Pumped-hydro energy storage: potential

for transformation from single dams

Analysis of the potential for transformation of non-hydropower dams and reservoir hydropower
schemes into pumping hydropower schemes in Europe
Roberto Lacal Arntegui, Institute for Energy and Transport, Joint Research
Centre of the European Commission, Petten, the Netherlands.
Niall Fitzgerald and Paul Leahy, Sustainable Energy Research Group,
University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
EUR 25239 EN - 2012
2
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Joint Research Centre
Institute for Energy and Transport

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Address: Westerduinweg 3, NL-1755 LE Petten, the Netherlands
E-mail: roberto.lacal-arantegui@ec.europa.eu
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Fax: +31 224 565 616

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JRC 68678

EUR 25239 EN
ISBN 978-92-79-23182-7
ISSN 1831-9424
doi:10.2790/44844

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Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged

Printed in the Netherlands


3
1able of contents
Introduction 4
1 Deinition o a methodology or transormation 5
1.1 Diersity o topologies or PlS transormation 5
1.2 Introduction to countries selected as case studies 5
1.3 Methodology or transormation 6
1.4 Country potential 10
1.5 GIS implementation 11
2 Database o dams and hydropower schemes 11
2.1 Countries included in database 12
2.2 Data sources 13
2.3 Database ields 1
2.4 Disclaimer o warranty and citations o data utilised in database 18
3 Potential or transormation to PlS 19
3.1 Data required and data processing 19
3.2 Design o ArcGIS model 24
3.3 Scenario design 1A & 1B 2
3.4 Result o the analysis 29
4 Barriers to the realisation o this potential 3
4.1 1opographical barriers 3
4.2 Lconomic barriers 38
4.3 Social barriers 41
4.4 Lnironmental and planning barriers 41
4.5 \ater supply barriers 42
4.6 llood protection 42
4. Conclusions o the barriers analysis 42
5 1opics or uture research 43
5.1 Post modelling site analysis 43
5.2 luture model deelopment 44
5.3 lurther related research 45
5.4 Potential co-operation with GRanD 46
6 Methodological remarks and conclusions 4
Conclusions 48
Reerences 48
lurther reading 51
Acknowledgements 52

4
Introduction
Llectricity supply and demand has to be balanced or the system to work smoothly and or
achieing this balance systems use demand-, supply- and system-based elements and measures.
In modern electricity grids electricity storage is a major system resource to keep that balance,
and currently the only widespread, large-scale electricity storage installed are reseroir-based
hydropower and pumped hydropower storage ,PlS, |1[. One dierence between both is that
PlS can act as load when electricity is spare in the system thus absorbing the excesses.
1he decarbonisation o electricity systems requires increased use o renewable energies, the
astest-growing o those, solar and wind, are dependent on natural resources that are not
necessarily aailable when electricity is most demanded. Increased penetration o wind and
solar electricity is thereore dependent, among other actors, on electricity systems deeloping
larger storage capacities. 1he problem is compounded by the eects o climate change on the
aailability o rain and thus hydropower generation.
1he potential or urther conentional hydropower in Lurope is limited because o
enironmental considerations, lack o adequate sites and certain social acceptance issues. New
PlS schemes are subject to similar limitations, but this is likely not to be the case or PlS
resulting rom the transormation o existing hydropower and non-hydropower reseroirs.
Reasons include that an existing reseroir, candidate or transormation to PlS, already caused
eects ,e.g. enironmental, long time ago and currently orms part o a more stable system
where -hopeully- those problems hae been alleiated. 1he two-dam system PlS is, in this
context, a closed-circuit whose PlS-related impact is unlikely to signiicantly spread beyond the
system. 1he transormation o single reseroirs to PlS thereore becomes the simplest way to
add electricity storage capacity, has lower costs than new PlS and lower enironmental impact
than new reseroir hydropower.
A PlS scheme, while not necessarily adding more electricity o renewable origin ,PlS
electricity is as renewable as the electricity that was used to pump the water up in the irst time,
minus the cycle eiciency losses o 15-30 ,, would allow the integration o more renewable
ariable electricity |2[. Other system beneits include the replacement o expensie peak-sering
power plants uelled by oil or natural gas and, beyond electricity production, the contribution to
lood control and water supply that are typical o any reseroir-based hydropower plant.
1he analysis o hydropower potential has been widely explored. lor example, the Luropean
Lnironmental Agency commissioned ALA to deine a methodology to estimate the Luropean
enironmentally compatible potential or small hydropower ,SlP, |3[. loweer, a literature
search exercise showed that the PlS potential has hardly been analysed. 1he analysis o the
potential or PlS -or or transormation to PlS or this matter- was carried out in Lurope at
project leel by priate companies ,e.g. R\L,, at regional ,e.g. Canary Islands, and national
,e.g. Ireland, leels, but a similar analysis was neer carried out or the whole o Lurope.
1he objectie o this report is to deine a methodology or inding the potential or
transormation to pumped hydro schemes ,PlS, under two gien topologies, and to test this
methodology in two cases, Croatia and 1urkey. 1he methodology uses a geographical
inormation system ,GIS, tool and a purposely-deeloped database o Luropean reseroirs.
Section 1 o this report deelops the methodology under two dierent topologies. Section 2
deines the database o hydropower and non-hydropower reseroirs on which the methodology
is based, and how it was created. Section 3 applies the methodology to the data in the database
and describes and quantiies the potential or transormation to PlS or the two case studies.
Section 4 then identiies barriers to the realisation o this potential whereas Section 5 identiies
topics or uture research and Section 6 summarises the indings.

5
J Definition of a methodology for transformation
J.J Diersity o topologies or PlS transormation
A PlS scheme requires the existence o an upper and a lower reseroir between which water is
pumped up -mostly in o-peak periods- to store hydraulic potential energy and then released
down through a turbine -mostly in peak periods- to produce electricity. One or two penstocks
join the two reseroirs and a power house, oten built inside the mountain, contains the
pumping and generation as well as any ancillary equipment. A dynamic representation o how a
PlS works is aailable at Verbund`s web site |5[.
1he ollowing topologies or transormation would be possible.
1opology A (1A): when a reseroir exists already 1A consists o adding a second
reseroir, normally at a higher eleation, plus penstock and equipment. 1he Dinorwig PlS
plant project in Gwynedd, North \ales, UK, is an example o 1A.
1opology B (1B): when two reseroirs already exist and are within suitable distance and
dierence in eleation, 1B consists o adding generation and pumping equipment between
them. Lxisting natural lakes can also be considered one o the two reseroirs in this
topology, and these dams might be in the same rier or in parallel alleys. Limberg II PlS
plant in Kaprun, Salzburg, Austria, a 480-M\ plant due or completion in 2011, is an
example o a 1B PlS transormation |5[.
1his research deelops those two topologies, but it would be possible to analyse the potential
or transormation under the ollowing three more topologies:
1opology C: when an old, abandoned pit or quarry is aailable this one could take the role
o the existing reseroir in 1A aboe, or used as new ,e.g. upper, reseroir i geography so
permits.
1opology D: pump-back` in an existing 2-dam system a penstock and a pump are added
to send water back rom the lower reseroir to the upper one.
1opology L: the lower reseroir is the sea and the upper reseroir is build aboe clis
close to the sea. 1his topology was implemented or the irst time in Okinawa, Japan |52[.
1his paper will not extent on the latter three topologies nor in other ideas proposed by
researchers.
1hroughout this document the terms dam` and reseroir` are used as equialents.
J.2 Introduction to countries selected as case studies
1urkey and Croatia were selected as the countries that will be analysed or the potential
transormation o dams to PlS using the methodology deined in Section 0.
J.2.J Croatia
1he total aerage electricity generation in Croatia is 12 500 G\h per year, o which
hydropower plants contribute 5 00 G\h ,Lurostat aerage rom 2005 to 2009
1
,, and account
or 2 06 M\ o installed power. 1otal annual consumption reaches around 18 000 G\h and
thereore local hydropower plants supply 31 o Croatian consumption. Croatia currently has
3 PlS plants in operation: RlL Velebit |[ ,generation capacity 26 M\ ,2x138,, pumping

1
Calculation rom Lurostat tables nrg_105a and nrg_102a in Lnergy Statistics ,nrg_10, - supply, transormation,
consumption |6[

6
capacity 240 M\ ,2x120,,, luzine ,generation capacity 4.6 M\, pumping capacity 4.8 M\,
and Lepenica |8[

,generation capacity 1.14 M\, pumping capacity 1.25 M\,.
Croatia has set a target to increase the share o electricity rom renewable energy sources, and
this includes 1200 M\ o wind by 2020. lor the purpose o proiding incenties, Croatia does
not take into account RLS electricity rom large hydropower ,capacity o 10 M\ or more, |9[.
1he high penetration o hydropower in Croatia and their commitment to a 20 share o
renewable energy in its total consumption by 2020 |10[, along with its numerous electricity
interconnections, make Croatia a suitable candidate or this study. Croatia is directly
interconnected to Sloenia, Bosnia and lerzegoina, Serbia and lungary, which creates the
potential to store surplus wind generation rom these neighbouring countries.
J.2.2 1urkey
1he total aerage electricity generation in 1urkey is 195 000 G\h per year, o which
hydropower plants contribute 38 000 G\h ,Lurostat aerage rom 2005 to 2009
1
, and account
or 14 550 M\ |11[ o installed power at the end o 2009, thus hydropower plants supply 20
o 1urkish demand. DSI |12[ suggests that only 35 o estimated economic potential or
hydropower is utilised in 1urkey, and the 1urkish goernment hopes that hydropower capacity
will expand to 35 000 M\ by the year 2020 |13[. 1able 1 presents a broad oeriew o dam
projects in operation and under construction.
Projects In operation Under construction Planned
Large dams 260 63
Small dams 413 83
lydroelectric plants ,no., 12 148 1 418
lydroelectric capacity ,M\, 13 00 8 600 22 00
Annual aerage generation ,G\h,yr,
2
48 000 20 000 2 000
1able 1: list o existing dams and dams under construction in 1urkey in 2008 |61[
1urkey is a suitable country or this study due to the large number o dam sites, and thus the
large number o potential transormation sites, and o its target to increase the country`s
installed wind power capacity to 20 000 M\ by the year 2023 |14[. Both actors make o the
1urkish case representatie o the potential transormation o dams to PlS in some other
Luropean countries.
J.3 Methodology or
transormation
1he methodology or the
transormation o existing reseroirs
into PlS, under both 1A and 1B, is
set out below. A high leel
methodology low chart is described
in ligure 1 which shows the low o
decisions which need to be
implemented. In the subsequent
sections each stage o the
methodology is described and
implementation details are proided.

2
Note the discrepancies with Lurostat data or generation
3
It has to be noted that the inal parameters used were een more restrictie, see e.g. 1able 10
Initial physical characteristics for transformation
3
Value
Minimum size o existing reseroir ,m
3
, 1 million
,or, minimum hydropower capacity ,M\, 1
Max distance between reseroirs ,dams, ,km, 5
Minimum head ,m, 150
1opology A, assumed new reseroir surace , m, 0 000
Minimum distance rom inhabited sites to new dam
inrastructure ,m,
200
Minimum distance rom existing transportation
inrastructure to new dam inrastructure ,m,
100
Minimum distance to a UNLSCO site ,km, 5
Potential site should not be in a Natura 2000 area
Maximum distance to suitable grid connection ,km, 20
1able 2: summary o parameters used or analysing the potential


J.3.J 1ransormation topography, physical characteristics and assumptions
lirst, the topography and physical characteristics or transormation must be deined, and
assumptions must be made on distances to key eatures ,e.g. inhabited sites,, sources o data,
etc. Lach site
can then be
assessed in a
consistent and
uniorm
manner. An
oeriew o
the physical
characteristics
and
assumptions
is presented in
1able 2,
where the
alues were
deried rom
experience
and rom
examination
o existing
schemes.
1he study
concentrates
on the major
dams and
thereore
excludes all
dams and
hydropower
schemes that
hae a water
storage
capacity less
than 1 million
m and hae a
nominal
electricity
capacity o
less than
1 M\. 1he
existing
reseroir can
either be the
upper or the lower reseroir o a potential transormation site under 1A. In the case o
topology B both reseroirs hae to already exist and the assumption is that the penstock,
generation and pumping equipment must be added.
Dam types. It was assumed that all types o dams are suitable or transormation
regardless o the dam construction type ,rock-ill, concrete etc.,.
ligure 1: methodology low chart. 1he dashed line at grid transmission capacity exists
indicates elements not applied because o lack o appropriate data
6l5 mop
Physico/ potentio/
country potentio/
Constra|nts 1heoretico/ potentio/
1opographlcal
analysls
hyslcal
resLrlcLlons
analysls
unLSCC slLes
naLural spaces
1ransporL lnfrasLrucLure
lnhablLed slLes
Crld analysls
L||m|nate over|aps
between 1A & 18
lnfrostructuro/ potentio/
Crld Lransmlsslon llnes presenL
Crld Lransmlsslon capaclLy exlsLs
uotobose of reservoirs
Mln. reservolr/MW slze
ulsLance beLween dams
Mlnlmum head
Mln. new reservolr slze (1A)

8
1he distance between the existing and the prospective reservoirs under 1A, or
between the two reseroirs under 1B, must not be greater than 5 km. I greater, the
transormation to PlS will be deemed not iable. 1his distance is normally measured
between their dams.
Head. 1he head or a transormation to PlS should be 150 m or greater, i not then the
transormation to PlS will be deemed to be not iable.
Volume and surface of a new reservoir. 1he analysis must assume a standard area or
the size o a prospectie new reseroir in order or constraints to be applied. Based on the
requirement o a minimum olume o 1 million m, and on an indicatie reseroir depth o
20 m, the resulting minimum indicatie reseroir surace is 50 000 m. In order to take into
account embankments and other inrastructure, a minimum indicatie size o any
prospectie reseroir site or 1A should be 0 000 m.
Human presence. 1he restriction
on inhabited sites is that i there is
an inhabited area within 200 m o a
new construction, either a new
reseroir or the corresponding
penstock, in a transormation site
then the transormation to PlS will
be deemed to be not iable. ligure 2
illustrates this restriction or 1A.
Both the dams already exist or 1B
so the inhabited constraint is that
there should be no generation,
pumping and penstock placed on or
within 200 m o an inhabited site.
1ransport infrastructure. I there is transport inrastructure within 100 m o a
transormation site then the transormation to PlS will be deemed to be not iable.
1ransportation inrastructure reers to public roads, train lines and bridges ,road or rail
bridges,.
Grid infrastructure. I the transormation site is a no hydro-dam then there must be
suitable grid inrastructure within 20 km, i not the transormation to PlS will be deemed
to be not iable. Application o this constraint will be subject to public aailability o data,
which may not be the case due to security or other considerations.
J.3.2 Lnergy storage
1he potential energy storage will be analysed or each potential site, but it will also be used
when merging the results o 1A and 1B into a global country potential to eliminate oerlaps.
1he theoretical energy storage aailable rom a reseroir can be expressed as:

where:
L ~ energy storage capacity in \h
_ ~ eiciency ,in general ranging 0.5 to 0.80,
p ~ density ,kg,m
3
, ,~ 1000 kg,m
3
or water
g ~ acceleration o graity ,9.81 m,s
2
,
h ~ alling height, head ,m,
V ~ Volume o water in the upper reseroir ,m
3
,

Lx|st|ng dam otent|a| dam s|te
200m
200m
200m
200m
Area 70 000 m
ligure 2: 1opology A - minimum distance to inhabited sites
3600

