12.3

MICROBIAL INACTIVATION

In thermal processing of foods, several important terminologies are used (Li 2006, Patel and Chen 2006).

12.3.1

DECIMAL

REDUCTION

TIME

When a living microorganism population, like E. coli, is subjected to thermal s cessing at constant temperature (T), its population will reduce. A plot of the mie . population over time (N vs. t) usually shows an "exponential-like" trend. A serm plot of N versus t may be correlated using a linear fit (one kind of mechanism). ~ ing a straight line with a negative slope (-D):

"yingand Dried Food Quality

331

t D=----logNo 7logN

(12.9)

re D is the "decimal reduction time" (s) The microbial population reduction may then be expressed as

(12.10) viously, at different T, D should be different. The higher the temperature, , aIler the D value . the "

.3.2

THERMAL RESISTANCE CONSTANT

. ~ thermal resistance constant Z is a parameter representing the microorganism's sistance to temperature rise:
I

(12.11)

' ....

,-

,seems never to have been mentioned, another dimension that influences Z value uld be the moisture content, such that D may be labeled as DT,x r
THERMAL DEATH TIME

.. ..~ .
o.
!;;..

...

thermal death time F is the time required to cause a stated reduction in the ulation ofmicroorganisms or spores. This time maybe expressed as a multiple of values. For instance, a 99.99% reduction in microbial population is equivalent to . Usually, F is expressed as F; for a specific temperature T and a thermal resisnce constant Z.
RELATIONSHIPS AND THERMAL BETWEEN CHEMICAL PROCESSING KINETICS

PARAMETERS

is generally accepted that at a constant temperature, the microbial population or mber concentration (microbe m=') (N) reduces following a first-order reaction: -=-k
d

dN dt

(12.12)

erefore, the solution for this at constant temperature is ln-=-k d t " No

N

(12.13)

332

Processing Effects on Safety and Quality of Foo

This is similar to Equation 12.10, except the use of naturallogarithms here. Comparing the Equation 12.13 with Equation 12.10, it is not difficult to arrive a: kd = In lO/D During thermal processing, the microbial population is not uniformly distribu within the processing fluid and also the extent of the deactivation is different al j. ferent locations and different timing. Equation 12.12 can also be directly xpressed as the following (mathematica'I the same 'as Equation 12.6): de -=-k .e dt d where e is the mass concentration ofthe live microbes (e = mmicrobe . N). mmicrobe is : mass of one average microbe (kg). The spoilage rate for the specific food systemcan be influenced by various ph~ cochemical parameters. The following physicochemical parameters are known to z very important: Temperature Water activity pH Oxygen availability Nutrients availability Microstructure Chemical inhibitors The first four are probably the most obvious in-drying operations . Drying rate is an important parameter for the inactivation of biological stances. Different drying rates may have other physical/biological transforrnate which may be responsible for overall degradation of the food quality. The first g of drying processes which deal with high drying rates might be the high-temper processes such as spray drying, hot-air tunnel drying,drum drying, superhe . steam drying, fluidized-bed -drying, spouted-bed drying, and heat-pump dr:Another group of drying processes, which have low-drying rates and higher !' cessing tmea.involves relatively lower temperatures compared to the first ::: of drying processes. Freeze drying, vacuurn drying, atmospheric freeze dry '';' solar drying, and rrticrowave drying can be placed in a group with low-drying r. In order to achieve higher efficiencies, improved product quality, lower process times, and reduced production costs, a combined drying approach is often ., used. Microwave-vacuum drying, microwave-convection drying, and spray-f drying are examples of combined drying processes. Many times, two or more d .. techniques are operated in a series to minimize the overall drying time and degi .. =:'.; tion of useful biological substances. Low-temperature drying processes are favorable for keeping the high bioa; ity of desired biocomponents in the final product. A minimal change in nutrux

-.
"'- ..

"!:..

'.
.

-.

... .., ... .

Orying and Dried Food Quality

333

values is targeted during low-temperature processes. The unwanted microbial activity .ould also bepreserved in the food material. Drying of food using hot air does not necessarily involve high temperatures due to the evaporative cooling effect during 'ater evaporation. Evaporation of water from the food surface to the urrounding air minimizes the temperature rise of the food system. Superheated-steam drying can wever lead to high food temperatures during processing. The severity of inactiva. on of microorganisms during drying is lower than the severity during other thermal treatments where no evaporation is involved and where the temperature of the moist . d sample is maintained at as high as 121De for certain time. High-temperature . errnal treatments, although highly effective in deactivating the unwanted bacterial .tivity, also severely degrade other essential food ingredients. For the removal of water from the given food geometry, the moisture (liquid and , por) contained in the solid material must migrate from the interior to the surface. The transport of moisture in the moist food materials can be considered as the moisre transport in porous.media, and thus the recognized principles of heat and mass nsfer in porous medium can readily be used (Welti-Chanes et al. 2005, Aversa ~ al. 2007). A common knowledge for migration ofmoisture from the internal strucre to the surface is by assuming the liquid water ftow or water vapor diffusion. lany mechanisms have been proposed for describing the internal transport of water, hich is general1y believed to be a major rate-limiting step. Diffusion phenomena considered to be extremely complex due to the wide diversity of chemical comition and physical structures of food systems and hence reliable data are limited. e transport of water has been widely modeled using the effective liquid diffusion del (Yusheng and Poulsen 1988, Chen 2006). Figure 12.6 shows a scenario where heat coming from surrounding hot air is transferred to the product-air interface subsequently to the moist food product. In order to overcome the latent heat of aporizarion, heat must be supplied to the food surface and a1so into the poraus food

,~

,"
1

:t
x

::::.
'~-

,-

B
:

.
T

(a)

URE 12.6 Qualitative illustration of (a) hot-air drying of a moist food (mushroom for uance)and (b) temperature-time and moisture content-time profiles during drying.

334

Processing Effects on Safety and Quality of Fooo

.... - .'

structure. For hot-air drying, the temperature history at the surface and the ceru of the moist porous material, presented by point A and point B, respectively. different. The local evaporation rate within the moist food material should be del mined by the local dtiving force, that is, the vapor pressure difference"n the s I structure and the local "headspace" such as pores or channel space at the sa location. It is shown in Figure 12.6 that the surface water content would drop m rapidly than the water content at the center point. The spatial distribution of W ' content over the material thickness in the moist food slab would have implication the deactivation rate of living cells or spores within the matrix. The microbial po lation near the heated boundary and low water content experiences different hist as that in the core regio n where temperature is lower and water content is high. Changes in pH away from the optimal value reduce the thermal stability of m i organisms or enzymes within a food system. Thermal inactivation of bacteria been extensively studied for the-corresponding kinetics such as the studies publi by Chiruta et al. (1997) and Khoo et al. (2003). In their work on E. coli, they tU' shown the following first-order inactivation kinetics model to be useful for con treatment conditions (temperature T and pH) (see Equation 12.13).

-...

where T is the absolute exposure temperature (K) Equation coefficients Ca, e, C2, C3, and C4 for inactivation of E. coli i Carbopolliquid were reported 10 be -3613,2.44 x 106, -4.11 X 108, -1.52.'_ and 0.124, respectively Experiments on thermal treatments of microorganisms at different relative hum or water activity (aw) values have revealed a general trend for microorganism . thermal stability (survival of the microorganisms in the pre-equilibrated food ~ tems) is increased and gives a peak as the water activity is reduced at the begin of heat treatment, but the thermal stability is then rapidly reduced as the mal being dried to very low water activity levels. This optimal water activity for hi~ thermal stability is between 0.2 and 0.5. Drying stage may alter the pH of the food system and cause osmotic imbalz during processing due to water removal and subsequent increment in the co ~ tration of solutes. Acidic foods tend to get more acidic within the food matrix to higher concentration of solutes. Drying would "fix" the tructures of long molecules causing irreversible changes in their preferred three-dimensional tions. When water activity is reduced, the water associated with the cell constit that are considered to be protective to cell functions is les available, thus red the thermal stability of heat-sensitive components. This is why osmotic preces infusing sugar may help preserve the bioactivity. The combination of tempe and water activity is important in determining the extent of deactivation of organisms or denaturation of proteins and enzymes. The rate of water remov the temperature rise are more rapid at the surface of a moist material compa

