MATERI AL REMOVAL PROCESSES

MECN 4140 - Manufact uring Processes

I nt er American Universit y of Puert o Rico
Prof. Eduardo Cabrera Ruiz
Based on 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Mat erial Removal Processes
A family of shaping operat ions, t he common feat ure of which
is removal of mat erial from a st art ing workpart so t he
remaining part has t he desired geomet ry
Machi ni ng mat erial removal by a sharp cut t ing t ool,
e.g., t urning, milling, drilling
Abr asi ve pr ocesses mat erial removal by hard, abrasive
part icles, e.g., grinding
Nont r adi t i onal pr ocesses - various energy forms ot her
t han sharp cut t ing t ool t o remove mat erial
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Machining
Cut t ing act ion involves shear deformat ion of work mat erial
t o form a chip
As chip is removed, new surface is exposed
Figure 21.2 (a) A cross-sectional view of the machining process, (b)
tool with negative rake angle; compare with positive rake angle in (a).
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Why Machining is I mport ant
Variet y of work mat erials can be machined
Most frequent ly used t o cut met als
Variet y of part shapes and special geomet ric feat ures
possible, such as:
Screw t hreads
Accurat e round holes
Very st raight edges and surfaces
Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
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Disadvant ages wit h Machining
Wast ef ul of mat er i al
Chips generat ed in machining are wast ed mat erial, at
least in t he unit operat ion
Ti me consumi ng
A machining operat ion generally t akes more t ime t o
shape a given part t han alt ernat ive shaping processes,
such as cast ing, powder met allurgy, or forming
Page 5
Machining Operat ions
Most import ant machining operat ions:
Turning
Drilling
Milling
Ot her machining operat ions:
Shaping and planing
Broaching
Sawing
Page 6
Single point cut t ing t ool removes mat erial from a rot at ing
workpiece t o form a cylindrical shape
Figure 21.3 Three most common machining processes: (a) turning,
Turning
Page 7
Drilling
Used t o creat e a round hole, usually by
means of a rot at ing t ool (drill bit ) wit h t wo
cut t ing edges
Figure 21.3 (b) drilling,
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Milling
Rot at ing mult iple-cut t ing-edge t ool is moved across work t o cut a plane
or st raight surface
Two forms: peripheral milling and face milling
Figure 21.3 (c) peripheral milling, and (d) face milling.
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Cut t ing Tool Classificat ion
1. Si ngl e-Poi nt Tool s
One dominant cut t ing edge
Point is usually rounded t o form a nose radius
Turning uses single point t ools
2. Mul t i pl e Cut t i ng Edge Tool s
More t han one cut t ing edge
Mot ion relat ive t o work achieved by rot at ing
Drilling and milling use rot at ing mult iple cut t ing edge
t ools
Page 10
Cut t ing Tools
Figure 21.4 (a) A single-point t ool showing rake face, flank, and t ool
point ; and (b) a helical milling cut t er, represent at ive of t ools wit h
mult iple cut t ing edges.
Cut t ing Condit ions in Machining
Three paramet ers of a machining process:
Cut t ing speed v primary mot ion
Feed f secondary mot ion
Dept h of cut d penet rat ion of t ool below original work
surface
For cert ain operat ions, mat er i al r emoval r at e can be
comput ed as
R
MR
= v f d
where v = cut t ing speed; f = feed; d = dept h of cut
Page 12
Cut t ing Condit ions for Turning
Figure 21.5 Speed, feed, and dept h of cut in t urning.
Roughing vs. Finishing
I n product ion, several roughing cut s are usually t aken on t he
part , followed by one or t wo finishing cut s
Roughi ng - removes large amount s of mat erial from
st art ing workpart
Creat es shape close t o desired geomet ry, but leaves
some mat erial for finish cut t ing
High feeds and dept hs, low speeds
Fi ni shi ng - complet es part geomet ry
Final dimensions, t olerances, and finish
Low feeds and dept hs, high cut t ing speeds
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Ort hogonal Cut t ing Model
Simplified 2-D model of machining t hat describes t he
mechanics of machining fairly accurat ely
Figure 21.6 Orthogonal cutting: (a) as a three-dimensional process.
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Chip Thickness Rat io
c
o
t
t
r =
where r = chip t hickness rat io; t
o
= t hickness of t he chip
prior t o chip format ion; and t
c
= chip t hickness aft er separat ion
Chip t hickness aft er cut always great er t han before, so chip rat io
always less t han 1.0
Det ermining Shear Plane Angle
Based on t he geomet ric paramet ers of t he ort hogonal
model, t he shear plane angle | can be det ermined as:
o
o
|
sin
cos
tan
r
r

=
1
where r = chip ratio, and
o = rake angle
Page 17
Applicat ion of st resses in opposit e direct ions on eit her side of a t hin
element
Shear st ress defined as
where F = applied force; and A = area over which deflect ion
occurs.
Shear st rain defined as
where o = deflect ion element ; and b = dist ance over which
deflect ion occurs
Shear Propert ies (Remember)
A
F
= t
b
o
=
Page 18
Shear St rain in Chip Format ion
Figure 21.7 Shear st rain during chip format ion: (a) chip format ion
depict ed as a series of parallel plat es sliding relat ive t o each ot her, (b) one
of t he plat es isolat ed t o show shear st rain, and (c) shear st rain t riangle
used t o derive st rain equat ion.
AC AD DC
BD BD
+
= =
Shear st rain in machining can be comput ed from t he
following equat ion, based on t he preceding parallel plat e
model:
= t an(| - o) + cot |
where = shear st rain, | = shear plane angle, and o = rake
angle of cut t ing t ool
Shear St rain
= +
AD DC
BD BD
Page 20
Act ual Chip Format ion
Figure 21.8 More realist ic view of chip format ion, showing shear zone
rat her t han shear plane. Also shown is t he secondary shear zone
result ing from t ool-chip frict ion.
Four Basic Types of Chip in Machining
1. Discont inuous chip
2. Cont inuous chip
3. Cont inuous chip wit h Built -up Edge (BUE)
4. Serrat ed chip
Page 22
Discont inuous Chip
Brit t le work mat erials
Low cut t ing speeds
Large feed and dept h of cut
High t ool-chip frict ion
Figure 21.9 Four t ypes of chip
format ion in met al cut t ing: (a)
discont inuous
Page 23
Duct ile work mat erials
High cut t ing speeds
Small feeds and dept hs
Sharp cut t ing edge
Low t ool-chip frict ion
Figure 21.9 (b) cont inuous
Continuous Chip
Page 24
Cont inuous wit h Built -up Edge (BUE)
Duct ile mat erials
Low-t o-medium cut t ing speeds
Tool-chip frict ion causes
port ions of chip t o adhere t o
rake face
BUE forms, t hen breaks off,
cyclically
Figure 21.9 (c) cont inuous wit h
built -up edge
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Serrat ed Chip
Semicont inuous - saw-t oot h
appearance
Cyclical chip forms wit h
alt ernat ing high shear st rain t hen
low shear st rain
Associat ed wit h difficult -t o-
machine met als at high cut t ing
speeds
Figure 21.9 (d) serrat ed.
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Forces Act ing on Chip
Frict ion force F and Normal force t o frict ion N
Shear force F
s
and Normal force t o shear F
n
Figure 21.10 Forces in
metal cutting: (a) forces
acting on the chip in
orthogonal cutting
Page 27
Result ant Forces
Vect or addit ion of F and N = result ant R
Vect or addit ion of F
s
and F
n
= result ant R'
Forces act ing on t he chip must be in balance:
R must be equal in magnit ude t o R
R must be opposit e in direct ion t o R
R must be collinear wit h R
Page 28
Coefficient of Frict ion
Coefficient of frict ion bet ween t ool and chip:
Friction angle related to coefficient of friction as follows:
N
F
=
| tan =
Page 29
Shear St ress
Shear st ress act ing along t he shear plane:
| sin
w t
A
o
s
=
where A
s
= area of the shear plane
Shear stress = shear strength of work material during cutting
s
s
A
F
S =
Page 30
Cut t ing Force and Thrust Force
F, N, F
s
, and F
n
cannot be direct ly measured
Forces act ing on t he t ool t hat can be measured:
Cut t ing force F
c
and Thrust force F
t
Figure 21.10 Forces
in metal cutting: (b)
forces acting on the
tool that can be
measured
Page 31
Forces in Met al Cut t ing
Equat ions can be derived t o relat e t he forces t hat