=
V h g
E

9
J.3.3 Methodology deinition
lor each o topology A and B the ollowing steps and deinitions apply to a database o
reseroirs aboe the minimum size as in 1able 2:
1heoretical potential: the theoretical potential is the result o applying in the GIS programme
the restrictions o minimum reseroir size, maximum distances between reseroirs, and
minimum head to eery reseroir in the database.
Physical potential: the theoretical potential will be iltered or distances to UNLSCO sites, to
natural reseres, to transport inrastructure and to inhabited sites to eliminate any sites which
do not meet the deined speciication or a site to be suitable or transormation to PlS. 1he
result will be the physical potential or both 1A and 1B.
Infrastructural potential: when grid maps are aailable the ilter o distance to the grid
connection will be applied to obtain the Inrastructural` potential. lor the time being it was
not possible to obtain data on capacity o the power grid and thus this aspect was not analysed.
Country potential: both inrastructural potentials ,1A and 1B, will be analysed to eliminate
oerlaps to realise each country potential. 1he rules o how the global country potential will be
reached will be deined in section 1.4.
Lach dam,reseroir in the country being analysed will be gien a unique ID, henceorth termed
Dam ID`, used to identiy each dam during the analysis.
J.3.4 lilters
1opography. 1he topographical analysis is the irst stage o iltering down the potential
transormation sites, and uses the distance between dams and minimum head ilters. Lach o
the reseroirs will be analysed under 1B to ind out whether another dam is within 5 km o the
Dam ID and whether the head is greater than 150 m. lor 1A the GIS analysis will check
whether there is a suitable plateau within 5 km o Dam ID and at least 150 m aboe Dam ID`s
eleation.
Dam ID sites passing this phase will hae one or more potential .ecova re.erroir associated, which
will constitute the theoretical potential or transormation. 1hen all Dam IDs haing passed
this topography ilter will hae the ollowing listed constraints applied to them.
Inhabited sites. lor 1A i there is any inhabited site within 200 m o the potential site or a
second reseroir or o the direct penstock link between it and Dam ID, this potential reseroir
is considered unsuitable or transormation and the potential site is dropped. 1he question is
then repeated or any subsequent potential second-dam site or the same Dam ID, then or all
the other Dam IDs. lor 1A the ilter is applied to the direct penstock link between two Dam
IDs making up a potential site or transormation.
1he inal application o this constraint will depend on the public aailability o detailed
inormation on settlements, but the presence o settlement cluster,s,, rather than an indiidual
dwelling, will be deemed to constitute a suicient leel o habitation to apply the constraint in
any particular case.
1ransport infrastructure. 1his part analyses whether there is any transport inrastructure site
within 100 m o the potential site or a second reseroir or o the direct penstock link between
it and Dam ID, as in the inhabited sites case or 1A and 1B.
1ransport inrastructure here reers to public roads, bridges and railways. As in the preious
case i the answer is yes the potential site is dropped. 1he question is then repeated or any
subsequent potential site or the same Dam ID, then or all the other Dam IDs.

10
UNLSCO and natural spaces. 1his aspect o the analysis ocuses on nature conseration
sites and archaeological and historic location sites
4
and more concretely Natura 2000 areas,
those associated to the LUROPARC ederation |15[, included in UNLSCO Biosphere Resere
|16[ or \orld leritage lists |1[, special areas o conseration ,SAC,, or national parks -most o
which are already included in the Biosphere Resere or LUROPARC lists.
Grid infrastructure. Suitable grid inrastructure must be within 20 km o Dam ID. \hen Dam
ID is an existing hydropower reseroir the answer is already yes - howeer, this approach
obiates whether the existing hydropower site could be enlarged as a result o this analysis
because then a higher-capacity export line could be needed. lor non-hydropower reseroirs this
constrain is most releant. \hen suitable GIS-shaped inormation on the capacity o the grid
transmission lines becomes aailable, this ilter could be applied at this stage thus improing the
quality o the inrastructural potential.
J.4 Country potential
It is assumed that when both generation and pumping equipment is required this will be in the
orm o pump-turbines. 1hen only one penstock will be required.
1ransormation ollowing 1A will always require the construction o a new reseroir, pumping,
equipment and the associated penstock,s, and normally, unless it is a pump-back PlS ,not
analysed here,, the installation o generation equipment. 1ransormation ollowing 1B will not
require the construction o a second reseroir but will require the installation o generation and
pumping equipment and the associated penstocks. 1able 3 below illustrates the required
modiication needed to the existing reseroirs, whether a no-hydro or hydro reseroir, under
1A and 1B.
1opology A 1opology B
Required modification
No-hydro
reservoir
Hydro
reservoir
No-hydro
reservoir
Hydro
reservoir
Add new reseroir \es \es No No
Add generation \es \es
note
\es \es
note

Add pumping \es \es \es \es
Add penstock \es \es \es \es
1able 3: matrix analysis o the modiications needed or the dierent conersion options
Note: - 1he existing generation equipment installed at a hydropower reseroir would not be
suitable, in most cases, to be used or transormation to PlS. 1he reason is that existing
generation equipment was designed or the head o the existing hydro scheme. In 1A the new
reseroir will normally be the upper reseroir, thus new generation equipment is required. In
1B existing generation equipment will neer be suitable gien the dierence in heads, lows and
capacities. One case under 1A where existing generation equipment may be used is or pump-
back PlS ,topology D,. In this case, the new reseroir is constructed directly below the
existing reseroir, thus the head will be the same as the existing hydropower scheme. lor
pump-back PlS the generation equipment may be replaced with pump turbines
5
. Another
scenario is to install a separate pump unit and related penstock, which would reduce the impact
on the current generation unit while the transormation is occurring.

4
1hls llsL of consLralnLs ls from Lhe uk LnvlronmenLal Agency, good pracLlce guldellnes Lo Lhe envlronmenLal agency
handbook, 1he envlronmenLal assessmenL of proposed low head hydropower developmenLs,
hLLp://publlcaLlons.envlronmenL-agency.gov.uk/pdf/CLPC03108SC1-L-L.pdf
3
ump-Lurblnes refer Lo a unlL whlch ls reverslble so lL can boLh generaLe and pump and share Lhe same pensLock.
lurLher analysls of each lndlvldual hydropower dam LransformaLlon slLe would be requlred ln order Lo access Lhe
poLenLlal Lo replace currenL generaLlon equlpmenL wlLh pump Lurblne equlpmenL for a pump-back PS.

11
J.4.J Merging topologies A and B
1he process o merging topologies A and topology B results into an oerall country potential
and must eliminate oerlaps. 1he leel o modiication detailed aboe to transorm to PlS will
be taken into account in selecting the preerred option or each site. In this study and at this
stage this is done by giing 1B a higher priority than 1A when a gien Dam ID results in both
options. 1he reason or this
choice is that 1B being
based in two existing
dams,reseroirs, it will only
be necessary to add
generation and pumping
equipment, see note in
1able 3 and the dierence
in cost that is discussed in
section 4.2.4.
J.S GIS
implementation
GIS shapeiles ,layers, will
be required to build up a
ull country map or each o
the proposed countries.
Digital terrain maps will be
used to proide topographic
inormation.
Additional data will include:
country maps ,riers, water
bodies,, topography layer
,eleation data,, inhabited
sites, enironmental
sensitiity ,Natura 2000,
LUROPARC, UNLSCO,
SAC, and national parks,,
and electricity grid both at
distribution and transmission
leel.
2 Database of dams and hydropower schemes
A suitable database o dams with or without a linked hydropower scheme was necessary or
inding the potential or transormation. Initial screening o public and priate databases
showed that none o them included the ull range o details needed or this project, the most
problematic o which were the geographical coordinates and eleation, and the reseroir
capacity. In this assessment is included a ocus on reseroirs that either hae a water storage
capacity larger than 1 million m or hae a turbine capacity o 1 M\ and a geographical
coerage including the members o the Luropean Union ,LU, |18[, the Luropean lree 1rade
Area |19[, the \estern Balkans, LU candidate countries and LU potential candidate countries
|20[.

country Mop li/e
/evotion uoto li/e
1ronsport lnfrostructure
woter 8odies
6rid lnfrostructure
lnhobited 4reos
Cvera|| country map made up of shapef||e |ayers
nvironmento/ 5ensitivity
Natura 2000
LUkCAkC Iederat|on
UNLSCC
SAC
Nat|ona| ark
uom Locotions
ligure 3: GIS shapeile layers to orm an oerall country map

12
1his section describes the sources and methodology used to build the database and discusses
the reasons why some data were unaailable. 1he ields in the database are also explained.
2.J Countries included in database
Country Status Country Status
Albania Potential Candidate Country

Latia Member State o LU
Austria Member State o LU

Liechtenstein Luropean lree 1rade Area
Belgium Member State o LU

Lithuania Member State o LU
Bosnia-lerzegoina Potential Candidate Country

Luxemburg Member State o LU
Bulgaria Member State o LU

Malta Member State o LU
Croatia Candidate Countries

Montenegro Potential Candidate Country
Cyprus Member State o LU

Netherlands Member State o LU
Czech Republic Member State o LU

Norway Luropean lree 1rade Area
Denmark Member State o LU

Poland Member State o LU
Lstonia Member State o LU

Portugal Member State o LU
linland Member State o LU

Romania Member State o LU
lormer \ug. Rep. O Macedonia Candidate Countries

Serbia Potential Candidate Country
lrance Member State o LU

Sloakia Member State o LU
Germany Member State o LU

Sloenia Member State o LU
Greece Member State o LU

Spain Member State o LU
lungary Member State o LU

Sweden Member State o LU
Iceland Candidate Countries

Switzerland Luropean lree 1rade Area
Ireland Member State o LU

1urkey Candidate Countries
Italy Member State o LU

Ukraine Other Luropean Country
Kosoo ,Under Unscr 1244, Potential Candidate Country

United Kingdom Member State o LU
1able 4: list o countries included in the database and their LU status



Country Hydropower
generation (GWh)
1otal gross electricity
generation (GWh)
Hydropower
Percentage
Source
Albania 4 200 4 250 LIA
Austria 36 34 65 500 55 Lurostat
Belgium 362 86 5 0 Lurostat
Bosnia-lerzegoina 5 050 12 260 41 LIA
Bulgaria 3 568 44 636 8 Lurostat
Croatia 5 446 12 365 44 Lurostat
Cyprus 0 4 45 0 Lurostat
Czech Republic 2 261 84 664 3 Lurostat
Denmark 25 39 349 0 Lurostat
Lstonia 21 10 6 0 Lurostat
linland 14 142 884 18 Lurostat
lormer \ug. Rep. O Macedonia 1 240 6 250 20 LIA
lrance 5 93 54 150 10 Lurostat
Germany 20 339 632 803 3 Lurostat
Greece 4 242 62 014 Lurostat
lungary 203 3 900 1 Lurostat
Iceland 156 9 308 Lurostat
Ireland 48 2 840 3 Lurostat
Italy 36 85 312 09 12 Lurostat
Kosoo ,Under Unscr 1244,
Latia 2 966 4 960 60 Lurostat
Liechtenstein
Lithuania 418 13 96 3 Lurostat
Luxemburg 113 4 00 3 Lurostat
Malta 0 2 140 0 LIA
Montenegro 1 640 2 40 60 LIA
Netherlands 101 102 855 0 Lurostat

13
Country Hydropower
generation (GWh)
1otal gross electricity
generation (GWh)
Hydropower
Percentage
Source
Norway 132 05 134 862 98 Lurostat
Poland 2 18 158 551 1 Lurostat
Portugal 8 156 4 210 1 Lurostat
Romania 1 931 62 185 29 Lurostat
Serbia 10 090 34 610 29 LIA
Sloakia 4 382 29 960 15 Lurostat
Sloenia 3 584 15 419 23 Lurostat
Spain 24 044 303 05 8 Lurostat
Sweden 6 441 150 205 45 Lurostat
Switzerland 33 368 65 146 51 Lurostat
1urkey 38 232 182 058 21 Lurostat
Ukraine 11 590 180 940 6 LIA
United Kingdom 4 943 395 501 1 Lurostat
1able 5: oeriew o the percentage o hydropower generation. Sources: Lurostat |6[, LIA |21[
1able 5 presents an oeriew o the percentage o electricity generated by hydropower, on
aerage 2005 to 2008 when the source is Lurostat |6[, in the countries included in the database.
Data rom LIA |21[ is 4- or 5-yr aerage and total generation is net instead o gross, and the
percentages are thereore calculated on a dierent basis yet they all are representatie. It is clear
rom this table that hydropower plays an important role in the electricity generation portolios
o most countries in Lurope.
2.2 Data sources
As pointed out aboe, error-ree global data sets describing reseroir characteristics and
geographical distribution are largely incomplete. 1he best and most comprehensie global dam
database, the \orld Register o Dams, is compiled by the International Commission on Large
Dams ,ICOLD, |22[ and currently lists more than 33 000 records o large reseroirs and their
attributes. loweer, this database is not geo-reerenced thus its use is limited or this project.
Despite this and because it is the most comprehensie database aailable, it orms the primary
data source or this study.
Lach data source that was used to compile the database will be described below. lor each o
the countries a justiication o eort taken to gather the data will be made in the cases where
the dataset is not ully complete.
2.2.J International Commission o Large Dams ,ICOLD,, \orld Register o Dams
1be vtervatiovat Covvi..iov ov arge Dav. ;COD) i. a vovgorervvevtat ivtervatiovat orgavi.atiov
rbicb proriae. a forvv for tbe ecbavge of /vorteage ava eperievce iv aav evgiveerivg. 1be Orgavi.atiov
teaa. tbe profe..iov iv ev.vrivg tbat aav. are bvitt .afet,, efficievtt,, ecovovicatt,, ava ritbovt aetrivevtat effect.
ov tbe evrirovvevt. t. origivat aiv ra. to evcovrage aaravce. iv tbe ptavvivg, ae.igv, cov.trvctiov, operatiov,
ava vaivtevavce of targe aav. ava tbeir a..ociatea cirit ror/., b, cottectivg ava ai..evivativg reteravt
ivforvatiov ava b, .tva,ivg retatea tecbvicat qve.tiov.. ivce tbe tate .itie., focv. ra. pvt ov .vb;ect. of cvrrevt
covcerv .vcb a. aav .afet,, vovitorivg of perforvavce, reavat,.i. of otaer aav. ava .pittra,., effect. of ageivg
ava evrirovvevtat ivpact. More recevtt,, ver .vb;ect. ivctvae co.t .tvaie. at tbe ptavvivg ava cov.trvctiov
.tage., barve..ivg ivtervatiovat rirer., ivforvatiov for tbe pvbtic at targe, ava fivavcivg. ,Background
description rom ICOLD |22[,
ICOLD produce the world register o dams. 1his database is compiled by ICOLD by accessing
data through the ICOLD representaties o the member countries, is a comprehensie database
o hydropower and no-hydropower reseroirs and proides detailed inormation on each
reseroir listed.
1he ICOLD database has some drawbacks or this project mainly because o the coerage and
accuracy o the data proided. 1he primary o these drawbacks is that it does not proide geo-

