j y = +j

r =1
y=sin

x= -1

x=1

x=cos

j y = -j

= r e j = r cos() + j r sin() = x + j y = z

r = x2+y2

x deg

= tan-1 (y/x)

x deg (alt)
0
30
45
60
90
120
135
150
180
210
225
240
270
300
315
330
360

-180
-150
-135
-120
-90
-60
-45
-30
0

x rad
0
Pi/6
Pi/4
Pi/3
Pi/2

Pi

3Pi/2

2Pi

cos(x)
1.000
0.866
0.707
0.500
0.000
-0.500
-0.707
-0.866
-1.000
-0.866
-0.707
-0.500
0.000
0.500
0.707
0.866
1.000

sin(x)
0.000
0.500
0.707
0.866
1.000
0.866
0.707
0.500
0.000
-0.500
-0.707
-0.866
-1.000
-0.866
-0.707
-0.500
0.000

10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
1/2
1/3
1/4
1/5
1/6
1/7
1/8
1/9
1/10
0

-10
-9
-8
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1

atan(x) rad atan(x) deg

1.47
84.29
1.46
83.66
1.45
82.87
1.43
81.87
1.41
80.54
1.37
78.69
1.33
75.96
1.25
71.57
1.11
63.43
0.79
45.00
0.46
26.57
0.32
18.43
0.24
14.04
0.20
11.31
0.17
9.46
0.14
8.13
0.12
7.13
0.11
6.34
0.10
5.71
0.00
0.00

-1.47
-1.46
-1.45
-1.43
-1.41
-1.37
-1.33
-1.25
-1.11
-0.79

-84.29
-83.66
-82.87
-81.87
-80.54
-78.69
-75.96
-71.57
-63.43
-45.00

, [ and v( t ) = L di(t)/dt ]

The values of A1 and A2 are obtained from the initial conditions:

i(0) and di(0)/dt.

From: Fundamentals of Electric Circuits, 4th Edition, Charles Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku

The steady-state response is the final value of i(t).

iss(t) = i() = Is

(under-damped) ( < 0 )

(critical damped) ( = 0 )

it (t ) = ( A1 + A2t )e t

it (t ) = e t ( A1 cos d t + A2 sin d t )

(over-damped) ( > 0 )

it (t ) = A1e s1t + A2 e s2t

The transient response it is the same as that for source-free case

i (t ) = it (t ) + iss (t )

s1 = - + (2 - 02 )

s2 = - - (2 - 02 )

02

From: Fundamentals of Electric Circuits, 4th Edition, Charles Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku

The values of A1 and A2 are obtained from the initial conditions:

v(0) and dv(0)/dt.

(under-damped) ( < 0 )

(critically damped) ( = 0 )

(over-damped) ( > 0 )

The steady-state response is the final value of v(t).

vss(t) = v()

vt (t ) = e t ( A1 cos d t + A2 sin d t )

vt (t ) = ( A1 + A2t )e t

vt (t ) = A1e s1t + A2 e s2t

The transient response vt is the same as that for source-free case

v ( t ) = v t ( t ) + v ss ( t ) , [ and i( t ) = C dv(t)/dt ]

The solution of the equation should have two components:

the transient response vt(t) (source free solution) & the steady-state response vss(t):

Roots:

The solution of the equation should have two components:

the transient response it(t) (source-free solution) & the steady-state response iss(t):

s2 = - - (2 - 02 )

02

d = (02 - 2 )

s1 = - + (2 - 02 )

s2 + (R/L) s + 1/LC = 0

s2 + (1/RC) s + 1/LC = 0
Characteristic Equation:

v
d 2 v R dv
v
+
+
= s
2
L dt LC LC
dt

d 2i 1 di
i
Is
+
+
=
dt 2 RC dt LC LC

d = (02 - 2 )

Roots:

Characteristic Equation:

The 2nd order expression:

Series RLC Source-Free and Step Response

The 2nd order expression:

Parallel RLC Source-Free and Step Response

avg
max

8 R TH

VTH
R L = R TH

Recall for dc:

dc
max

= RC

sin (t) dt = -1/ cos (t) + C

d/dt sin (t) = cos(t)

it (t ) = e t ( A1 cos d t + A2 sin d t )

d/dt i(0) = A2 A1

d/dt i(0) = s1A1 + s2A2

d/dt i(0) = A2 d A1

d/dt i(t) = [( A2 d A1 ) cos dt (A1d + A2 ) sin dt ] e-t

d/dt i(t) = ( A2 A1 A2t ) e-t

it (t ) = ( A1 + A2t )e t

d/dt i(t) = s1A1es t + s2A2es t

it (t ) = A1e s1t + A2 e s2t

Derivatives of I(t) [or V(t)] RLC solutions

Square (Square root) relationships: 12=1, 22=4, 32=9, 42=16, 52=25, 62=36, 72=49, 82=64, , 92=81, 102=100, 112=121, 122=144

(fg) = fg + fg (product rule)

cos (t) dt = 1/ sin (t) + C

= L/R

d/dt cos (t) = - sin(t)

Useful derivatives and integrals

Aest dt = 1/s Aest + C

st

d/dt Ae = sAest

Inductor-Current Step Response for an RL Circuit

4 R TH

VTH

ZL = Z*TH = R TH j XTH

ZTH = R TH + j XTH

Capacitor-Voltage Step Response for an RC Circuit

Max ac avg.
power is:

Max. avg. ac power to load when:

Given a Thevenin Eq. Impedance: