Mobile Training Methodology for E-business

This project has been funded with support from the European Commission under the Lifelong Learning Programme. This publication reflects the views only of the author, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.

The Mobile Training Methodology for E-business ver. 1.0 has been prepared as part of the E-business Mobile Training - use of mobile Performance Support System for acquiring ebusiness management skills project, co-financed by the Leonardo da Vinci Lifelong Learning Programme. It is based on mobile Performance Support System for Vocational Education and Training project, and results developed during its implementation.

This consortium implementing this project consists of: Nowoczesna Firma S.A. (NF) Plovdiv University (PU) Management Observatory Fundation (FOZ) National Distance Education University (UNED)

Authors: Piotr Maczuga (NF) Micha Plewczyski (NF) Nevena Mileva (PU) Dimitar Tokmakov (PU) Agnieszka witecka (FOZ) Krzysztof Zieliski (FOZ) Elio San Cristbal Ruiz (UNED) Manuel Castro (UNED)

ISBN: 978-83-936582-0-6

Warsaw 2012 E-business Mobile Training - use of mobile Performance Support System for acquiring ebusiness management skills www.mtraining.eu

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. THE MOBILE WORLD. WORKFORCE MOBILITY AND THE RISE OF MOBILE DEVICES

Mobile computing is one of the fastest growing areas within the technology industry worldwide. According to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU, 2011), there are 5.9 billion mobilecellular subscriptions. Global penetration reaches 87% and 79% in the developing world (ITU, 2011). Mobile-broadband subscriptions have grown 45% annually over the last four years and today there are twice as many mobile-broadband as fixed broadband subscriptions (ITU, 2011). This information reveals that mobile devices are a very accessible and spread tool that do not require important equipment investments, and that penetration to all economic layers is possible thank to them (Martin, et al., 2010). In general, mobile devices are reaching all levels of our society, being used not just for communication any more. New commerce, advertising, social networking, media, and obviously corporate training and formal education are having mobile devices as a fundamental platform for future development. Smartphones and tablets have enabled workers to be more flexible than ever before because they do not have to be rooted to their desks in an office to do their job. According to the report published by Cube Labs (Cube Labs, 2012) the number of mobile workers in 2012 is of 397.1 millions using mostly smartphones (91%) and tablets (44%). The profile of mobile employee goes from consultants, financial services professionals, banking executives, delivery drivers, and retail sales employees, to field service employees, executive assistants, supervisor and general manager. According to this study, younger employees prefer Apple and Android devices, while older employees prefer Blackberry. The differences between these devices are that Blackberry devices focuses on productivity apps, Android devices on information apps and Apple devices focuses on task-oriented apps (Cube Labs, 2012).

1.2. LEARNING WITH MOBILE DEVICES EVERYDAY CONTEXTS AND USE PATTERNS

According to (Cube Labs, 2012), the most common apps used by mobile employees are related to email (86%), Web browsing (80%), contacts (80%), calendar (75%), instant messaging (73%), office apps (71%), task and project management (63%), line of business apps (59%), and CRM (51%). However, thanks to the new lifelong learning initiatives educational apps will become as usual as any other kind of apps. Also, some devices are particularly focused on content consumption, such as tablets. According to (MeeFeedia, 2010) iPad users consume 3X as many

videos as web users, spend 4X as long watching videos as web users, and consume 5X as many videos as iPhone users. That fact makes these devices great vehicles to be used to deliver educational resources. However, not only video-based resources can be used to foster education on these devices. Current mobile learning projects range from informal learning (e.g. museums, flights) aimed to provide additional information and services in informal environments; to outside-the-classroom experiences based on geo-location where learners can collaborate and participate in real environments; or performance support systems, aimed to improve learning performance by scaffolding the learning process through immediate feedback in adaptive scenarios (Martin, et al., 2010). These systems are not just an extension of the traditional Learning Management Systems (LMS), since they allow students learn in any place and any moment, taking advantage of, for example, the boredom moments in the bus. Reviewing the mobile and ubiquitous learning literature, there are several classifications of mlearning (mobile learning) applications. Naismith (2004) uses as indicators the technical features of the devices used for information, communication or educational purposes. According to the information and communication technologies (ICT) approach, the systems are classified by the type of mobile device (Notebooks, TabletPCs, PDAs, cell phones or smart phones) and the type of wireless communication technologies (GSM, WiFi, Bluetooth, etc.) that they support (Martin, et al., 2010). Other authors focus more on the ability to support on-line or off-line access to learning materials (Attwell, 2005), or on the type of information used in the educational process: learning or administrative (Chang, 2003). These classifications do not cover the complexity of the current mobile learning applications (Martin, et al., 2010). This is why authors like Georgieva provide two types of classification [Georgieva, 2005] (Figure 1):

Information and Communication Technologies, as in Naismith [Naismith, 2004]; Educational technologies. The proposed classification is based on the following main indicators: Support of synchronous and/or asynchronous communication. Support of e-learning standards. Currently most m-learning systems do not support e-learning specifications such as SCORM. Availability of a permanent Internet connection between the mobile learning system and users: on-line, off-line and mixed-work. Users location: on-campus, off-campus or both. Access to learning materials and/or administrative services. This means that the student receives course content such as tests or administrative information such as schedules and exam marks.

Figure 1.

A general classification of m-learning systems [Georgieva, 2005].

1.3. THE WHY AND HOW OF LEARNING/WORKING WITH MOBILE DEVICES

In the context of mobile learning it is worth to analyze Bob Mosher and Conrad Gottfredsons (Mosher & Gottfredson, 2011) Five Moments of Need. It is a framework that posits that there are five primary moments of need employees face in the learning and performance life cycle. The five moments occur: 1. When learning for the first time 2. When wanting to learn more 3. When trying to remember and/or apply 4. When things change 5. When something goes wrong The authors identified the best training delivery methods to meets each of the Moments of Need. The first and second moment are related to acquisition of knowledge and more traditional models of teaching. The other three deal with application of knowledge and are directly aligned with performance support.

Five Moments of Need, source: Mosher & Gottfredson, 2011 Due to its specific character, m-learning works best in some specific areas or situations of providing information1. Mobile learning is most suitable when it comes to the number 2, 3, 4 and 5. When wanting to learn more mobile technology can be used as supportive tool for learning. They allow quick access to additional information (like corporative data bases, documents and procedures) in the exact moment and place where it is needed. When remembering and/or applying whats been learned it can provide knowledge refreshers, job aids or performance support any moment it is needed, especially in the need of applying previously gained knowledge and skills in real context, during performance of given action. When things go wrong it can be very helpful in situations of crisis, when quick access to critical information is needed. Therefore it allows react instantly and effectively to overcome difficulties or correct errors. When things change - especially in business environment, we live in the era of continuous change and information overflow. Employees need to adapt swiftly to changing rapidly conditions, and constantly update their knowledge and skills and continue learning in formal and informal ways. They also need to deal with infobesity, i.e., difficulties of understanding and decision making caused by the presence of too much information. Mobile learning can help them in finding relevant data delivered just in time and always upto-date. After we have known situation when mobile learning do its job, it is good to know its basic toolbox:

Compare: 1. Mobile Learning: All Talk? What is the reality of mobile learning in corporate learning? December 2011, Copyright Elearnity; 2. http://learningcircuits.blogspot.com/2012/02/whats-different-about-mobilelearning.html; 3. Dr. Conrad Gottfredson, head of the Performance Support Lab & Seminar at the Masie Center http://www.xyleme.com/podcasts/archives/7

Mobile Refreshers the content provided via mobile devices could be really helpful after attending regular training. It could be distributed as supportive material, and designed to simplify the process of repetition. A review of short part of material, focused on most important things, could support learning and prevent forgetfulness. Mobile Just in Time Performance Support mobile learning model gives also opportunity to provide accessibility to learning materials on demand when it is the most necessary. The information is delivered exactly in the same time when one needs it. This could be done by delivering an access to the content that was specified earlier or by collaborative work. In the second case somebody can get an answer or a tip from a person who is experienced in that specific field. Workflow Support this is a combination of all previous elements in the context of the business. A mobile access to information gives possibility to review important information in the moment of need. For example, it could be very useful in business environment, before important meeting outside the company. An access to relevant information in anytime and anyplace could be very beneficial.

1.4. HARDWARE, SOFTWARE, AND MOBILE LEARNING MODELS 1.4.1. MOBILE DEVICES
A mobile device, which is also referred to as a handheld, handheld device or handheld computer, is a small-size computing device. The most popular mobile devices used for learning are: Mobile phones (also known as cellular phones, cell phones and a hand phones) are used to make and receive phone calls and SMS text messages by connecting through radio signals to base stations that are linked in a cellular network. Most of todays mobile phones have a number of additional features like MP3 player, short-range wireless communications (Bluetooth, infrared), e-mail and Internet access, or camera. They are sometimes called feature phones and lie halfway between low-end, simple mobile phones and smartphones. Personal digital assistants (PDAs) (also known as a palmtop computers or personal data assistants) are small personal information managers with office software and multimedia display capability. Most of these capabilities are now present in various smartphones, which are quickly replacing PDAs in the marketplace (Woodill, 2011). Smartphones: While there is no standard official definition of the term smartphone (and its sometimes hard to distinguish it from feature phone), we assume that a smartphone is a device that combines the functionalities of mobile phone, personal digital assistant and computer. It is based on an advanced operating system that allows to install and run various applications and offers access to the internet via mobile browser. As Woodill states, [c]urrent smartphones have taken on some of the functionality of laptop computers, allowing access to e-mail, documents, and office productivity software. Smartphones usually have a miniature QWERTY keyboard, or a virtual keyboard on a touch screen. Smartphones are currently seen as being one of the most suitable platforms for mobile learning purposes (Woodill, 2011).

eBook readers (also called an e-book devices or e-readers) are devices designed primarily for the purpose of reading digital e-books and periodicals. They use electronic paper technology for better readability of their screens especially in bright sunlight. The disadvantages of electronic paper are that currently it can display content only in black and white and has no ability of displaying video content. Thus, its application for mobile learning is limited to mainly textual information. Notebook and netbook computers: Not everybody consider laptop/notebook and netbook computers a part of the mobile ecosystem. But as they become smaller, thinner and easier to carry around they can be used as mobile learning devices that are generally more powerful than smartphones and equipped with full features of PC computers. On the other hand, they allow full-feature, traditional e-learning without design restrictions typical for mobile content. Tablets: half-way between smartphone and laptop computer, they take advantage of both kinds of devices. Having screen big enough for browsing traditional e-learning content, they present some limitations (for example, many of them do not support Flash or other formats popular for Web) but also some advantages (like GPS or gyroscope) over regular computers. Their market share is still limited, but their popularity is growing very quickly and they are likely to substitute in some extent e-book readers and netbooks. Portable media players (such as iPods and MP3 players): are used for storing and playing digital media such as audio, images, video, documents, etc. Their clear advantage is the small size and light weight, but they have to compete in the market with mobile phones and smartphones, as well as other more specialized devices such as portable DVD players. For purpose of our methodology we shall concentrate on smartphones and tablets, as they are the two prevalent platforms for business use.

1.4.2. THE CAPABILITIES OF MOBILE DEVICES

Horton (Horton, 2012) provides a detailed list of the capabilities of mobile devices and the possibilities of their use for learning.

Capability Screen display Audio playback Video playback Clock Calendar Contact list GPS Map display

Description (what the user can do) Display text, graphics, and video. Play voice, music, and sounds. Play video segments. Display time, measure time, and schedule events. Schedule activities and display reminders. Catalog the name, address, e-mail, phone number, and other contact information for participants. Detect latitude and longitude coordinates. Show streets, roads, buildings, and terrain. Can pinpoint the learners location with GPS capability.

Navigation Bluetooth E-mail Web browser Radio-frequency identification (RFID) reader Text messaging Audio recorder Still camera Video camera Edit and format text Edit photographs Edit audio Edit video Keyboard (screen) Keyboard (external) Phone call Social networking Wireless networking Calculator Spreadsheet with charting Voice control Text-to-voice synthesis Voice-to-text External microphone Augmented reality Data probes

Get instructions on how to get from one place to another. Connect to another Bluetooth-enabled device. Send and receive e-mail messages and attachments. Access Web servers and all that they provide. Read a short message encoded in a RFID tag. Tags are tiny (4 cu. mm.) devices that transmit an identifying message triggered when a PFID reader comes within a few centimeters. Send short text messages to another mobile device. Record voice, music, and other sounds using the built-in microphone or an external microphone. Take photographs. Record motion and audio. Enter, organize, and format text. Adjust photographs: crop, straighten, change brightness and contrast, alter color, and apply special effects. Shorten, combine, and adjust volume and tone of audio recordings. Cut, sequence, overlay, and adjust video clips. Enter small amounts of text. Enter large amounts of text. Talk to other people. Connect to social-networking sites and tools, such as, Twitter and Facebook. Connect to the Internet and local-area networks via WiFi, EDGE, 3G or other wireless protocols. Perform common calculations. Perform math with rows and columns of numbers and display charts of results. Activate and direct functions of the mobile device with voice commands. Have the device speak aloud words stored as text. Convert spoken words to text. Record sound through the microphone jack on the device. View relevant data superimposed on the image recorded by the video camera. Measure physical data such as: temperature, air pressure, pH, salinity, O2, CO2, acceleration, force, light, color, and sound level.

See Horton (Horton, 2012) for ideas of how to take advantage of every one of those capabilities and the learning activities that can be involved.

1.4.3. MOBILE OPERATING SYSTEMS

Modern mobile operating systems combine the features of a PC operating system with others typical for mobile devices, such as touchscreen, GPS navigation, camera, or cellular communication. They allow to take best advantage of handhelds technical features and apps.

The most common mobile operating systems are: Android form Google (free and open source) iOS form Apple (closed source, proprietary) Blackberry OS from RIM (closed source, proprietary) Symbian form Nokia and Accenture (open public license) Bada from Samsung (closed source, proprietary) Windows Phone from Microsoft (closed source, proprietary)

Source: wikipedia

Below we compare the two most popular operating systems: Content capability HTML, HTML5, apps. No Flash content Strengths Popular with end users and strong installed base. High performance and stable operating system. High level of standardization. Good quality of software and technical support. Popular with end users. Good documentation. Open platform based on Java, integrated with Google apps. Wide choice of different models at various prices. Weaknesses Lack of enterprise security. Closed operating system; requirements of using Apple App Store to deliver apps (complicated and long process of approval). Customization by phone manufacturers, many different screen resolutions and other differences.

iOS

Android

HTML, HTML5 (depends on browser), Flash, Android apps

1.4.4. MOBILE BROWSERS

As in case of operating systems, mobile browsers differ greatly in terms of features. While the most advanced offer full support for most websites in addition to some native features, others have limited functions and can only display mobile-optimized content. Smartphones and tablets, whose important function is web browsing, generally implement advanced features, and allow users install additional browsers if the native one does not suits them (for example, to play Flash content on iOS devices).

Source: StatCounter

1.4.5. WEB APPS VS. NATIVE APPS

There are two main approaches for porting an educational environment to mobile devices: adapting a web version to the constraints of mobile devices, and building a native implementation in each supported mobile phone. Regarding native applications, most mobile devices provide development frameworks on top of which third-party developers can build applications. The added value of this is clear: the functionality of the mobile device becomes flexible, since new applications can be built using the capabilities of the mobile device (Ordua, et al., 2009). However, the range of development frameworks has become wide. Applications available for mobile operating systems are usually native applications developed in their own SDK, which is only supported by each operating system (Ordua, et al., 2009).

The advantage of using a native technology is that it can use all resources that the mobile device provides through the used SDK. If the mobile device supports it, the application may use 3D graphics, retrieve the user's position, access the accelerometers, the camera, use Bluetooth, interact with files and handle disk storage, access the mobile calendar or contacts, or even play music and videos, while mobile web browsers usually do not provide these features to web applications (Ordua, et al., 2009). The other possibility is to create a mobile-enabled web platform. Support for web applications in mobile devices has increased during the last years. With the arrival of the Web 2.0 and Cloud computing, it became necessary to support complex web applications in mobile devices. However, web applications usually need to be adapted for mobile devices. This adaption requires the following (Ordua, et al., 2009): 1. Provide a proper layout. Developers should think what is actually going to be used from a mobile device, and how may the user see it in a small screen. For instance, newspapers tend to provide a vertical panel where each news item is represented in a row with a single sentence, so the user can quickly see what news item is more interesting and click on it. Each row acts as a button, so it becomes easy to click it with a touch screen. 2. Provide the required contents. Developers should think what contents are going to be migrated to the mobile version. Users might look at the mobile version as a complement to the desktop version, so it becomes normal that some features are not present. 3. Avoid plug-ins. Many web applications provide features that are based on plug-ins such as Java applets, Adobe Flash or Microsoft Silverlight. These plug-ins are not available in most devices, and it is difficult that they become available there, due to the resources required for the plug-in developer to port the plug-in to the wide range of mobile platforms.