14
reerencing or eleation inormation. 1here are also issues with the accuracy o the storage
capacity and area o some o the reseroirs. 1he GRanD project team hae also highlighted this
as an issue.
Being the most complete source o data on dams globally the world register o dams orms the
primary source o data or this database. \here data are incomplete secondary sources in each
country are also utilised to ill these data gaps.
2.2.J 1he Global Reseroir and Dam ,GRanD, database |23[
1o aaare.. gap. ava .bortcovivg. iv gtobat aav aataba.e., tbe Ctobat !ater ,.tev Pro;ect ;C!P) 21, a
;oivt pro;ect of tbe artb ,.tev cievce Partver.bip ;P), ivitiatea av ivtervatiovat effort to cottate tbe
ei.tivg aav ava re.erroir aata .et. ritb tbe aiv of proriaivg a .ivgte, geograpbicatt, epticit ava retiabte
aataba.e for tbe .cievtific covvvvit,: tbe Ctobat Re.erroir ava Dav ;CRavD) aataba.e. 1be aeretopvevt of
CRavD privarit, aivea at covpitivg tbe araitabte re.erroir ava aav ivforvatiov; correctivg it tbrovgb
etev.ire cro..ratiaatiov, error cbec/ivg, ava iaevtificatiov of avpticate recora., attribvte covftict., or
vi.vatcbe.; ava covptetivg vi..ivg ivforvatiov frov ver .ovrce. or .tati.ticat approacbe.. 1be aav. rere
geo.patiatt, referevcea ava a..igvea to pot,gov. aepictivg re.erroir ovttive. at bigb .patiat re.otvtiov. !bite tbe
vaiv focv. ra. to ivctvae att re.erroir. ritb a .torage capacit, of vore tbav 0.1 /v, vav, .vatter re.erroir.
rere aaaea if aata rere araitabte. 1be cvrrevt rer.iov 1.1 of CRavD covtaiv. ,2 recora. of re.erroir. ava
tbeir a..ociatea aav., ritb a cvvvtatire .torage capacit, of ,1 /v. ;ovrce: CRavD tecbvicat
aocvvevtatiov)
1able 6 presents the number o ICOLD dams that GRanD hae geo-reerenced, and which
contributed a total o 21 o the geo-reerences in the dams in our database. 1he eleation
aboe mean sea leel ,AMSL, o these geo-reerenced dams is also aailable and was added to
the database.
1able 6: percentage o ICOLD dams that hae been geo-reerenced by GRanD
2.2.2 Google Larth manual geo-reerencing o Croatia and 1urkey
A complete set o geo-reerenced dams was required or the potential transormation countries,
Croatia and 1urkey, this was a total o 40 dams in Croatia and 61 dams in 1urkey. As
Country
Number
ICOLD
dams
Number
of GRanD
dams
Percentage
Geo-
referenced

Country
Number
ICOLD
dams
Number
of GRanD
dams
Percentage
Geo-
referenced
Albania 308 5 2 Latia 5 3 60
Austria 168 22 13 Liechtenstein 2 0 0
Belgium 1 5 29 Lithuania 20 2 10
Bosnia-lerzegoina 31 9 29 Luxemburg 1 14
Bulgaria 181 46 25 Malta 0 0 0
Croatia 40 8 20 Montenegro 10 3 30
Cyprus 52 4 8 Netherlands 12 8 6
Czech Republic 126 35 28 Norway 335 125 3
Denmark 10 0 0 Poland 69 29 42
Lstonia 2 0 0 Portugal 151 53 35
linland 56 19 34 Romania 246 80 33
l\RO Macedonia 18 0 0 Serbia 68 19 28
lrance 59 114 19 Sloakia 50 16 32
Germany 30 60 20 Sloenia 3 2 5
Greece 61 19 31 Spain 126 252 20
lungary 16 4 25 Sweden 194 49 25
Iceland 25 6 24 Switzerland 159 38 24
Ireland 18 4 22 1urkey 61 101 15
Italy 549 8 16 Ukraine 22 9 41
Kosoo 2 0 0 United Kingdom 515 89 1
1otal 6424 1326 21

15
presented in 1able 6 GRanD only proides geo-reerencing or 20 and 15 o dams in
Croatia and 1urkey respectiely and thus the remaining dams were geo-reerenced manually
using Google Larth by isually searching there using the nearest town name in the ICOLD
database, then when a dam was located close to nearest town` it was eriied isually in
Google Larth where possible by comparing it with the picture o the dam i aailable. 1his task
was extremely time consuming
6
and although all possible care was taken there may be errors
present due to lack o inormation aailable when isually recognising the dams.
1his methodology was the same one used by the GRanD project or geo-reerencing dams in
their database. \hen sites are geo-reerenced, the eleation AMSL in metres can then be
calculated through ArcGIS using SR1M eleation data. 1his option was preerred to obtaining
eleation directly rom Google Larth or consistency reasons, as the next modelling steps will
be based on SR1M eleation data.
2.2.3 Shuttle Radar 1opography Mission ,SR1M, eleation data
Remotely sensed eleation data were obtained rom the Shuttle Radar 1opography dataset: 1be
CC.RC CeoPortat i. abte to proriae R1M 0v aigitat eteratiov voaet. ;DM) for tbe evtire rorta.
1be R1M aigitat eteratiov aata proriaea ov tbi. .ite ba. beev proce..ea to fitt aata roia., ava to facititate it.
ea.e of v.e b, a riae grovp of potevtiat v.er.. 1be R1M 0 v DM. bare a ;horizontal) re.otvtiov of
0v at tbe eqvator, ava are proriaea iv vo.aic/ea : aeg : aeg tite. for ea., aorvtoaa ava v.e. .tt are
proavcea frov a .eavte.. aata.et to attor ea., vo.aic/ivg. 1be.e are araitabte iv botb .rcvfo .C ava
Ceo1iff forvat to facititate tbeir ea.e of v.e iv a rariet, of ivage proce..ivg ava C appticatiov.. 2:
SR1M`s ertical resolution is approximately 10 m depending on location, and SR1M data are
used to calculate the eleation AMSL by importing the shapeile geo-reerenced in Google
Larth into ArcGIS. 1hen, by running the extract tool` in ArcGIS the geo-reerenced dams
combine with the SR1M eleation to calculate the eleation o each dam. SR1M eleation was
alidated with Google Larth data resulting in ery consistent igures
2.2.4 Regulators and transmission system operators
An area where there was a lack o data in the primary data source was the mean annual energy
,G\h,year, generated rom hydropower plants. 1he electricity regulators and transmission
system operators o each o the countries where data were absent were contacted to request
this data, i publicly aailable. lrom the replies we receied some new data which was
preiously absent, but many o the responses conirmed our initial eeling that this data are
considered commercially sensitie and are not publicly aailable. 1he electricity regulators and
transmission system operators o the countries in the database are listed in 1able .

Country Llectricity Regulator 1ransmission System Operator
Albania Albanian Llectricity Regulatory Authority OS1 sh.a
APG-Austrian Power Grid AG Austria Lnergie-Control Gmbl ,L-Control,
VK\-Netz AG
Belgium Commission pour la Rgulation de l'Llectricit et du Gaz
,CRLG,
Llia System Operator SA
Bosnia-Herzegovina State Llectricity Regulatory Commission ,SLRC, Nezaisni operator sustaa u Bosni i lercegoini
Bulgaria State Lnergy & \ater Regulatory Commission ,SL\RC, Llectroenergien Sistemen Operator LAD
Croatia Croatian energy regulatory agency lLP-Operator prijenosnog sustaa d.o.o.
Cyprus Cyprus Lnergy Regulatory Authority ,CLRA, Cyprus 1ransmission System Operator
Czech Republic Lnergeticky Regulacn rad ,LR, CLPS a.s.
Denmark Lnergitilsynet - Danish Lnergy Regulatory Authority ,DLRA, Lnerginet.dk
Lstonia Lstonian Competition Authority - Lnergy Regulatory Dept
,LCA,
Llering OU
Iinland 1he Lnergy Market Authority ,LMV, lingrid OyJ
Iormer Yug. Rep. Of
Macedonia
Lnergy Regulatory Commission o the Republic o Macedonia Macedonian 1ransmission System Operator AD

6
We estimated at 30 40 sites being geo-referenced per day for one person not knowing the native language.

16
Country Llectricity Regulator 1ransmission System Operator
Irance Commission de Rgulation de l'Lnergie ,CRL, Rseau de 1ransport d'Llectricit
LnB\ 1ransportnetze AG
1enne1 1SO Gmbl
Amprion Gmbl
Germany lederal Network Agency or Llectricity
50lertz 1ransmission Gmbl
Greece Regulatory Authority or Lnergy ,PAL , RAL, lellenic 1ransmission System Operator S.A.
Hungary lungarian Lnergy Oice ,MLl , lLO, MAVIR Magyar Villamosenergia-ipari titeli
Rendszeriranyt Zartkoruen Mukodo Rsznytarsasag
Iceland National Lnergy Authority Landsnet h
Ireland Commission or Lnergy Regulation ,CLR, LirGrid plc
Italy Autorita per l'Lnergia Llettrica e il Gas ,ALLG, 1erna - Rete Llettrica Nazionale SpA
Kosovo (under
UNSCR J244)
Lnergy Regulatory Oice KOS11
Latvia Public Utilities Commission ,PUC, AS Augstsprieguma tIkls
Liechtenstein
Lithuania National Control Commission or Prices and Lnergy ,NCC, LI1GRID AB
Luxemburg Institut Luxembourgeois de Rgulation ,ILR, Creos Luxembourg S.A.
Malta Malta Resources Authority ,MRA,
Montenegro Lnergy Regulatory Agency O Montenegro Crnogorski elektroprenosni sistem AD
Netherlands Dutch Oice o Lnergy Regulation 1enne1 1SO B.V.
Norway Norwegian \ater Resources and Lnergy Directorate ,NVL, Statnett Sl
Poland 1he Lnergy Regulatory Oice o Poland ,LRO, PSL Operator S.A.
Portugal Lnergy Serices Regulatory Authority ,LRSL, Rede Llctrica Nacional, S.A.
Romania Romanian Lnergy Regulatory Authority ,ANRL, C.N. 1ranselectrica S.A.
Serbia Lnergy Agency o the Republic o Serbia JP Llektromreza Srbije
Slovakia Regulatory Oice or Network Industries ,RONI, Sloenska elektrizacna prenosoa sustaa, a.s.
Slovenia Lnergy Agency o the Republic o Sloenia Llektro Sloenija d.o.o.
Spain National Lnergy Commission ,CNL, Red Llctrica de Lspana: S.A.
Sweden Lnergy Markets Inspectorate,LI, Arserket Senska Kratnt
Switzerland Swiss lederal Llectricity Commission LlCom Swissgrid ag
1urkey 1urkish Llectricity 1LIAS
Ukraine National Llectricty Regulatory Comission o Ukraine National Lnergy Company Ukrenergo
National Grid Llectricity 1ransmission plc
System Operation Northern Ireland Ltd
Scottish and Southern Lnergy plc
United Kingdom Oice o Gas and Llectricity Markets ,Ogem,
Scottish Power 1ransmission plc
1able : electricity regulators and transmission system operators o countries in database ,hyperlinked,
2.2.S Sources o country speciic dam inormation
\here inormation was not aailable rom the primary data sources or rom the regulators and
the 1SO`s on dams, attempts where then made to access data rom other sources. 1able 8
proides a list o some o the other sources that were utilised.
Country Secondary data sources
Albania National Agency o Natural Resources
Austria Lurope Lnironment Agency lydro-Austria
Bosnia-lerzegoina http:,,www.hydroworld.com,
Bulgaria Bulgaria Lnergy lolding
Croatia lLP Proizodnja d.o.o.
Czech Republic CLZ
Denmark Lnergy Map
Lstonia INlORSL - Lurope
linland Pamilo lydropower in linland
lormer \ug. Rep. O Macedonia Llem
lrance COMPAGNIL NA1IONALL DU RlNL
Germany R\L http:,,www.industcards.com,ppworld.htm
Iceland Landsirkjun Mannit
Ireland
Lee Catchment llood Risk Assessment and Management
Study

Kosoo ,under UNSCR 1244, Kosoo Lnergy Corporation J.S.C.
Latia Latenergo
Liechtenstein Klimastitung
Lithuania http:,,saule.lms.lt,main,hidro_e.html http:,,www.kruoniohae.lt,en
Luxemburg http:,,www.lahmeyer.de,en,projects,details,project,86,
Montenegro Llektroprireda Crne Gore-LPCG lydropower in Montenegro
Serbia Llectric power industry o Serbia Serbia Lnergy
1urkey General Directorate o State lydraulic \orks Artin - Deriner Baraji e lLS
1able 8: list o secondary sources

1
2.3 Database ields
1his section will describe each ield in the database and explain any abbreiations used, i
applicable.
Dav vave. 1he dam name ield contains the primary name o the dam. Names are gien in
orms with Latinised character sets.
.ttervatire aav vave. I a dam is known by two names or has an alternatie name then it will be
listed in this ield. Lxamples include the ollowing dams in Austria
Dam name Other dam name
Shkopet Shkopeti
1erolit 1erol
Ulza Ulez
Zadeje Vau Dejes
Rirer. 1he rier ield contains the name o the rier that the dam is constructed on.
^eare.t torv. 1he nearest town ield contains the name o the town nearest to the dam site. 1his
data were o particular importance when manually geo-reerencing the dams using Google
Larth.
tate,prorivce,covvt,. 1he state,proince,county ield is the secondary location, i.e. second
administratie entity below country leel. \hicheer ormat is applicable to the country in
question will be entered in this ield.
teratiov ;v). 1he eleation o the dam crest aboe mean sea leel ,AMSL, in metres, rom the
GRanD database and SR1M data as detailed in section 2.2.
atitvae ava tovgitvae ;aegree. ava aecivat.). 1he latitude and longitude ields contain the
latitude,longitude, in degrees and decimal, o approximately the centre o dam.
Dav beigbt ava tevgtb ;v). 1he dam height and length ields contain the height,length o the dam
structure in meters.
Dav rotvve. 1he dam olume is included in two ields with dierent units, one in thousands o
cubic metres, ,1000 m, -a unit consistent with ICOLD-, and the other in m in order to aoid
any conusion caused by the ICOLD unit 1000 m. 1his ield is not
Re.erroir capacit,. 1he reseroir capacity is as well included in two ields with dierent units, one
in thousands o cubic meters, ,1000 m, -a unit consistent with ICOLD-, and the other in m in
order to aoid any conusion caused by the ICOLD unit 1000 m.
Re.erroir area. 1he reseroir area is as well included in two ields with dierent units, one in
thousands o square metres ,1000 m, -a unit consistent with ICOLD-, and the other in m
2
in
order to aoid any conusion caused by the ICOLD unit 1000 m
2
.
tectric iv.tattea capacit, ,M\,. 1his ield is populated when the dam in question is operated as a
hydropower plant.
Meav avvvat everg, ,G\h,year,. 1he mean annual energy ,G\h,year, ield is populated when
the dam in question is operated as a hydropower plant. It was ound that this data are diicult
to acquire or indiidual hydropower plants due to conidentiality requirements within many o
the markets. \here publicly aailable the data were added.
Dav .tatv.. 1he dam status ield deines i the dam structure has been changed oer its lietime.
1he abbreiations used are: A abandoned, l heightened, L lowered, U unchanged, R rebuilt, C
under construction.