cannot be measured t o t he forces t hat can be
measured:
F = F
c
sino + F
t
coso
N = F
c
coso - F
t
sino
F
s
= F
c
cos| - F
t
sin|
F
n
= F
c
sin| + F
t
cos|
Based on t hese calculat ed force, shear st ress and
coefficient of frict ion can be det ermined
Page 32
The Merchant Equat ion
Of all t he possible angles at which shear deformat ion can
occur, t he work mat erial will select a shear plane angle |
t hat minimizes energy, given by
Derived by Eugene Merchant
Based on ort hogonal cut t ing, but validit y ext ends t o 3-D
machining
2 2
45
| o
| + =
Page 33
What t he Merchant Equat ion Tells Us
To increase shear plane angle
I ncrease t he rake angle
Reduce t he frict ion angle (or coefficient of frict ion)
2 2
45
| o
| + =
Page 34
Effect of Higher Shear Plane Angle
Higher shear plane angle means smaller shear plane which means lower
shear force, cut t ing forces, power, and t emperat ure
Figure 21.12 Effect of shear plane angle | : (a) higher | with a resulting lower
shear plane area; (b) smaller | with a corresponding larger shear plane area.
Note that the rake angle is larger in (a), which tends to increase shear angle
according to the Merchant equation
Page 35
Power and Energy Relat ionships
A machining operat ion requires power
The power t o perform machining can be comput ed from:
P
c
= F
c
v
where P
c
= cut t ing power; F
c
= cut t ing force; and v =
cut t ing speed
Page 36
Power and Energy Relat ionships
I n U.S. cust omary unit s, power is t radit ional expressed as
horsepower (dividing ft -lb/ min by 33,000)
where HP
c
= cutting horsepower, hp
000 33,
v F
HP
c
c
=
Page 37
Power and Energy Relat ionships
Gross power t o operat e t he machine t ool P
g
or HP
g
is given
by
or
where E = mechanical efficiency of machine tool
Typical E for machine tools ~ 90%
E
P
P
c
g
=
E
HP
HP
c
g
=
Page 38
Unit Power in Machining
Useful t o convert power int o power per unit volume rat e of
met al cut
Called unit power, P
u
or unit horsepower, HP
u
or
where R
MR
= material removal rate
MR
c
U
R
P
P =
MR
c
u
R
HP
HP =
Page 39
Specific Energy in Machining
Unit power is also known as t he specific energy U
Units for specific energy are typically N-m/mm
3
or J/mm
3
(in-lb/in
3
)
w vt
v F
R
P
P U
o
c
MR
c
u
= = =
Page 40
Cut t ing Temperat ure
Approximat ely 98% of t he energy in machining is
convert ed int o heat
This can cause t emperat ures t o be very high at t he
t ool-chip
The remaining energy (about 2%) is ret ained as elast ic
energy in t he chip
Page 41
Cut t ing Temperat ures are I mport ant
High cut t ing t emperat ures
1. Reduce t ool life
2. Produce hot chips t hat pose safet y hazards t o t he
machine operat or
3. Can cause inaccuracies in part dimensions due t o t hermal
expansion of work mat erial
Page 42
Cut t ing Temperat ure
Analyt ical met hod derived by Nat han Cook from
dimensional analysis using experiment al dat a for various
work mat erials
where T = temperature rise at tool-chip interface; U =
specific energy; v = cutting speed; t
o
= chip thickness
before cut; C = volumetric specific heat of work material;
K = thermal diffusivity of work material
333 0
4 0
.
.
|
.
|

\
|
=
K
vt
C
U
T
o

Page 43
Cut t ing Temperat ure
Experiment al met hods can be used t o measure
t emperat ures in machining
Most frequent ly used t echnique is t he t ool-chip
t hermocouple
Using t his met hod, Ken Trigger det ermined t he
speed-t emperat ure relat ionship t o be of t he form:
T = K v
m
where T = measured t ool-chip int erface t emperat ure, and
v = cut t ing speed
Page 44