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Mitosis Homologous chromosomes = 1 pair of chromosomes 1 chromosome = a homologue 1. 2. 3. 4.

homologous chromosomes are similar in size, shape, centromere position, staining pattern. one homologue from male parent, one female pair up during Prophase I of meiosis Genes for same characters at corresponding loci (singular locus), determine same traits, might not be identical for what they code for. Diploid cell (2n) species with 2 sets of chromosomes are diploid cells have 2 sets of chromosomes, one set from each parent Haploid cell gametes of animal species and flowering plants Cell Cycle Sequence of events between the formation of a cell and the division into daughter cells (A) Interphase Longest phase of cell cycle Period of synthesis and growth Cell produces many materials required for carrying out its functions Cell replicates DNA, prepare for B (B) Nuclear Division Mitosis or Meiosis (C) Cytokinesis Division of cytoplasmic contents into 2 daughter cells

Interphase Preparation for mitosis/meiosis Non diving phase, 90% of cell cycle G1 (1st growth phase) S (Synthesis) internsive cellular synthesis to form new organelles substances produced to inhibit or stimulate onset of next phase DNA replication+ synthesis (DNA content doubles) each chromosome has now two chromatids continuation of intensive cellular synthesis centrioles replicate (not in higher plants) mitotic spindle begins to form plants: make a lot of mitochondria and chloroplasts, build up large energy store for nuclear division, cytokinesis.)

From each pair of centroles, short microtubules develop and form a star-shaped structure called an aster. Mitotic spondle begins to form

G2 (2nd growth phase

Prometaphase nuclear envelope fragments - each of 2 chromatids of a chromosome now develops a structure at the centromere called the kinetochore. - Bundles of microtubules forming spindle fibres extend from each pole toward cell equator and attach to the kinetochore at the centromere. Chromosomes start moving to centre Metaphase chromosomes line up at metaphase plate attached by their centromeres to spindle fibres Anaphase rapid stage, centromere of each chromosome divides into two, sister chromatids separate kinetochore microtubules shorten and pull chromatids to opposite poles sister chromatids move to opposite ends of the spindle non kinetochore microtubules lengthen elongate the cell Telophase chromatids reach poles of cell chromatids uncoil back to chromatin spindle fibres disintegrate nuclear envelope reforms nucleoli reappear Cytokinesis [animals]

Interphase (resting stage) - G1, S, G2 - Chromosomes are duplicated but exists as chromatin (cannot be distinguished individually) - Nucleus and nucleolus well defined and bounded by nuclear envelope - Single centrosome replicated to form 2 centrosomes Prophase - chromatin fibres shorten and thicken by spiralisation and condensation each chromosome appears as 2 identical sister chromatids joined together at centromere Nucleoli disappear Centrioles move to opposite poles of cell

spindle fibres disappear, just beneath the plasma membrane, the cell membrane begins to invaginate as a band of microfilaments at the former spindle equator contracts forming a cleavage furrow. Contractions continue form 2 daughter cells

number of existing cells within organism increases and new cells are identical to existing

During , chromosomes of one homologous pair will separate independently of the other pairs to form daughter cells. How one homologous pair/each chromosome Factors leading to genetic variation 1. crossing over Prophase I 2. mendals law of independent assortment 3. random fertilization

[plants] centrioles absent, asters not formed, cytokinesis occurs by forming cell plate, occurs in meristemic tissue

Golgi apparatus produces a number of small fluid-filled vesicles which first appears in centre of cell. Guided by microtubules, the vesicles merge to form cell plate which grows across equatorial plane. Contents of Golgi vesicles contribute to new cell walls of daughter cells while membranes form new cell membranes. Spreading cell plate fuses with parents cell wall, separates 2 daughter cells.

(4) Regeneration and Cell replacement mitotic division ensures that damage cells in an organism are replaced by new cells that are identical to original cells - mitosis helps in cell replacement, regeneration of missing parts to varying degrees in multicellular organisms Meiosis In sexual reproduction, there is a need to form haploid GAMETES.

SIGNIFICANCE OF MITOSIS (1) Maintains genetic stability Mitotic division produces 2 daughter cells, each with the same number of chromosomes and hereditary information as parent cell. Daughter cells genetically identical to parent cell and genetic stability is maintained within populations of cells (2) Asexual reproduction mitotic division is the means for some plant and animal to produce asexually. (e.g. binary fission in Amoeba, development of new potato from tuber) (3) Growth mitosis takes place during growth of organism -

Nuclei of male and female gametes fuse to produce zygote with diploid number of chromosomes. Diploid condition of cells is restored and maintained.

Meiosis creates genetic VARIATION accumulate heritable variations that are favoured by particular environment indiv. In population have appropriate genes to cope with environment change

Mendels law of independent assortment During , homologous chromosomes, each consisting of one maternal and one paternal chromosome are randomly arranged at equator. Arrangement of one pair of homologous chromosome at the equator is independent of the other pairs of homologous chromosomes.

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