18
Year of covptetiov. \ear that the dam came into operation whether it is a hydro or no-hydro dam.
I the dam was changed or repowered in its lietime the re-powering date will appear as ollows
or example, 19xx,xx. 1he 19xx is the original completion date, ,xx is the date o change or
repowering.
Re.erroir pvrpo.e. lield deining how the reseroir is being used. 1he abbreiations are: l~
lPP, S~ water supply, C~ lood control, I~ irrigation, N~ naigation, R~ recreation, l~ ish
breeding, X~ others. I a reseroir has more than one purpose the letters will be listed on ater
another without space or comma. 1he priority o use or reseroirs with more than one
purpose is deined by the order in which they appear. lor example i a reseroir has it purpose
listed as lCI` this means that its main use is hydropower, its second main use is lood
control, then irrigation. 1hese codes ollow the ICOLD conention.
Orver. Name o the company or organisation who is the owner o the dam, when known.
Cov.vttavt,covtractor. Name o the company or organisation that designed,built the dam.
A ield or obserations ,Note, was also included.
2.4 Disclaimer o warranty and citations o data utilised in database
ICOLD ,International Commission on Large Dams,. 1998-2009. \orld Register o Dams.
Version updates 1998-2009. Paris: ICOLD. Aailable online at www.icold-cigb.net. ICOLD
,International Commission on Large Dams,. 1998-2009. \orld Register o Dams. Version
updates 1998-2009. Paris: ICOLD. Aailable online at www.icold-cigb.net.
1his database incorporates data rom the GRanD database which is copyright o the Global
\ater System Project ,2011,. GRanD is described in urther detail by Lehner et al. |26[

19
3 Potential for transformation to PHS
1his section applies the methodology detailed in section 1 to the data described in section 2 or
Croatia and 1urkey, by means o a geographical inormation system ,GIS,, ArcGIS, to describe
and quantiy two potentials ater topology A ,1A, and topology B ,1B,. 1he section details the
data and data iles required to carry out the analysis, the design o the GIS model, the design o
the dierent scenarios and the results o the scenarios.
A transormation site is the original dam under examination with a potential reseroir site
which will create a new PlS plant.
3.J Data required and data processing
1o build up a GIS map the data must be irst gathered and then conerted into a usable ormat.
In order to describe and quantiy the potential or transormation to PlS a number o types o
data are required as detailed below:
3.J.J Coordinate system
A geographic coordinate system is a reerence system that uses latitude and longitude to deine
the locations o points on the surace o a sphere or spheroid. A geographic coordinate system
deinition includes a datum, prime meridian, and angular unit

.
Unlike a geographic coordinate system, a projected coordinate system is deined on a lat, two-
dimensional surace with constant lengths, angles, and areas across the two dimensions - it is
always based on a geographic coordinate system that is based on a sphere or spheroid.
1he modelling process o describing and quantiying the potential or transormation to PlS
requires the GIS data to be in projected coordinate system ormat. 1his is because the analysis
is based around the ArcGIS slope tool, which in order to calculate the slope, requires all inputs
to be in the same ormat. In this case the slope tool requires all data to be in metres and thus a
projected coordinate system is required. All data are downloaded in GCS_\GS_1984
coordinate system. 1hese data are then conerted to projected coordinate system using
ArcGIS` project` tool ,Data management tools,Projections and transormations,.

7
See Wikipedia and ESRI (www.esri.com) for further definitions
Figure 4: SRTM elevation data download map

20
Lach country may cross many U1M zones so when projecting one U1M zone must be
selected. 1he projected coordinate system selected or Croatia is
\GS_1984_U1M_Zone_34N, and or 1urkey is \GS_1984_U1M_Zone_36N
3.J.2 Shuttle Radar 1opography Mission ,SR1M, eleation data
1he eleation data used or the analysis is processed SR1M 90m digital eleation data. 1hese
data were obtained rom the Luropean Commission`s Joint Research Centre website,
http:,,srtm.jrc.ec.europa.eu, and can be downloaded directly rom
http:,,srtm.csi.cgiar.org,SLLLC1ION,inputCoord.asp.
1he SR1M data are aailable or the whole world, which is broken down into 128 blocks. Due
to the data being aailable in blocks, the country o interest may coer more than one o these
blocks. Lach block is downloaded and then merged into one raster layer using ArcGIS` Mosaic
tool ,Raster Dataset,Mosaic to New Raster,, to orm one eleation ile or each country.
ligure 5: methodology or creating a single SR1M raster eleation ile
1hen the mosaicked geographic coordinate system raster ile must be conerted to projected
coordinate system using the project raster tool` which is in the ArcGIS toolbox Data
Management,Projections and 1ransormations,Raster,Project Raster`.
1his new mosaicked layer will not detail the political boundaries o the country o interest. 1his
step uses a layer with the political borders o the country as a cookie cutter` to select only the
SR1M data that in within the political borders. 1his process is executed using the ArcGIS
extract tool ,Spatial Analysis 1ools,Lxtraction,Lxtract by Mask,.
3.J.3 Political borders
1he political borders layer illustrates the shape o the border o the country in question. 1he
layer ile was obtained rom DIVA-GIS |2[ in geographic coordinate system ormat. 1he layer
was conerted to projected coordinate system using the project tool` which is in the ArcGIS
toolbox Data Management,Projections and 1ransormations,leature,Project`.
3.J.4 Dam locations
As explained aboe, the methodology or geo-reerencing dam locations was based on creating
a database o all dams with a capacity aboe one million m
3
or 1 M\ o installed hydropower
capacity. 1he database was composed o ICOLD data which were then added geographical
SRTM1

SRTM2

SRTM3

SRTM X

Mosaic SRTM files

Extract by country

Final SRTM Raster

Convert to projected
coordinate system ArcGIS
Arcmap

21
reerences ,latitude, longitude, rom the GRanD database or 15 - 20 o the Croatian and
1urkish dams. 1he rest o the latitude and longitude data were obtained manually by locating
the dams in Google Larth based on the ICOLD name o the dam - the same methodology
used to populate the GRanD database with geo-reerences. 1o put into context the extent o
the manual work around 32 dams in Croatia and 50 dams in 1urkey were geo-reerenced
manually. 1his task was extremely time consuming
6
and although all possible care was taken to
reerence each dam correctly there may be errors present, due to lack o inormation aailable
when isually recognising the dams. 1he methodology or locating these dams in Google Larth
was as ollows.
Lach dam was searched or based on the nearest town` ield
in the database using Google Larth.
\hen a dam was located close to nearest town`, it was
eriied isually in Google Larth where possible, by comparing
it with the picture o the dam i aailable on the 1urkish DSI
website |12[.
All the dam locations were recorded in a Google Larth KML ile.
In order to use the dam locations in ArcGIS the Google Larth
KML ile was conerted to an ArcGIS shapeile. lor this, a script
that conerts Google Larth KML iles to shape iles was obtained
rom LSRI |28[. 1his script is added to the ArcGIS toolbox and the
ile is conerted to a shapeile
Reseroir capacity data were imported rom the database through
the import eatures o ArcGIS. Latitude and longitude coordinates
were added to ArcGIS shapeile attributes table using the add X\
coordinates` tool, which is in the ArcGIS toolbox Data
Management, leature,Add X\ Coordinates`.
1he eleation rom the SR1M raster was extracted and added to
the dam location attributes table using the Lxtract Values to
Points` tool, which is in the ArcGIS toolbox Spatial Analysis
1ools,Lxtraction,Lxtract Values to Points`.
1he dam locations geographic coordinate system shapeile ile was
then conerted to projected coordinate system using the project
raster tool` which is in the ArcGIS toolbox Data
Management,Projections and 1ransormations,Raster,Project
Raster`.

3.J.S CORINL land coer ,CLC, 2006 100m ersion 13 ,02,2010,

|29[
CLC is a map o the Luropean enironmental landscape based on interpretation o satellite
images. It proides comparable digital maps o land coer or each country or much o
Lurope. 1his is useul or enironmental analysis and or policy makers. CORINL stands or
Cooraivatiov of vforvatiov ov tbe vrirovvevt. 1he LU established CORINL in 1985 to create pan-
Luropean databases on land coer, biotopes ,habitats,, soil maps and acid rain.
1he Luropean Lnironment Agency, in conjunction with the Luropean Space Agency, the
Luropean Commission and Member States produced an update o the Luropean CLC database
as part o a last 1rack Serice on Land as part o the Ctobat Movitorivg for vrirovvevt ava
ecvrit, ,GMLS, initiatie. 1his update inoled:
Locate remaining dams
using Google Earth
Convert KML to SHP
Add XY coordinates
Add dam elevations
Final dam shape file
Add reservoir capacity
Add the geo-referenced
dams from GRanD
Convert to projected
coordinate system

Figure 6: geo-referencing dam
locations

22
1he creation o a change dataset or the period 2000-2006 with local interpretation o
satellite imagery, and
1he application o this change dataset to the CLC2000 dataset to produce an update o
the ull inentory or 2006 ,the snapshot database,.
1he CLC data or Croatia and 1urkey were extracted rom the Luropean data site and are used
or the inhabited areas and road,rail constraint. 1able 9 proides the CORINL grid codes
which identiy the categories the data are diided into.
No. Label J Label 2 Label 3
1 Artiicial suraces Urban abric Continuous urban abric
2 Artiicial suraces Urban abric Discontinuous urban abric
3 Artiicial suraces Industrial, commercial and transport units Industrial or commercial units
4 Artiicial suraces Industrial, commercial and transport units Road and rail networks and associated land
5 Artiicial suraces Industrial, commercial and transport units Port areas
6 Artiicial suraces Industrial, commercial and transport units Airports
Artiicial suraces Mine, dump and construction sites Mineral extraction sites
8 Artiicial suraces Mine, dump and construction sites Dump sites
9 Artiicial suraces Mine, dump and construction sites Construction sites
10 Artiicial suraces Artiicial, non-agricultural egetated areas Green urban areas
11 Artiicial suraces Artiicial, non-agricultural egetated areas Sport and leisure acilities
12 Agricultural areas Arable land Non-irrigated arable land
13 Agricultural areas Arable land Permanently irrigated land
14 Agricultural areas Arable land Rice ields
15 Agricultural areas Permanent crops Vineyards
16 Agricultural areas Permanent crops lruit trees and berry plantations
1 Agricultural areas Permanent crops Olie groes
18 Agricultural areas Pastures Pastures
19 Agricultural areas leterogeneous agricultural areas Annual crops associated with permanent crops
20 Agricultural areas leterogeneous agricultural areas Complex cultiation patterns
21 Agricultural areas leterogeneous agricultural areas Land principally occupied by agriculture, with
signiicant areas o natural egetation
22 Agricultural areas leterogeneous agricultural areas Agro-orestry areas
23 lorest and semi natural areas lorests Broad-leaed orest
24 lorest and semi natural areas lorests Conierous orest
25 lorest and semi natural areas lorests Mixed orest
26 lorest and semi natural areas Scrub and,or herbaceous egetation Natural grasslands
2 lorest and semi natural areas Scrub and,or herbaceous egetation Moors and heathland
28 lorest and semi natural areas Scrub and,or herbaceous egetation Sclerophyllous egetation
29 lorest and semi natural areas Scrub and,or herbaceous egetation 1ransitional woodland-shrub
30 lorest and semi natural areas Open spaces with little or no egetation Beaches, dunes, sands
31 lorest and semi natural areas Open spaces with little or no egetation Bare rocks
32 lorest and semi natural areas Open spaces with little or no egetation Sparsely egetated areas
33 lorest and semi natural areas Open spaces with little or no egetation Burnt areas
34 lorest and semi natural areas Open spaces with little or no egetation Glaciers and perpetual snow
35 \etlands Inland wetlands Inland marshes
36 \etlands Inland wetlands Peat bogs
3 \etlands Maritime wetlands Salt marshes
38 \etlands Maritime wetlands Salines
39 \etlands Maritime wetlands Intertidal lats
40 \ater bodies Inland waters \ater courses
41 \ater bodies Inland waters \ater bodies
42 \ater bodies Marine waters Coastal lagoons
43 \ater bodies Marine waters Lstuaries
44 \ater bodies Marine waters Sea and ocean
48 NODA1A NODA1A NODA1A
49 Unclassiied Unclassiied land surace Unclassiied land surace
50 Unclassiied Unclassiied water bodies Unclassiied water bodies
255 Unclassiied Unclassiied Unclassiied
1able 9: CORINL grid codes
\ater courses ,grid code 40, and water bodies ,grid code 41, orm the riers and lakes layer
and it was added or mapping and aesthetics and do not hae any input to the model.

23
Inhabited areas and industrial and commercial units are included rom: continuous urban abric
,grid code 1,, discontinuous urban abric ,grid code 2,, and industrial and commercial units
,grid code 3,.
3.J.6 UNLSCO Sites
1be |vitea ^atiov. avcatiovat, cievtific ava Cvttvrat Orgaviatiov ;|^CO) .ee/ to evcovrage tbe
iaevtificatiov, protectiov ava pre.erratiov of cvttvrat ava vatvrat beritage arovva tbe rorta cov.iaerea to be of
ovt.tavaivg ratve to bvvavit,. 1bi. i. evboaiea iv av ivtervatiovat treat, cattea tbe Covrevtiov covcervivg tbe
Protectiov of tbe !orta Cvttvrat ava ^atvrat eritage, aaoptea b, |^CO iv 12 1.
Croatian cultural sites included in this analysis are: Lpiscopal Complex o the Luphrasian
Basilica in the listoric Centre o Porec ,199,, listoric City o 1rogir ,199,, listorical
Complex o Split with the Palace o Diocletian ,199,, Old City o Dubronik ,199,, Stari
Grad Plain ,2008,, and the Cathedral o St James in Sibenik ,2000,. 1he only natural resere site
included is the Plitice Lakes National Park ,199,.
1urkish cultural sites included the Archaeological Site o 1roy ,1998,, City o Saranbolu
,1994,, Great Mosque and lospital o Dirigi ,1985,, lattusha: the littite Capital ,1986,,
lierapolis-Pamukkale ,1988,, listoric Areas o Istanbul ,1985,, Nemrut Dag ,198,, and
Xanthos-Letoon ,1988,. 1wo world heritage mixed nature,cultural sites were also included, the
Goreme National Park and the Rock Sites o Cappadocia ,1985,, and the lierapolis-Pamukkale
,1988,.
Shapeiles o UNLSCO sites were not aailable or Croatia or 1urkey. loweer, coordinates o
the sites were aailable on the UNLSCO website |1[. 1hese coordinates were added to Google
Larth and then conerted rom KML to an ArcGIS shapeile.
In order to use these data as a constraint in the model a buer o 5 km is applied to each point.
No transormation site is permitted within this 5 km area.
3.J.7 Lnironmental sensitiity
1he enironmental aspects were based around Natura 2000, an LU wide network o nature
protection areas. It is comprised o Special Areas o Conseration ,SAC,, and o Special
Protection Areas ,SPAs,. |31[. Len when Croatia and 1urkey are not yet in the LU-2, and
thus are not required to hae Natura 2000 designated conseration areas, as LU candidate
countries they are required to being establishing Natura 2000 areas. Croatian Natura 2000 data
were obtained rom http:,,Natura2000.dzzp.hr,Natura2000,, howeer, the authors were
unsuccessul in inding Natura 2000 data or 1urkey.
1he prospectie sites should not be in a Natura 2000 area.
3.J.8 1ransport inrastructure
1he rail and road GIS shapeiles were obtained rom DIVA-GIS |2[ in geographic coordinate
system ormat. 1he shapeiles were conerted to projected coordinate system using the project
tool` which is in the ArcGIS toolbox Data Management,Projections and
1ransormations,leature, Project`.
3.J.9 Llectricity grid inrastructure
\e were unable to obtain GIS shapeiles o the electricity grid inrastructure o Croatia or
1urkey rom the public domain. Maps o the Croatian and 1urkish electricity grid inrastructure
were obtained rom the Global Lnergy Network Institute ,GLNI, |30[. 1here is limited
accuracy with these maps but they are the best source o data aailable.
In order to use the inormation in these maps they had to be digitised using ArcMap. 1his is a
manual process were the map is irst laid oer an existing GIS map using the geo-reerencing

24
toolbar o ArcMap. Once the maps are aligned as accurately as possible the electricity
transmission lines are manually digitised by tracing them using the sketch tool. 1his digitised
data are then saed in shapeile ormat or use in the model.

3.2 Design o ArcGIS model
1ransformation topography & physical characteristics
Distance between dams 5 km - 1km
Minimum head 150 m
1opology A, assumed minimum new reseroir size 0 000 m
Minimum distance rom new reseroir to inhabited sites 500 m
Minimum distance rom new reseroir to existing transportation inrastructure 200 m
Minimum distance rom new reseroir to UNLSCO site 5 km
Maximum distance rom new reseroir to electricity transmission network 50 km
New reseroir should not be within a Natura 2000 conseration area
1able 10: oeriew table o the model parameters or 1A and 1B

3.2.J 1opology A design
1he model parameters are used to orm arious
scenarios with which to analyse how dierent
transormation characteristics will aect the
inal results.
1he buer distance parameter is used to deine
the search distance rom the existing dam to
potential reseroir sites. A alue o 5 km is
chosen or the base scenario, but urther
scenarios were modelled reducing the distance
o the buer in 1-km steps down to a minimum
buer o 1 km. 1his will result in the ollowing
parameters or the model scenarios:
Scenario 5 ~ 5 km
Scenario 4 ~ 4 km
Scenario 3 ~ 3 km
Scenario 2 ~ 2 km
Scenario 1 ~ 1 km
1hen the ArcGIS slope unction was used to
analyse the topography to ascertain the latness
o the potential transormation site.