ingand Dried Food Quality

335

er locations within the food material when hot-air drying is considered. Typical ter content profiles with respect to drying time for surface and center locations ..shown qualitatively in Figure 12.6. It is expected that the water content distribu.. and temperature distribution inside the material being dried are both important nomena for influencing the local rate of microorganism deactivation. The deacarion of the microorganisms located at the surface or near the surface would be :-" rent from the deactivation rate profiles inside the material. The status of mineral -nponents and the possibility of generating insoluble metal compounds may also .' an impact on the availability of bioactivity (Watzke 1998). The inactivation of the microbial population in food during drying is dependent w microorganisms are distributed within the food matrix. Living cells or active .-mes may be totally encapsulated and stay in the core region of a food material sray near the boundary regio n of a food material. The thermal damage to the livr cells or active enzymes is also influenced by the food ingredients or additives, : .h may have protective effects during drying (Leslie et al. 1995, Oldenhof et al. f :. Zhao and Zhang 2005). For instance, addition of trehalose to yeast suspension ificant reduced the damage to the active yeast cells (Berny and Hennebert 1991, .rock and Ingledew 1997a,b). The protective effect of a specific food additive ~ vary for different microorganisms, depending on the type and mode of drying, mg conditions, type and concentration of microbes, and the type of food material
o

r.

licvense et al. (1992) proposed an inactivation kinetics model for degradation Lactobacillus plantarum during drying by considering thermal and dehydration .uvation as two separate influences but operating simultaneously. The model had arneters to b obtained from the experimental work. Measurements of the dryarameters were obtained from the fluidized-bed drying with drying tempera~. Jower than 50C. The effective diffusivity concept was used to take into account spatia] moisture distribution. The inactivation parameters were measured from Irying," heating experiments in which approximately 1mm thick L. plantarumch granulate was placed in a Petri dish and stored at 5.0C 0.5C in a vacuum ~ ator for 48 h. After 48 h, the glucose-fermenting activity and moisture concen..: ns of the sample were measured. They illustrated in their work that thermal .tivation is insignificant at drying temperatures lower than 50C. Furthermore, . stated that the dehydration inactivation depends on the reached moisture content material only and is independent of the drying rateo However, Lievense et al. _) did not show ifthis observation could be true for high-ternperature drying pro- such as spray drying, where drying rates are much higher. A similar trend was -r wed by Yamamoto and Sano (1992), who proposed a five-parameter model for . me inactivation during drying using a single suspended droplet drying experil. A sucrose solution of fixed water content containing different enzymes such as .....:Iactosidase,glucose oxidase, and alkaline phosphatase was incubated at a coniemperature. The thickness of the material used and air temperatures were not rted in the study. The deactivationenergy E was described as a function of avervater content. Again, a binary (water and dissolved solids) diffusion coefficient - introduced to the drying analysis.for taking care of the water distribution inside plet. They conc1uded that air temperatures and droplet size significantly affect

.... ,

336

Processing Effects on Safety and Quality of Fo

the inactivation rateo The effect of initial water content is shown to be insignifie The enzyme activity was experimentally measured using constant temperature constant moisture content heating experiments, where no evaporation was involv Again, this work may be classified into the pre-equilibration experiments. In g eral, inactivation kinetics of microorganisms during drying has been convention expressed using the same first-order reaction equation (Equation 12.12). It is an unstructured model. A structured model which can deal with the n loglinear behavior has been developed, especially accounting for the tail ends oft survival curves (Geeraerd et al. 2000). For microorganisms distributed in a m material, which is not yet dried (i.e., in a saturated medium), the inactivation constant k is usually considered to be a function of temperature and is deseri using the Arrhenius equation (Wijlhuizen et al. 1979, Johnson and Etzel I Meerdink and Van't Riet 1995):

. .... -"

- ...
where

R is the universal gas constant (::::8.314J mol-' K:') E is the activation energy (J mol'")
When the in-drying process is considered, the inactivation kinetics should in l. material's temperature and moisture concentration effects. The water content p , could be significantly nonuniform within the moist material being dried du the nature of the drying process. In the literature, the temperature dependen the inactivation rate constant k during drying was described using an Equation I The temperature distribution may also have an impact on the local distributi ~ the inactivation rates. The temperature gradient can be significant if the Biot nu is quite large (Bi = hLlk); h is the convective heat transfer coefficient (W m> which can be determined similarly as that for hm; k is the thermal conductivity o: moist material (W rrr ' K:"). Usually a Bi value less than 0.1 is considered, bey, which temperature nonuniformity cannot be ignored (Incropera and De Wit 2 ,. , However, when evaporation takes place, this nonuniformity is damped and ev -: some large Bi values such as 0.5 or 1, a small evaporating water droplet can ~ negligible temperature gradient (Chen and Peng 2005). Corresponding to Equation 12.17 which is a temperature-dependent only fo the decimal reduction time D should be expressed as

.. -.., .. ...
'

. """:'-.J
-~ ..

= In 10 = In 10 eXP(~J
kd ko RT
n

The traditional inactivation kinetics model, Equations 12.12 and 12.17, contains two parameters, k (pre-exponential factor) and E (deactivation energy), bu model does not include the moisture content effects. Meerdink and Van't Riet (istudied the inactivation of the enzyme o-amylase during droplet drying, dese the deactivation energy parameter (E) to be water content dependent. Meerdink

ring and Dried Food Quality

337

'an't Riet (1995) concluded that the inactivation rate is more sensitive to changes

material's temperature cornpared to the drying rateo An approach considered by ~ erdink and Van't Riet (1995) is attractive, as it required only four parameters b, ka, and E) to be obtained from the experimental work. The inactivation rate nstant was expressed using the following formulae:

kct

= ka exp ( aX -

E+bXJ RT (E+bXJ
RT

(12.19)

. nce the decimal reduction time (D) can be written as follows: ln10 D =--e k
-aX

exp

(12.20)

're X is the water content on a dry basis. The activation energy (E) for inactivarepresents the difficulty in deactivating living cells or denaturing proteins and yrnes. Higher activation energy indicates the greater difficulty for deactivating . .roorganisms or living cells. The activation energy may change with environment ditions around living cells such as temperature, water activity, pR, and pressure. higher temperature, the activation energy may be lower to destroy the functionies of living cells or enzymes. Teixeira et al. (1995) reported that the activation rgy for inactivation of Lactobacillus bulgaricus at T> 70C was 33.5 kJ rnol', ile it was 85.8 kJ mol' for T < 70C. The activation energy also depends on the - xi microstructure and the state of the bioactive constituent (e.g., encapsulated, mobilized, etc.). For instance, the activation energy for deactivation of perox, " present in potato, carrot, and two varieties of tomatoes was different from the ivation energy for the same enzyme present in pumpkin (Chen and Patel 2008). . a reference, the parameters of Equation 12.6 for inactivation of rx-amylase during . ing were reported as ka = 1.2426 x 1032 (S-I), E = 247.3 X 103 (J mol "), a = 121.8 0101-1), and b = 341, respectively.

.. ..
:;,

"

CONCLUDING

REMARKS

. ing is a heat and mass transfer coupled process, which may also involve signifi( biochemical and chemical reactions. The composition of the product and size/ e all have impact on drying behavior and the quality changes that happen on surface of a product or within the product. More quantitative approach to these lems is needed in order to progress the subject as well as the elevation of the .hnical level of the industry. It is no longer a water content lowering activity; it is ch more to it than ever before.

TATIONS
fitting parameter (J mol ") water activity color index (red and green)

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Processing

Effects on Safety and Quality of Fo

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Biot number (heat transfer based) fitting parameter color index (blue and yellow) microbial concentration (mol rrr? or kg m ") metric chroma lycopene concentration (kg rrr ') fitting constants for E. coli inactivation kinetics in carbopol fitting constants for E. coli inactivation kinetics in carbopol fitting constants for E. coli inactivation kinetics in carbopol fitting constants for E. coli inactivation kinetics in carbopol fitting constants for E. coli inactivation kinetics in carbopol decimal reduction time at temperature T (min) apparent activation energy (J mol ") color sensor evaluation parameter thermal death time (min) heat tran~fer coefficient (W rrr" K:') metric hue angle thermal conductivity of food material (W m- K-I) pre-exponential factor (s') inactivation/degradation rate constant (S-I) thickness of the slab or film (m) color index (black and white) mas s of one average microbe (kg) concentration of the live microorganism (cell rrr") initial number of the live microorganism (cell muniversal gas constant (J mol:' K-I) time (s) temperature (K, DC) percent moisture content on a wet basis water content on a dry basis (kg water/kg dry solids) center water content of the food slab (kg water/kg dry solids) spatial average moisture content on a dry basis (kg water/kg dry soli thermal resistance constant

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REFERENCES
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