Overview of ArcGIS Slope function from its user manual |32[:
or eacb cett, tope catcvtate. tbe vaivvv rate of cbavge iv ratve frov tbat cett to it. veigbbovr.. a.icatt,,
tbe vaivvv cbavge iv eteratiov orer tbe ai.tavce betreev tbe cett ava it. eigbt veigbbovr. iaevtifie. tbe .teepe.t
aorvbitt ae.cevt frov tbe cett.
Covceptvatt,, tbe tope fvvctiov fit. a ptave to tbe ratve. of a cett veigbbovrbooa arovva tbe proce..ivg
or cevtre cett. 1be .tope ratve of tbi. ptave i. catcvtatea v.ivg tbe arerage vaivvv tecbviqve ;.ee referevce.).
1be airectiov tbe ptave face. i. tbe a.pect for tbe proce..ivg cett. 1be torer tbe .tope ratve, tbe ftatter tbe terraiv;

Calculate slope of areas inside buffer zones
Select areas with slope between 0 and 5 degree
Select areas with average elevation 150 metres
above the dam under test
Buffer placed around dams under test
Calculate average elevation in the area with
slope between 0 and 5 degree with slope
Each dam has a number of potential reservoir
sites. Filter sites with largest energy storage in
GWh
Figure 7: TA algorithm flow diagram

25
tbe bigber tbe .tope ratve, tbe .teeper tbe terraiv. f tbere i. a cett tocatiov iv tbe veigbbovrbooa ritb a ^oData
ratve, tbe ratve of tbe cevtre cett ritt be a..igvea to tbe tocatiov. .t tbe eage of tbe ra.ter, at tea.t tbree cett.
;ovt.iae tbe ra.ter. etevt) ritt covtaiv ^oData a. tbeir ratve.. 1be.e cett. ritt be a..igvea tbe cevtre cett.
ratve. 1be re.vtt i. a ftattevivg of tbe ptave fittea to tbe.e eage cett., rbicb v.vatt, teaa. to a reavctiov iv
tbe .tope. 1be ovtpvt .tope ra.ter cav be catcvtatea iv tro t,pe. of vvit., aegree. or percevt ;cattea percevt ri.e).
1be percevt ri.e cav be better vvaer.tooa if ,ov cov.iaer it a. tbe ri.e airiaea b, tbe rvv, vvttiptiea b, 100.
Cov.iaer triavgte betor. !bev tbe avgte i. 1: aegree., tbe ri.e i. eqvat to tbe rvv, ava tbe percevt ri.e i. 100
percevt. .. tbe .tope avgte approacbe. rerticat ;0 aegree.), a. iv triavgte C, tbe percevt ri.e begiv. to approacb
ivfivit,.

ligure 8: example o how slope is calculated
1he Slope algorithm:
1be rate of cbavge ;aetta) of tbe .vrface iv tbe boriovtat ;a,a) ava rerticat ;a,a,) airectiov. frov tbe cevtre
cett aetervive. tbe .tope. 1be ba.ic atgoritbv v.ea to catcvtate tbe .tope i.:
.tope_raaiav. ~ .1.^ ; \ ; a,a2 - a,a,2 ) )
tope i. covvovt, vea.vrea iv aegree., rbicb v.e. tbe atgoritbv:
.tope_aegree. ~ .1.^ ; \ ; a,a2 - a,a,2 ) ) :.2:
1be .tope atgoritbv cav at.o be ivterpretea a.:
.tope_aegree. ~ .1.^ ;ri.e_rvv) :.2:
rbere:
ri.e_rvv ~ \ ; a,a2 - a,a,2
1be ratve. of tbe cevtre cett ava it. eigbt veigbbovr. aetervive tbe boriovtat ava
rerticat aetta.. 1be veigbbovr. are iaevtifiea a. tetter. frov a to i, ritb e
repre.evtivg tbe cett for rbicb tbe a.pect i. beivg catcvtatea.
1be rate of cbavge iv tbe airectiov for cett e i. catcvtatea ritb tbe atgoritbv:
a,a ~ ;;c - 2f - i) ;a - 2a - g) , ; _cett_.ie)
1be rate of cbavge iv tbe , airectiov for cett e i. catcvtatea ritb tbe fottorivg
atgoritbv:
a,a, ~ ;;g - 2b - i) ;a - 2b - c)) , ; ,_cett_.ie)
,Slope algorithm description taken rom ArcGIS desktop help,
http:,,webhelp.esri.com,arcgisdesktop,9.2,index.cm1opicName~
low20Slope20works,
Figure 9: determine the
horizontal and vertical
deltas

26
A slope alue o S
degrees was chosen as
an acceptable latness
o the topography o a
potential
transormation site.
Areas that hae a slope
between 0 and 5
degrees are iltered out
using the reclassiy`
tool and then
transormed into
polygon areas. 1hese
polygon areas are now
the potential reseroir
sites:
1he aerage eleation
within each polygon is
now tested to see i it is
greater than 150 metres
aboe the Dam ID
eleation, thus constituting the head o the scheme. I this is the case, the site passes the
criterion and becomes a potential transormation site. 1he aerage eleation o the area or
potential site is used and compared with the eleation o the existing dam. 1his will account or
the olumes o material to be excaated and illed to make a sloping site lat beore
construction.
A minimum area
where the slope
parameter is
satisied also needs
to be deined, and
the igure o
0 000 m
2
has
been chosen, see
Volume and
surface of a new
reservoir.` in
section 1.3.1.
Some o the
resulting areas hae
a potential olume greater than the existing reseroir, but it is assumed that the new reseroir -
the one under search-, cannot be larger than the existing ,lower, reseroir. In these cases the
potential reseroir olume is made equal to the olume o the existing reseroir.
3.2.2 Lnergy storage potential
1he equation to calculate the energy aailable in a body o water is deined as ollows:
V E h g =
Figure 10: ArcGIS areas with slope between 0 and 5 degrees (in green)
Figure 11: Head calculation

Potential dam site
Existing dam/ Dam ID
Head (min. 150 m)

2
where:
~ everg, araitabte ;]ovte.)
~ aev.it, ;/g,v

) ;101 /g,v

for rater)
g ~ acceteratiov of grarit, ;.1 v,.
2
)
b ~ fattivg beigbt, beaa ;v)
1 ~ rotvve ;v

)
a~ geveratiov efficievc, of ;0)

3.2.3 1opology B design
In a similar way to 1A
one model parameter,
buer distance, is used
to orm arious
scenarios with which to
analyse how dierent
transormation
characteristics will aect
the inal results.
1his parameter is used to
deine the search
distance between existing
dams. lor the base
scenario two existing
dams must be within 5 km ,scenario 5, o each other. 1o implement this each dam location has
a 2.5 km buer around it and whereer buers intersect, this represents a potential
transormation site.
Scenario 5 ~ 5 km ,2.5 km -2.5 km,
Scenario 4 ~ 4 km ,2.0 km -2.0 km,
Scenario 3 ~ 3 km ,1.5 km -1.5 km,
Scenario 2 ~ 2 km ,1.0 km -1.0 km,
Scenario 1 ~ 1 km ,0.5 km -0.5 km,
3.3 Scenario design 1A & 1B
1he buer distance rom the existing reseroir site will be the parameter used to create the 1A
and 1B scenarios. 1here will be a total o ie scenarios. 1he results or each scenario will
return the number o suitable transormation sites o each scenario. A sensitiity analysis will be
prepared to ealuate the results.
3.3.J Scenarios
1he buer scenarios will ary the alue o the buer distance rom 5 to 1 km in 1-km steps.
Scenarios 1A buffer distance (km) 1B buffer distance (km)
Scenario 5 5 2.5 - 2.5
Scenario 4 4 2.0 - 2.0
Scenario 3 3 1.5 - 1.5
Scenario 2 2 1.0 - 1.0
Scenario 1 1 0.5 - 0.5
1able 11: buer scenarios or 1A and 1B
Lxample:
A reseroir has a capacity o 10 000 000
cubic metres with a 300-metre head.
L ~ ,1 019 9.81 300 10 000 000 0.9,
Joules
As 1 \h ~ 3 600 Joules, the stored energy
in reseroir ~ .5 G\h

Existing reservoir
0.5km-
>2.5km
Existing reservoir
0.5km-
>2.5km
Figure 12: Buffer distance from existing dam to potential dam site or existing
second dam

28
In all cases the minimum area o the reseroirs ,potential and existing, is set at 0 000 m
2
, and
the minimum head at 150 m.
3.3.2 Constraint analysis
1he constraint analysis will be applied to both uniltered ,1A only, and the iltered results. 1he
parameters or each constraint are detailed below in 1able 12.
1ransformation physical constraints
Minimum distance rom centre o new reseroir to inhabited sites 500 m
Minimum distance rom centre o new reseroir to existing transportation inrastructure 200 m
Minimum distance rom centre o new reseroir to UNLSCO site 5 km
New reseroir should not be within a Natura 2000 conseration area
Maximum distance rom centre o new reseroir to electricity transmission network 50 km
1able 12: physical constraints model parameters
1he results section will present the ollowing:
1. Physical potential ,no constraints, iltered, ,1A & 1B,
2. Inrastructural potential ,constraints, iltered, ,1A &1B,
In the result charts or both uniltered and iltered results, or both Croatia and 1urkey the
head reers to the height dierence between the existing dam and the potential transormation
site. Mean head reers to the mean head o the total number o sites or each scenario result.
3.3.3 liltering potential transormation sites - example
All potential
transormation sites
in the model are
recorded at irst, and
are reerred to as the
uniltered
transormation sites.
1here will be more
than one potential
transormation site
or each existing
dam as illustrated in
ligure 13. 1he best
potential
transormation site
will be selected by its
energy storage
potential ,calculated
rom the
methodology in
section 3.2.2, and
will be reerred to as
the iltered result.
lollowing the iltering process one transormation site is selected, which is shown graphically
when all blue polygons but one disappear - the one remaining is encircled in green in ligure 13

ligure 13: example o uniltered results or a transormation site - light blue polygons

29
3.4 Result o the analysis
3.4.J Croatia
ligure 14 presents a map iew o the data or Croatia in ArcMap, a component o ArcGIS.
1he original data shows that a total o 23 dams hae a reseroir capacity o greater than
1 000 000 m
3
in Croatia, and all those dams were analysed in the GIS model. 1he histogram in
ligure 15 shows that in Croatia more dams are at an eleation o between 101 and 200 metres
than at any other range.
L|evat|on of dams |n Croat|a
0
1
2
3
4
3
6
7
8
9
0-100 101-200 201-300 301-400 401- 300 301-600 601-700 701-800
L|evat|on (m)
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

d
a
m
s
Figure 15: elevation histogram of the dams in Croatia, above 1 000 000 m
3
that are analysed in GIS
Figure 14: ArcGIS Croatian map and layers used.

30
3.4.J.J 1OPOLOG\ A 1RANSlORMA1ION PO1LN1IAL
1he existing Razoac dam will ,1.84 million m
3
, sere as an example to illustrate the process o
iltering the sites with higher potential. 1his dam orms part o the Velebit PlS which uses the
waters rom the catchment area o the rier Zrmanja, near Zadar. \ater resources are the riers
Obsenica, Rieica and Otua with the storage basins Obsenica o 2. million m
3
and Stikada o
13.65 million m
3
|33[, although only the latter is used as upper reseroir o the PlS system |34[.
1he act that Razoac is already a PlS system should allow an extra alidation o the model.
By applying the algorithm shown in ligure the GIS-based initial analysis, including the 5-km
range, slope analysis, potential reseroir area aboe 0 000 m
2
, and head aboe 150 m, results in
9 sites suitable or a prospectie transormation to PlS, under 1A theoretical potential
scenario 5, as shown in 1able 13.
ligure 16 shows as blue areas the potential transormation sites that meet the speciied
parameters. 1he red area shows the site that has been selected as the most suitable
transormation site, as it oers the largest energy storage: it is site 1 in the table below.
Site no. Reseroir
olume ,m,
Potential reseroir
area ,m,
Potential reseroir
olume ,m,
lead
,m,
Lnergy storage
,G\h,
1 1 840 000 85 808 1 16 161 8 3.34
2 1 840 000 82 085 1 641 02 610 2.50
3 1 840 000 156 909 1 840 000 338 1.55
4 1 840 000 396 05 1 840 000 335 1.54
5 1 840 000 651 523 1 840 000 300 1.38
6 1 840 000 368 152 1 840 000 299 1.3
1 840 000 352 98 1 840 000 282 1.30
8 1 840 000 5 35 1 840 000 241 1.11
9 1 840 000 119 16 1 840 000 23 1.09
1able 13: Croatian sample transormation site analysis - Razoac dam
Figure 16: Croatian sample transformation site analysis - Razovac dam
Selected site
Other sites studied
Lxisting reseroir and dam

31
1he potential reseroir selected does
not hae the largest area in the column
potential reseroir area. 1his is because
the methodology limits the maximum
olume o the potential reseroir to
that one o the existing reseroir i the
potential reseroir has a olume greater
than the existing reseroir. 1he single
actor that had higher inluence on site
1 being chosen is that it has a higher
head which results in this site haing
the highest potential energy storage o
3.34 G\h.
1he Stikada reseroir has, under the
same assumptions as the analysis
aboe, a storage capacity o 18.42
G\h.
1he theoretical potential results, beore
any natural-spaces related constraint has been applied, are shown or the dierent scenarios in
ligure 1. 1his igure shows, against the let axis, the number o dams which hae at least one
potential site or creating a new PlS, and against the right axis the total transormation
potential ,topology A, o Croatia. Under scenario 5, the least restrictie, the total physical
theoretical potential shows 14 sites with a total energy storage capacity o 6.56 G\h.
1he application o other ilters was subject to certain limitations o the model and or this
reason ilters were not exactly applied in the order prescribed by the methodology. 1hus, next
the transport inrastructure , 200 m away,, inhabited areas , 500 m away,, UNLSCO sites ,
5 km away, and distance to the electricity grid , 50 km away, constraints were applied, and the
exclusion o enironmentally sensitie areas ,natural spaces ilter, was applied later on.
\hereas the application o the ormer three ilters results in a limited reduction o storage
capacity as shown in ligure 18, the natural spaces ilter has a much higher impact.
Box - Validation of model with the reality.
1he current upper reseroir o the Velebit PlS
system, Stikada, has a reseroir capacity o 13.65
million m
3
and eleation o 548 m AMSL. Google
Larth shows that the closest distance between the
Stikada and the Razoac reseroirs is 20 km.
Because o the 5-km limit set up in the model the
Stikada reseroir was not captured as a possible
site or a second reseroir, thus incurring in the
apparent contradiction that the actual upper
reseroir was not captured by the model.
1hereore the Velebit PlS case shows that the
analysis assumptions are on the conseratie side.
\e put the discussion o this point o to the
conclusions and continue the analysis o country
potential based on the initial assumptions.
ligure 1: Croatia 1A theoretical potential: number o potential sites and total potential storage

Croat|a 1A theoret|ca| potent|a|
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
Scenarlo 3 Scenarlo 4 Scenarlo 3 Scenarlo 2 Scenarlo 1
No. of dams
0
10
20
30
40
30
60
70
80
GWh
number of dams wlLh a poLenLlal slLe 1oLal energy sLorage (CWh)

32
In eect, the total number o scenario 5 physical realisable` potential ,term is used in order to
relect this particular order o application o ilters, sites is 13 with total energy storage o 59.5
G\h. 1his represents the loss o only one transormation site due to constraints, with the loss
o .81 G\h o energy storage.
1he introduction o natural spaces as a constraint is run independently to the other constraints.
1he large coerage o Natura 2000 areas in Croatia disqualiies oer hal ,13 down to 6, o the
suitable sites when this constraint is applied.
loweer, lower-capacity options that were discarded at an earlier stage, might not hae the
same natural spaces restrictions as the iltered sites. 1he model could be run in an iteratie way
or those existing dams whose 1A option was discarded at the natural spaces constraints in
order to search whether any other o the possible sites would pass the natural spaces check.
Croat|a 1A phys|ca| rea||sab|e potent|a|
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Scenarl o 3 Scenarl o 4 Scenarl o 3 Scenarl o 2 Scenarl o 1
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

p
r
o
s
p
e
c
t
|
v
e

s
|
t
e
s
0
10
20
30
40
30
60
70
G
W
h
number of Sl Les 1oLal Lnergy SLorage (CWh)
Croat|a 1A potent|a| after natura| reserves are d|scounted
0
1
2
3
4
3
6
7
Scenarl o 3 Scenarl o 4 Scenarl o 3 Scenarl o 2 Scenarl o 1
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

s
|
t
e
s
0
3
10
13
20
23
30
33
40
43
G
W
h
number of Sl Les 1oLal Lnergy SLorage (CWh)
ligure 19: Croatian 1A physical potential
Figure 18: Croatia TA physical realisable potential after applying three filters

33
3.4.J.2 1OPOLOG\ B ANAL\SIS
1here are no solutions or 1B in Croatia. Any dams that are within 5km o each other do not
hae an eleation dierence o 150 m or greater to proide the suicient head required by the
methodology.
In order to ind a 1B transormation site we need to exceed the methodology parameters by
extending the buer distance to 11 km beore we ind a solution to 1B. 1he decision taken at
the modelling stage was that this distance between two existing dams would not be a iable
transormation. loweer, the experience o the Velebit and other PlS shows that this
assumption can be conseratie in particular when a high head dierence is possible.
3.4.J.3 CONCLUSIONS: COUN1R\ PO1LN1IAL
1he country potential is assumed to be without including the natural spaces constraint. As a
result o not being any 1B potential site, in the case o Croatia the country potential is the
scenario 5 1A physical realisable` potential iltered or other constraints. 1his yields 13 sites
with 60 G\h o energy storage. 1his igure can only roughly be compared to the storage o the
current PlS ,20 G\h, because the latter corresponds to a major mixed-PlS where natural
inlow plays an important role. lor reerence, peak Croatian demand is approximately 3.2 G\
and annual electricity consumption aboe 18 000 G\h |63[.
1he dierent eatures and uses o PlS systems, e.g. whether a daily or weekly cycle, whether
pure PlS o mixed with natural hydropower resources, make it diicult to deine whether this
potential or transormation is signiicant. 1he analysis did not deine the assumptions that
could result in an estimated installed power ,whether pumping or generating, and thus a
comparison cannot be made with the installed PlS capacity o the country. A uture
improement o the model could approach this issue. In the case o Croatia the current PlS
capacity is 282 M\ generating and 245 M\ pumping, most o it ,26,240 M\ respectiely, at
a single PlS, Velebit. Indeed a comparison with Croatian installed PlS can be misleading
because Velebit is a mixed PlS-conentional scheme which in 2009 consumed 11 G\h
pumping |34[ rom which is estimated to hae generated 82 G\h
8
o the total 468 G\h
generated.
A dierent approach consists o comparing the country potential or storage with the storage
o the upper reseroirs in existing PlS in the country. lor Croatia, section 3.4.1.1 uneiled that
under the same assumptions used to calculate site potential the upper reseroir o the Velebit
PlS has a storage capacity o 18.42 G\h, and contributed to the generation o 110 and
82 G\h rom 158 and 11 G\h pumped in 2008 and 2009 respectiely. 1he extrapolation o
this pattern to the 60 G\h o country potential yields 3.25 times the current Croatian installed
capacity, i.e. between 266 and 35 G\h generated. loweer, again this approach can lead to
the wrong igures because the 18.42 G\h o storage in the upper reseroir o the Velebit PlS
did not only contribute to the PlS system but generates an aerage 3 G\h o pure
hydropower annually |34[.
Gien that it cannot be ruled out any new PlS to be a mixed system, possibly the best way to
put the potential into context is to compare the 60 G\h o potential with the approximately 20
G\h o currently existing PlS to conclude that under the limitations in this study the country
potential for transformation to PHS in Croatia is at least three times the capacity of
existing PHS plants.

8
According to LIA |21[ in 2008 the Croatian PlS plants pumped 158 G\h and generated 110 G\h. Gien that
Velebit is 98 o the PlS generation, it can be assumed that the cycle eiciency o the Velebit PlS plant is 0 .

34
3.4.2 1urkey
ligure 20 presents a map iew o the data or 1urkey in ArcGIS.
1he authors were unable to acquire accurate transmission network data or 1urkey. lor this
reason the transmission network constraint hae been disabled or the analysis o 1urkey.
Figure 20: map of Turkey with the layers included in the analysis
Figure 21: elevation histogram of the dams in Turkey, with a reservoir capacity of 1 000 000 m
3
or above

35
A total o 612 reseroirs larger than 1 000 000 m
3
in 1urkey were analysed in the GIS model.
1he histogram, ligure 21, shows that there are a large proportion o dams at eleations
between 0 and 400 metres and between 801 and 1 200.
3.4.2.J 1OPOLOG\ A ANAL\SIS
1he physical realisable` potential
9
, beore the natural spaces constraints has been applied,
shows or scenario 5 a total o 448 potential sites or a total energy storage o 4 32 G\h.
1hese potential sites can also be seen in terms o aerage head and energy storage per site, as
shown in ligure 23. In the case o scenario 5 the 448 sites hae an aerage head o 25 m and
an aerage energy storage o 9.6 G\h.
1he physical potential ater enironmental constraints hae been applied shows a total number
o 444 potential sites with total energy storage o 3 81 G\h. 1his represents the loss o 4
potential transormation sites due to constraints, with a more signiicant loss o 555 G\h o

9
As explained aboe we introduce the term realisable` between quotes to relect that this potential was not in the
methodology but the result o constrains during its application which can and should be adapted
ligure 22: 1urkey 1A physical realisable` potential
Lrror! Bookmark not defined.
, number o potential sites
and total storage
ligure 23: 1urkey 1A physical realisable` potential, aerage head and aerage storage
0,0
2,0
4,0
6,0
8,0
10,0
12,0
0
30
100
130
200
230
300
Scenarlo 3 Scenarlo 4 Scenarlo 3 Scenarlo 2 Scenarlo 1
G
W
h
m
e
t
r
e
s
1urkey 1A phys|ca| "rea||sab|e" potent|a|
Average Pead (m) Average Lnergy SLorage (CWh)
0
1 000
2 000
3 000
4 000
3 000
0
100
200
300
400
300
Scenarlo 3 Scenarlo 4 Scenarlo 3 Scenarlo 2 Scenarlo 1
G
W
h
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

s
|
t
e
s
1urkey 1A phys|ca| "rea||sab|e" potent|a|
number of SlLes 1oLal Lnergy SLorage (CWh)

36
energy storage. loweer, it has to be noted that the ilters applied at this stage did not include
the distance to the electricity grid as we could not ind a suitable dataset.
1he sample site or analysis will be rom the 1A physical realisable potential scenario 5 results.
1he sample transormation site analysis is carried out on Karacaoren II Dam.
1he blue area shows a potential transormation site that meets the speciied parameters, the red
area shows the site that has been selected as the most suitable transormation site, as it has the
largest energy storage and the red point is the existing dam. 1he details o this site are
highlighted in blue in 1able 14.

Site no. Reseroir
olume ,m,
Potential reseroir
area ,m,
Potential reseroir
olume ,m,
lead ,m, Stored energy
,G\h,
1 48 000 000 1 106 519 22 130 381 613 34
2 48 000 000 116 61 2 335 216 549 3
1able 14: 1urkish sample transormation site analysis
1he transormation site selected has a potential energy storage o 34 G\h.
3.4.2.2 1OPOLOG\ B ANAL\SIS
1he theoretical potential under the ie scenarios is ery small or 1B. Scenario 5 yields 3
theoretical potential sites rom a total o 612 dams under analysis, their aerage head is 294 m
and total energy storage o 3.36 G\h.
1he physical realisable` potential ater the application o the natural spaces ilter results in
only 2 physical realisable` potential sites, in both cases the dams at a distance o between 4
and 5 km rom each other. 1hey hae an aerage head o 361 m and a total energy storage o
3.04 G\h as illustrated in ligure 25. 1his represents the loss o one transormation site due to
constraints with the loss o 0.32 G\h o energy storage.
ligure 24: 1urkish sample transormation site analysis

CandldaLe second
reservolr slLe

SelecLed second
reservolr slLe

LxlsLlng dam

3
1urkey has not adopted Natura 2000 yet so the natural spaces ilter did not include them.
loweer, the model will analyse Natura 2000 as a constraint i the data becomes aailable in
the uture. 1hereore the physical realisable` potential becomes the physical potential.
3.4.2.3 COUN1R\ PO1LN1IAL
1he country potential is presented based on the 1A and 1B physical potential iltered results
under scenario 5, and it is presented in 1able 15. As 1B takes priority oer 1A any dam that is
included in a 1B transormation will be excluded rom the 1A transormation sites. In this case
our sites are excluded rom 1A with the loss o 1 G\h o potential storage which are
replaced by 2 1B sites adding 3 G\h o potential storage.
Number o Sites 1otal Lnergy Storage ,G\h,
1A Scenario 5 440 3 800
1B Scenario 5 2 3
Country Potential 443 3 803
1able 15: 1urkish country potential


4 Barriers to the realisation of this potential
4.J 1opographical barriers
1he model deeloped in the preious section has identiied potential transormation sites based
on head dierence, distance between existing and potential sites, latness o the surrounding
topography and reseroir olume. It also implemented constraints relating to the construction
o new reseroirs in relation to inhabited sites etc. loweer the model is unable to analyse
potential sites based on their geology and hydrology.

4.J.J Geology
1he geological ormation o the potential site could be a barrier to the realisation o a potential
transormation site. A detailed geological analysis o each potential transormation site would
ligure 25: 1urkish 1B physical potential, number o potential sites and total storage
0
0,3
1
1,3
2
2,3
3
3,3
0
1
1
2
2
3
Scenarlo 3 Scenarlo 4 Scenarlo 3 Scenarlo 2 Scenarlo 1
G
W
h
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

s
|
t
e
s
1urkey 18 phys|ca| potent|a|
number of SlLes 1oLal Lnergy SLorage (CWh)

38
need to be perormed to assess its easibility or transormation to PlS. Porous bedrock is one
potential barrier, or example, as water losses due to seepage may be larger in porous karst
,limestone, areas |63[. 1he construction o underground penstocks may also be hindered by
local geology.
In temperate zones many upland sites suitable or constructing new upper reseroirs are on
peat-coered slopes. Peat soils may pose a barrier due to their unstable nature when disturbed.
1he disturbance could arise either rom construction o the reseroir itsel, or rom the
construction o access roads or equipment. Large-scale peat moements hae occurred in areas
adjacent to wind arm construction in Ireland |35[. Large cut-and-ill operations on peat are
problematic as sae storage o excaated peat is diicult.
linally, the earthquake risk o the potential site also needs to be assessed.

4.J.2 lydrology
A lack o surace water at or near to the potential transormation site could be a potential
barrier to the realisation o the potential. I the potential reseroir site has an inlow this would
make the site more suitable or the construction o a new reseroir and the creation o a mixed
PlS plant. An analysis o the hydrology o the existing reseroir is needed to identiy i there
are seasonal ariations in the supply and leel o water. 1he incoming sediment loads to any
existing or new reseroir also must be assessed, as silting may pose a urther barrier to
transormation by reducing the usable reseroir olumes oer time.
Laporation is not expected to be a signiicant problem with PlS |59[.
4.J.3 Inrastructure
1he analysis o transport and grid inrastructure should go one step urther than was possible
with the model. In eect, a complete analysis o the road inrastructure in the region o the
potential transormation site would be needed to ealuate i it can support high olumes o
and,or heay construction machinery. A detailed analysis o the local electricity grid
inrastructure would also be required. In the case o existing conentional hydropower sites,
grid inrastructure will be in place. loweer, it may need to be upgraded to proide two-way
power lows to acilitate pumping as well as generation. \hether the grid has to be extended or
reinorced this improement might add alue to the stability o the grid and this could help
oercome this barrier.
lor non-hydro dams the local grid inrastructure has to be examined in detail. Issues to
consider include the proximity to the distribution and,or transmission network, proximity to
the nearest substation, the aailability o spare capacity at the substation, the easibility o
upgrading existing substations where they are inadequate. lor sites to be connected to the
distribution network the presence o other large, ariable loads and generators ,such as wind
arms or energy-intensie industries, on the local network may be a potential barrier as well as
an opportunity: or example, a PlS plant and a wind arm can be associated so that the latter
proides pumping power with minimum transmission losses.

4.2 Lconomic barriers
4.2.J Llectricity market analysis
1his section perorms a preliminary analysis o the electricity markets o Croatia and 1urkey.
1his includes the identiication o market signals that would justiy inestment in new electricity
storage acilities within each market ,inestment in renewable technology,.

39
4.2.2 Croatia |36[
1he electricity market in Croatia is based on electricity trading through bilateral contracts
concluded between the supplier, the trader and,or the generator. In addition, a contract or
using the network must be signed with the transmission or distribution system operators -P
Operator pri;evo.vog .v.tara ,lLP-1SO, and POperator ai.tribvci;./og .v.tara ,lLP-DSO,
respectiely- depending on the oltage leel the customer is connected to. During the
realisation o contracts deiations in supply and demand occur and thereore the need or
system balancing. Real time system balancing is the responsibility o the 1SO. In order to coer
power system deiations in each hour, lLP-1SO oers balancing energy or sale or purchase
to market participants.
In 200, Croatia adopted a eed-in tari legislation based on the tari system or the
production o electricity rom renewable energy sources and cogeneration |3[ and the
regulation on incentie ees or promoting electricity production rom renewable energy
sources and cogeneration |38[. 1aris or wind power plants reach 90 t,M\h.
Croatia is directly interconnected to Sloenia, Bosnia and lerzegoina, Serbia and lungary,
and this creates the potential ,i the amount o PlS is increased, to store surplus wind
generation rom these neighbouring countries. It has been estimated that Sloenia has a
potential to install 600 M\ o wind generation |39[, Serbia has a potential to install 1 300 M\
o wind generation |40[. lungary must meet the 13 renewable target as part o the LU 2020
targets and wind generation will be the main contributor to this target |41[.
Proiding more storage in this region could add alue to increasing renewable penetration not
only in Croatia, but in all interconnected countries.

4.2.3 1urkey
1he Llectricity Market Regulatory Agency was introduced in 2001 to liberalise the electricity
market in an attempt to enhance competition. Since then, liberalisation o the market is still
undergoing as the reorms are not yet completed |42[. 1he 1urkish renewable energy act
considers renewable all non-ossil based energy sources. \ind power, run o rier hydropower
plants and reseroir hydropower plants with reseroir areas smaller than 15 km
2
are all
identiied as renewable energy sources |43[.
1urkey has ast untapped hydropower and wind potential. According to UNLSCO 1urkey
technically easible hydropower potential is 213 000 G\h |44[. Ater its General Directorate o
State lydraulic \orks currently 1urkey has 12 hydroelectric power plants in operation with
total installed capacity o 13 00 M\ generating an aerage o 48 000 G\h,year, which is
35 o the economically iable hydroelectric potential |12[. 1he large quantity o untapped
hydropower potential in 1urkey could make the deelopment o PlS unattractie, unless the
penetration o wind power becomes ery large indeed.
In December 2006, the Ministry o Lnergy published the wind map o 1urkey, which has
stimulated wind power inestments rom 12 M\ at the end o 200 to 1 329 M\ at the end
o 2010. Alone this last year, 528 M\ o new wind energy capacity was added in 1urkey, on a
year-on-year growth rate o 66 . 1urkey hopes to install up to 20 G\ o wind by 2023,
helping the country to obtain 30 o its electricity generation rom renewable sources |45[.
1urkey has adopted a hybrid system within which renewable power plants built beore 2012 are
eligible or the 50 - 55 t,M\h RLli1 or irst 10 years o operation, proiding a hedge against
oreign exchange risk. lurthermore retail licence owners are required to allocate a portion o
the electricity purchases to renewable power.

40
4.2.4 Capital cost

ligure 26 capacity s. project and speciic capital cost ,ex transmission line, or proposed PlS in Lurope,US. \-
axis is ull CapLx cost. 1he size o bubble is indicatie o relatie cost per M\. Plants in Switzerland and US were
conerted to Luro using the ollowing exchange rates. ,1 Cll ~ 0.6515t, 1 USD ~ 0.015t,. Source: Deane et
al. |50[
Project costs or PlS are ery site speciic with some quoted costs arying rom o 600-3 000
t,k\ |46[. In the lower end o the price range a igure o 500 LUR,k\ or power generation-
related costs and 0-16 LUR,M\h or storage capacity-related costs has been quoted based on
pre-2004 estimates |4[. 1he use o reersible pump-turbines inoles that a single penstock
can be constructed, which can reduce construction costs by up to 30 with a small increase in
the plant cost |48[.
ligure 26 shows the large ariation in capital cost or two similarly-sized projects, LLAPS and
Limberg II ,500 M\,. LLAPS |49[ is an example o a 1A transormation, it uses an existing
lower lake and the project will build an upper reseroir and penstock and powerhouse. Limberg
II |5[, an example o a 1B transormation, uses two existing reseroirs and builds penstock and
generation equipment. 1hese cases highlight the potential capital cost saings o deeloping 1B
transormation sites oer 1A sites.
1he breakdown o
costs into their
arious
constituents ,dam
construction,
penstock
construction, plant
etc., is also highly
site-speciic and
detailed
inormation on
indiidual projects
is diicult to obtain. A sample o these data proided by Krajacic et al. |64[ or a PlS project
in the island o Krk ,Croatia, is presented in ligure 2. 1he total cost or a 10 M\, 2 pumps
and turbines system is 16.8Mt.
Figure 27: Split of cost for a specific PHS project

41
Variability in capital costs is inherent in PlS projects. 1he construction cost is site and country
speciic due to the high labour and material intensity o this type o construction projects. 1hus
the uncertainty o capital costs can be a barrier to transormation.

4.3 Social barriers
Due to the nature o hydropower projects there are many social barriers that arise. 1hey are
discussed in more detail below.
4.3.J Inhabited sites
1he building o large dams to create reseroirs oten leads to the resettlement o local residents
as armland and dwellings are submerged, or which large hydropower projects normally
receie aderse publicity. In some cases when an existing site, like an abandoned quarry, is
utilised as a reseroir or a PlS transormation the public acceptance may be greater or such a
deelopment. 1he construction o new power line inrastructure to transport electricity to and
rom PlS plant can aect dwellings and settlements in its close proximity.
It is diicult to gauge social acceptance beore a site has gone through the planning process.
Social acceptance is a barrier that has a lot o uncertainty associated with it or hydro and PlS
deelopments. In the long term, well-managed, suitably landscaped sites may become
appreciated by their local communities as isually attractie leisure areas.
4.3.2 Naigation
\hen damming an existing waterway to create a reseroir, reduction in water leels may aect
naigation or recreational users ,e.g. canoeists,. 1hese could be potential barriers to the
deelopment o PlS but due to the close-system nature o a PlS and the act that the
reseroir that is the basis or transormation was already built, it is unlikely to aect PlS
transormation projects.
4.3.3 1rans-boundary issues
I regions up and down the rier are not in the same country, placing a dam in one region may
aect lood risks or water supply issues in another country. 1his could be a potential barrier to
the deelopment o PlS due to political sensitiity.

4.4 Lnironmental and planning barriers
4.4.J Conseration issues
I the potential transormation site is within or in close proximity to a Natura 2000 designated
site, a LUROPARC lederation designated site |15[, a UNLSCO designated site |16, 1[, a site
o special scientiic interest ,SSSI,, a special area o conseration ,SAC,, a special protected area
,SPA,, a national park or aect the catchment home to protected species, then deelopment o
this transormation may be diicult. In the case that a deelopment is allowed to proceed in
one o the listed protected areas the deeloper may be asked to replace any habitat that has
been remoed or damaged due to the deelopment, resulting in an additional cost.
4.4.2 lisheries
I the potential transormation site is on or aects a rier that supports migratory ish or other
animals, spawning grounds or i the rier is used or angling, deelopment o this
transormation may be diicult. 1his could be a potential barrier to the deelopment.

42
4.4.3 Lnironmental beneits
In some cases, a properly designed PlS system can een be used to improe water quality
through aeration, preenting algal growth and ish kills |4[ |5[.

4.S \ater supply barriers
4.S.J \ater resources
I the potential transormation site is on a watercourse that supplies drinking water or water or
irrigation, this could be a barrier to deelopment, as the operational requirements or multiple
uses will hae to be managed together. loweer a reseroir that is constructed or a PlS
deelopment could also hae a secondary unction as a storage reseroir or irrigation or
drinking water supply, which may make a proposed project more economically attractie.
4.S.2 Chemical and physical water quality |51[
An analysis would need to be perormed to assess i the deelopment o the PlS has the
potential to aect the quality o water o the watercourse or i pollutants could be discharged
during construction. Also the potential that the deelopment could cause signiicant algal
growth would need to be assessed. 1hese studies would be carried out as part o a planning
process and i the results were negatie it may become a barrier to the deelopment.
4.S.3 Biological water quality
An analysis must be completed to assess i changes in rier low are likely to cause a signiicant
change in the inertebrate community.

4.6 llood protection
An analysis must be completed to assess i changes to the rier result in reduced low capacity
o the rier or i any alterations are needed that they do not increase the potential to cause
looding in the surrounding area. 1he deelopment o the site must not aect any aailable
loodplain area or block potential oerland lood low that would result in increased eents o
looding.
PlS has the potential to curtail looding by scheduling pumping during lood risk periods. 1his
could be used to oset any other negatie eects o the deelopment o the site.

4.7 Conclusions o the barriers analysis
It is possible to broadly classiy the barriers identiied in this section as hard and sot barriers.
lard barriers are those imposed by site conditions or by the absence o suitable inrastructure.
In general, they may be addressed by technological solutions, but the costs may be prohibitie.
Oten such barriers are highly site-speciic. In the case o geological and hydrological barriers,
urther work would need to be carried out on sites that are identiied in order to identiy
possible solutions and the associated costs. lor example, seepage losses can be reduced by
lining reseroirs with imperious materials such as clay or synthetic membranes.
A clear operational strategy or a proposed transormation scheme should be identiied in order
to ully assess site easibility. It should incorporate the wider operating enironment: lood
protection, other reseroir uses, renewable penetration, and proposed renewable deelopment
to 2020 and beyond.

43
1he capital costs or deeloping PlS can be prohibitie, depending on the topography o the
site. loweer, by utilising existing reseroirs capital cost can be reduced dramatically. New
technological deelopments may allow some other hard barriers to be oercome. Variable
speed, reersible pump-turbines will increase the operational lexibility o planned PlS
acilities, and will better equip them to support the integration o ariable renewable generation.
New concepts such as coastal seawater PlS, where the sea acts as a lower reseroir, may open
up a greater number o potential sites. loweer, there is only one such plant in operation in the
world, a 30 M\ demonstration acility located in Okinawa, Japan |52[ and it is unclear why no
urther such deelopments took place. PlS using an underground caern as the lower reseroir
has also been proposed and i successul, would eliminate many o the enironmental problems
associated with constructing reseroirs on the surace |53[.
Sot barriers relate to societal acceptance and the regulatory and market enironments or PlS
and general energy inrastructure deelopment. 1hese can oten be addressed by non-technical
measures but may proe to be diicult to resole. Societal acceptance o projects can be
improed through campaigns o public inormation, by consultation and communication with
local communities, and by reerencing successully completed ,and attractie, projects. I the
regulatory enironment poses barriers ,e.g. through long delays in obtaining planning
permission,, this can be addressed through legal measures, but these will oten require a
concerted eort in order to be eected. 1his usually takes the orm o lobbying the responsible
agencies at a national or LU leel. Similarly, i barriers are imposed through the existing rules o
electricity markets, it may be possible to make changes through submissions to national
regulators. loweer, this may meet with resistance as regulators preer not to make requent
changes to market rules, as the resulting uncertainty may deter uture inestments.
Seeral international research projects ocus or recently ocused on barriers to electricity
storage. 1hose include S1ORILS ,".aare..ivg barrier. to 1ORage tecbvotogie. for ivcrea.ivg tbe
pevetratiov of vtervittevt verg, ovrce.`, 200-10, and stoRL ,acititativg everg, .torage to attor bigb
pevetratiov of ivtervittevt reverabte everg,`, starting May 2011, with unding rom the LU
programme Intelligent Lnergy Lurope |54[, |65[. 1he ormer addressed island systems and
promotion measures whereas the latter aims to identiy the best practices in Lurope or
oercoming non-technical barriers to the deelopment o energy storage acilities.

S 1opics for future research
1he topics or urther research can be broken down into 3 distinct areas: post modelling site
analysis, uture model deelopment, and urther related research.
S.J Post modelling site analysis
Post modelling site analysis would entail urther more detailed analysis o the global country
potential, based on detailed knowledge o speciic sites, rom either measurements or non-GIS
sources such as operator reports or enironmental assessments.
Geological assessment. 1he model deeloped here assesses sites based on their slope. In
order to ully assess the suitability or transormation to PlS urther analysis on the geological
makeup o the site and surrounding area would be required. 1his could be used e.g. to more
accurately identiy costs -depending on the type o rock a new reseroir might need an
waterprooing layer, or is costlier to dig |63[.
Hydrological assessment. A hydrological assessment o the global country potential would be
needed to ealuate the inlow into existing reseroirs or the inlow into the potential reseroir
sites. It might be that existing GIS water models could proide the input or this assessment.

44
Ilood risk assessment. 1he analysis o barriers details and discusses, in general, a list o
potential cases which could cause lood risks. luture research would require an analysis o each
lood risk, using the points mentioned in section 4.6 or the country potential.
Additionally, PlS may be used or lood protection, the model could present the capacity o
water storage in the proposed PlS schemes and relate it to other parameters that identiy the
role o PlS in lood protection. 1hose parameters could be hydraulic, population,
inrastructure, etc.
S.2 luture model deelopment
S.2.J Inestigate the aailability o additional data layers
1he incorporation o geology and hydrology ,e.g. precipitation and eaporation, data would
improe the unctionality o the model deeloped in this work. A layer o geological data would
allow some unsuitable sites to be either lagged or eliminated, or example sites located on peat
soils or sites with porous bedrock such as limestone ,see the discussion in section 4.1.1,. A layer
containing eaporation or potential eapotranspiration would be useul in order to iner the
likely eaporatie losses rom storage reseroirs. loweer, eaporation is highly spatially
ariable, especially in upland regions where orography and local winds may hae large eects,
and large-scale model datasets may not be capable o ully representing this ariability.
Precipitation data would help to quantiy inlows to reseroirs.
S.2.2 Other model improements
Alternatie, higher-resolution, terrain datasets may be aailable, on a commercial basis. 1hese
datasets, i suitable, may improe the accuracy o the site selection process. \e recommend
that the model be tested in a small region with a subset o any new terrain dataset beore
proceeding to recalculating transormation potentials on a country-wide basis. In this way, the
eects o the resolution and quality o the terrain inormation on the results can be assessed.
A potential extension to the model would be to estimate cut and ill olumes or reseroir
construction. 1his exercise is likely to be computationally intensie or large areas |55[.
\ith a substantial inestment o time
6
, ICOLD reseroir sites in countries other than Croatia
and 1urkey could be geo-reerenced by using the manual cross-reerencing technique with
Google Larth used to update the 1urkish and Croatian databases. Alternatiely, other sources
o data could be ound een in GIS ormat which could reduce the eort or data preparation.
1he indiidual resulting schemes could be analysed to distinguish between daily- or weekly-
cycle PlS, a way to do this by combining the capacity o the proposed PlS in G\h with
reasonable assumptions on pumping capacity, some work was already done e.g. by L\I and
energinautics |56[. 1he country potential could be appropriately split between both types o
PlS.
\e assumed that when both 1A and 1B transormations are possible or the same site the
choice is 1B owning to lower transormation costs. 1his disregards the possibility o 1A
yielding much more potential. 1he model could introduce the ealuation o cost adantage s.
higher energy storage potential. Likewise, there are a number o areas where a combination o
parameters can be sensible:
- Criteria or distance between reseroirs and head may be considered in combination. lor
example a second reseroir site 5 km away with 150 m head does not seem like a suitable site
|59[, |63[.
- 1opology B is always preerred oer 1opology A, but this can be challenged. lor example,
two existing reseroirs 5 km away with a head o 150m may not be a desirable deelopment or
a PlS ,1B,. loweer i suitable sites with 600m head exists within 1-2 km o one o the two

45
reseroirs, it may be aoured compared to utilizing the second reseroir. 1he cost o
constructing the secondary reseroir is relatiely small compared to the oerall cost o the
project |59[.
Some o the reseroirs can be as long as 20 km ,Peruca, in Croatia,, thereore the 5-km limit or
the second reseroir , currently at the centre o the dam, could be based not any point in the
lake, thus multiplying the explored area and thus the possibilities o inding a suitable site |63[.
1he head parameter could be adapted to be net head by taking into account losses, aerage
head, or a combination o both elements.
Maximum head could be an additional technical constraint. Lxisting PlS technology limits the
head between the two reseroirs to 00-800 m. In the example or Croatia, the selected site is at
the ,easible, edge o existing technology |59[.
S.2.3 Lxtension o scope: site pre-selection.
It has been highlighted that or the purposes o identiying maximum easible PlS country
potential, maximum energy storage seems the proper criterion. loweer, or the pre-selection
o a PlS site this may not be the most suitable criterion. Other criteria, such as maximum head
or minimum distance between the reseroirs ,both o these reduce the CapLx, may also be
used. 1hereore the methodology could extend the scope or site pre-selection. 1wo possible
approaches to this could be ,a, to combine two or more criteria with dierent weights or
inding the optimum` site or ,b, to select optimum sites based on more than one criteria
separately ,separate runs which could possibly identiy dierent sites,.` |59[
S.2.4 Reaching the inal user
1his model could proide an increasing aluable serice to the inal users i their needs were
incorporated in the orm o layers. Possible layers include:
- lull data on grid capacity is needed to estimate the cost o grid connection.
- More detailed calculation o the size and shape o the new ,second, dam proposed in 1A.
- Cost data or the dierent items, e.g. cost per cubic metre o concrete or the dam, per km o
grid extension.
- Building time data or the dierent items, data on permitting delays and other project-
management aspects.
- Llectricity interconnection capacity would help determine the possibilities or increased PlS
to support the electricity system o neighbour countries.
Possible users include the spatial planning bodies o regional or national goernments, utilities,
and deeloper o pumped hydropower schemes. 1hey should irst and oremost be consulted
on which kind o output rom the model, in terms o speciications and ormat, would be
needed to let them reduce costs or improe their work.
S.3 lurther related research
lurther related research relates to areas that would beneit the uture o PlS, considering
dierent types o plants, detailed costs, operation within electricity systems and markets.
S.3.J Analysis o the types o existing PlS
PlS has dierent conigurations depending on the topography it is sited in.
2 existing reseroirs with natural inlow ,transormation studied as 1B,

46
1 existing reseroir and 1 artiicial, newly-built one, usually the upper one ,studied as
1A,
2 artiicial reseroirs ,closed loop,
1here are also ariations on these 3 conigurations. Research into existing PlS plant
coniguration would allow or the categorisation o each PlS plant under the aboe headings.
1his knowledge would be useul or planned PlS, especially in the area o capital costs. Noel
technologies such as coastal seawater PlS could also be included in this categorisation.
S.3.2 Analysis o capital cost
As highlighted in section 4.2.4, the uncertainty o capital costs or PlS is a major barrier to the
uture deelopment. Research into breaking down the capital costs into its constituent parts
,penstock, generation equipment, reseroir construction, or een a more detailed split, would
proide more certainty or deelopers. lollowing on rom the categorisation o existing PlS, a
capital cost or each coniguration could make capital cost estimation more accurate in the
uture.
S.3.3 Laluate the role o PlS within the electricity markets in Lurope
A barrier or deelopers o PlS is the uncertainty o income streams rom energy markets.
Lnergy payments rom trading in the wholesale market are normally the main source o income
or PlS operators. loweer, some market structures also pay capacity payments or the
aailability o generation and,or pay or the aailability o generators or ancillary serices
,resere, black start etc.,. Research into how existing PlS operate within existing Luropean
markets would proide some leel o income certainty, and an indication o whether projects
can be inancially iable. lurthermore, stakeholders hae highlighted the need to identiy as
part o the ealuation o the potential the economic aspects including the potential income o a
PlS plant rom energy
10
, capacity, and ancillary serices, or whether there are any other
inancial incenties. rev tbovgb var/et avat,.i. i. vot ,ovr focv., a vore aetaitea orerrier of var/et
i..ve. rovta aaa ratve to ,ovr report` |59[.
S.3.4 Connection with the National Renewable Lnergy Action Plans ,NRLAP,.
Under the renewable energy Directie ,2009,28,LC, LU Member States hae to prepare plans
to meet their respectie 2020 goals o renewable energy contribution. Gien that large-scale
energy storage is nowadays only possible with reseroir-based hydropower or PlS, there is a
clear connection between the implementation path shown in NRLAPs and the need or energy
storage. 1his connection is shown in the NRLAP which include projections o PlS as well as
other hydropower installation.
lurther research could look at how PlS ,and the transormation to PlS, could enable grids to
accommodate a higher ariable-RL component.
S.4 Potential co-operation with GRanD
1his project has beneitted rom the data proided by the GRanD project. I urther work is to
be carried out in this area, then ormal co-operation with GRanD may be mutually beneicial.


10
As [60] suggested what is important is the difference between off-peak and peak electricity prices,
multiplied by efficiency

4
6 Methodological remarks and conclusions
In this analysis o potential or transormation the authors were obliged to take decisions based
on empirical analysis as well as on their own experience, with the limitations imposed by the
model and with aailability o data being a key inluencing actor. Because o the latter those
decisions at times had to be arbitrary and not necessarily matched the reality. A good example
to illustrate this point is the 1A case or Croatia which was contrasted with the reality. 1his
one, the Razoac dam, is part o the Velebit PlS system where the Stikada reseroir is the
upper one. lere the reality challenged two key assumptions o the design o the model, namely
that the size o the potential new upper reseroir should not be bigger than the lower ,existing,
reseroir, and that the economic distance between the two reseroirs should be lower than
5 km. Indeed the alidity o the latter assumption was urther challenged by other example, the
PlS project "Atdor" ,1.4 G\, 13 G\h, in Baden-\rttemberg ,South Germany, with a
distance between the two ,new, reseroirs o 8.5 km |62[.
Lery scenario or high penetration o renewable energy in electricity systems highlights the
need or electricity storage ,|56[, |5[, and puts storage as a key actor or reducing the cost o
energy i the renewable electricity is o a ariable nature. 1his modelling exercise is, to the
knowledge o the authors, the irst approach to identiying and quantiying the potential or
transormation to pumped hydropower storage in Luropean countries based on one or two
existing dams. loweer, this exercise belongs to the ield o research and, as the reality check
has hinted, its results might be some stages away rom the accuracy and deinition required or
an actual project easibility study. 1his is important because ,we beliee, the ultimate goal o an
exercise to quantiy the potential or increasing PlS should be dual: to eed the decision-
making process with sound science and to reduce the costs o transormation or all actors
inoled: goernmental spatial planning agencies, engineering companies and PlS deelopers.
Reiewers hae highlighted that the parameters used to restrict the search or suitable sites were
too restrictie regarding reality. 1here are inhabited areas less than 200 m rom a reseroir,
penstock can be buried so they can cross transport inrastructure and thus the 100-m distance
to the latter might be a unnecessary restriction |63[. 1he restriction o 5 km to UNLSCO sites
may be excessie when, e.g. this is an isolated chapel in the middle o the mountains
1hroughout this report the primary ocus was on the storage capacity, which is necessary since
we are inestigating the aailability o potential reseroirs. loweer, power capacity is
somewhat independent o the storage capacity i.e. to increase the power capacity more
penstocks can be constructed at existing PlS sites. Some research has indicated that increasing
the power capacity could enable higher wind penetrations without any increase in the storage
capacity` |58[ |65[
lydrology is a critical criterion especially or areas,countries in dry climates, such as those in
Southern Lurope. 1he assumption that the existing reseroir olume can be potentially used
or PlS is not necessarily alid in dry areas. lor example in Cyprus dams are rarely ull or een
near ull, they are oersized in order to maximize the water collection in rainy years and use it
or storage in dry years. In these cases the addition o a second reseroir would increase the
olume o water stored at the peak rainy season but during those period the reseroir could not
be used as PlS but as permanent water storage. lurthermore, a PlS plant cannot use all the
existing olume o the reseroir, otherwise debris and silt would be drawn up the pump-
turbine. Large leel dierences are not technically aourable or the mechanical equipment,
depending on the shapes,areas o the reseroirs large head dierences may deelop rom the
start o the pumping cycle to the end. As a irst step, the model could limit the olume o the
reseroir by a certain percentage ,say, 80, to account or all these actors |59[.
1he next steps could include the opening o a dialogue with these stakeholders that would
result in a more lexible model able to proide more accurate results that are closer to reality

48
and thereore start to be useul or at least some o those actors. Lentually, the process started
with this work could ,some would say should`, be expanded to the whole o Lurope.

7 Conclusions
1he country potential or transormation to PlS in Croatia is o 60 G\h, which compares
with the current installed PlS storage o 20 G\h. loweer, the latter is mostly ,98, in one
single, mix-PlS installation which generates 80 o its electricity rom pure hydropower
resources. I a olume actor
11
is applied as proposed by |56[, 60 G\h would correspond to
turbine capacity o 2.3 G\
1he realisable potential or transormation in 1urkey shown by this analysis is 3 800 G\h. 1his
igure corresponds to 146 G\ o turbine capacity at a olume actor o 26, and can be
compared with the estimated 35 G\ o peak demand and 230 000 G\h o generation in 2010.
Unortunately there is not an option to compare this transormation potential with the existing
PlS capacity because currently there are no PlS plants in 1urkey.
\e need some insight on how the prospectie new PlS could be used to help stabilise the grid
and increase the uptake o renewable energy. In eect, some o the potential PlS could be
used or intra-day balancing, i.e. pumping at night when there is excess electricity rom baseload
,coal or nuclear, plant, and generating during the day. Some other PlS with higher storage
capacity could be used or weekly or monthly storage i economically easible. A PlS
transormation based on the Karacaoren II Dam in 1urkey, with 34 G\h o storage capacity,
could be used to store electricity rom excess wind rather than curtailing wind production.
In eect, wind energy cycles may last hours but most requently last 3-4 days depending on the
local climatology. In electricity systems with high wind penetration and low export capacity,
islands or electrical peninsulas` such as Ireland or Inner Mongolia in China, wind would need
to be curtailed whereas a PlS plant with large storage capacity can absorb and then release
these wind energy during peak demand and thus haing the additional enironmental eect o
aoiding the use o the peaking plant uelled by ossil uels whether natural-gas or coal ,e.g. in
China,, and beneiting rom a subsequent reduction in greenhouse gas reductions.
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Iurther reading
1he ollowing documents can contribute to enhance the issues analysed in this scientiic and
technical report:
J. Deane, B. Gallachir, and L. McKeogh, 1echno-economic reiew o existing and
new pumped hydro energy storage plant,` Renewable and Sustainable Lnergy Reiews, ol.
14, no. 4, pp. 1293-1302, May 2010.
Bogenrieder \. Pumped storage power plant-renewable energy`. Volume 3 'Lnergy
technologies' o Landolt-Bornstein Group VIII 'adanced materials and technologies,
2006. 1he cycle o pumping and generating can be repeated on a daily, weekly or een
seasonal basis. In the daily cycle the reseroirs can be illed and emptied within a 24 hour
period while in the weekly cycle the upper reseroir is partially drawn down and partially
reilled during weekdays and completely reilled during weekends when the system load is
normally low. Seasonal pumping is applied in hydropower systems with a large annual
ariation in inlow o water to the reseroirs.`
Limberg II PlS, Verbund, http:,,reports.erbund.at,2006,csr,selectedprojects,pumped-
storagepowerplantlimbergii.html Abstract: 1he new pumped-storage power plant,
Limberg II, which is being constructed by Verbund-Austrian lydro Power AG ,AlP, to
supplement the existing Kaprun power plant group, is located at the rear o the Kaprun
Valley. 1he balancing and backup power plant, Limberg II, will more than double the
output o the Kaprun power plant group rom 353 M\ to 833 M\ by making optimal use
o the dierence in height between the existing Alpine storage lakes, Mooserboden ,2 036
m aboe sea leel, and \asserallboden ,1,62 m aboe sea leel,.` 1 years construction
to 1995, 166 Mm3 between these irst two reseroirs. Very interesting enironmental
aspects
LPRI ,Llectric Power Research Institute,, 1990. Pumped Storage Planning and
Laluation Guide`. Prepared by larza Lngineering Company, Chicago. A
comprehensie and stand-alone guide is oered or the preliminary ealuation o pumped-

52
storage sites, to help ,a, ealuate perormance and beneits o pumped storage in a utility
system, including dynamic beneits, ,b, identiy the physical characteristics o a site suitable
or pumped-storage deelopment, ,c, establish the site's energy storage potential and
installed capacity, ,d, estimate capital cost, and annual operation and maintenance expense,
and ,e, conduct an economic analysis. A PC-based computer program has been written
and is included in the Guide Book to assist in beneit analysis. 1he concept o dynamic
beneits is explained, and how pumped storage contributes to them is described. Six o the
major power system generation planning models are ealuated to help utility planners
select the model best suited or their application. A methodology is proided to help
planners screen and select sites encompassing cost, beneit, enironmental, and regulatory
actors. Step-by-step procedures are described, one simpliied and the other more detailed,
to acilitate the use o the guide. Background descriptions are proided to assist those
unamiliar with pumped-storage practice. A series o cost cures are proided to permit the
deelopment o a preliminary capital cost estimate or a site, based on a ew key
parameters which deine the physical characteristics o the site.`
USA Army Corps o Lngineers. Lngineering and design-hydropower ,ealuating pumped-
storage hydropower,. Publication number: LM 1110-2-101, December 1985. Aailable at
http:,,140.194.6.129,publications,eng-manuals,em1110-2-101,c-.pd Abstract:
Pumped storage operation can be best understood by examining an o-stream pumped-
storage project which operates on a daily,weekly cycle ,the most common type o pumped
storage deelopment in the United States,. 1he early sections o this chapter discuss the
analysis o this type o project. Later sections are deoted to pump back, seasonal pumped
storage, and other aspects o pumped storage deelopment.`
Allen A.L, 19: Potential or conentional and underground pumped-storage, ILLL
1ransactions on Power Apparatus and Systems 96,3,, May 19. 1he purpose o this
paper is to present a ery brie reiew o the current state o pumped-storage, with a
cataloguing o its beneits and problems, and a brie summary o uture potentialities. 1he
potential or pumped storage is directly related to the public's iewpoint.`

Acknowledgements
\e would like to acknowledge the excellent eedback proided by the ollowing persons,
eedback that was crucial to improe this document: Dr. Constantinos Varnaas, Assistant
Manager ,Generation, to the Llectricity Authority o Cyprus, Dr. Daid Connolly, Assistant
Proessor, Aalborg Uniersity o Denmark, Alejandro Perea Sanchez, Gerente de Planiicacin
y Oertas, Iberdrola Generacin, Lmmanuel Branche, Senior Lngineer Lconomist,
Generation&Lngineering, Saoie 1echnolac, Llectricit de lrance, Dr. Klaus Schneider,
1echnische Grundsatzragen, Schluchseewerk, Dr. Neen Duic and Dr. Goran Krajacic,
Uniersity o Zagreb.






European Commission

EUR 25239 EN Joint Research Centre Institute for Energy and Transport
Title: Pumped-hydro energy storage: potential for transformation from single dams
Author(s): Roberto Lacal Arntegui, Institute for Energy and Transport, Joint Research Centre of
the European Commission, Petten, the Netherlands.
Niall Fitzgerald and Paul Leahy, Sustainable Energy Research Group, University
College Cork, Cork, Ireland
Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union
2012 55 pp. 21 x 29.7 cm
EUR Scientific and Technical Research series ISSN 1831-9424
ISBN 978-92-79-23182-7
doi:10.2790/44844




Cover picture: Dam of Cortes II, part of the pumped-hydropower scheme Cortes La Muela, in
Spain. Courtesy of Iberdrola




Abstract
Electricity storage is one of the main ways to enable a higher share of variable renewable electricity
such as wind and solar, the other being improved interconnections, flexible conventional generation
plant, and demand-side management.
Pumped hydropower storage (PHS) is currently the only electricity storage technology able to offer
large-scale storage as that needed for accommodating renewable electricity under the 2020 EU
energy targets.
Compared with the high environmental and social impact of most new hydropower plant in Europe,
the transformation of an existing reservoir into a PHS system offers the prospects of a much smaller
environmental and social impact.
The authors developed a geographical information systems (GIS) -based methodology and model to
identify the potential for transforming single reservoirs into PHS systems, and to assess the
additional energy storage which these new PHS could contribute to the electricity systems. The
methodology was applied as case studies to Croatia and Turkey.
GIS-based tools have the potential for effective and efficient identification of both national/EU
potentials (of policy and scientific-interest) and individual site candidates for transformation (pre-
feasibility, project-level). Once the model is set up, improvements to such tools, e.g. allowing better
sensitivity analysis, can be effectively applied to the whole of the EU with minimum effort.
This paper first summarises the methodology and tool used and then exposes the results of its
application to two countries as case studies. These results limit the assessment to potential sites
within 5 km of one existing reservoir (TA) or of one another (TB), and a minimum 150 m of head. In
the case of Croatia, it was found that at least a potential of 60 GWh is possible for which can be
compared with the existing 20 GWh of storage capacity at its PHS plants. In the case of Turkey a
potential of 3 800 GWh was assessed mostly under TA, with 2 potential TB sites providing three
additional GWh of storage potential.



54
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