The following table2 summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of web vs. native apps development. Web Apps Platform independent development, so can reach a wider range of audience The app can be delivered instantaneously as there are no intermediate delivery platforms like app store Faster development and lower maintenance High end (rich) applications can be developed if HTML5/CSS3 technology is used for development, which also enable use of audio, video and animation within
2

Native Apps Lets you access the devices features like camera, accelerometer or the data like address book Controlled user experience Rich media functionality Development time would be more so would be the maintenance overheads The app has to go through some kind of app store / marketplace before it reaches the intended audience and the process could be time consuming and fuzzy

see: http://www.upsidelearning.com/blog/index.php/2010/07/13/mobile-learning-considerations-native-appsor-web-apps/, http://bottomlineperformance.com/wpcontent/uploads/2012/05/BottomLinePerformance_mLearningBrief_20110802.pdf

the application Content remains secure on your servers, no data is stored on the device Updates immediately affect all users Web-apps require no approval, fees, or placement process within a commercial app store Requires Internet access Requires a web URL; you must host it on a server Features and functionality are limited, especially with regards to access to device features Performance can be lower as compared with that of native apps and will also be dependent on the web access speed Less control over user experience Lack of standards across mobile browsers

Allow creation of a dedicated channel for access and retrieval (pull) of information /knowledge just when needed Can store user specific information and act as a personal learning agent (at least to some extent) Does not require Internet access Platform specific; you must build multiple apps to address various operating systems Native app stores require an approval process; for each device, the app has to go onto a different store Higher cost of development

Nevertheless, there is also a third option that lets developers take advantage of both web and native characteristics. The hybrid apps are developed with HTML5 wrapped in a native container. The container allows them to be sold in app markets also gives them access to native capabilities like the camera, microphone, contact list, or notification system. For the end user, they look and behave like native apps. But the main content is written in HTML so it can be updated and modified easily and its development is considerably cheaper than creating and updating a native app, especially if we need to develop for multiple operating systems. We also need to emphasize that some of the commonly mentioned advantages of native apps over web apps (better performance, offline mode, access to device attributes, geo-location capabilities) are becoming less obvious with the development of technologies based on HTML5/CSS3 and JavaScript. While HTLM5 functionalities are not yet stable, some of them are already implemented by major web browsers (Ordua, et al., 2009). These features include: Audio and video Canvas Geolocation Storage and databases New forms

Some widespread web applications, such as YouTube or Google Maps, already provide contents using HTML5. YouTube supports video through HTML5 instead of depending on Flash, if the user explicitly agrees. Google Maps use HTML5 geolocation capabilities to show the user where he is by pressing a small button. This button will only appear if the web browser supports geolocation (Ordua, et al., 2009).

Since mobile web browsers are based on modern web browsers, some mobile web browsers already provide these functionalities. For instance, both iPhones and Android devices can already handle geolocation, as well as Windows Mobile by installing a plug-in (Ordua, et al., 2009).

2. DEFINING MOBILE LEARNING

To understand better mobile learning, firstly we must know its origin. Before the era of computers and the Internet there was only one way to get educational content without staying at home it were correspondent courses. People subscribed to it, paid for it, and they get post deliveries with materials. It was the only way that had been working for very long time. When computers appeared together with them new and instantly quick way of information delivery the Internet was introduced. It had changed the picture of modern education completely. People gained access to immense quantity of information. But there was still one step to go. The development of mobile devices opened quite new era of information accessibility. Mobile devices are now similar to mobile personal computers and even they have access to the Internet via telecommunicate network or WiFi. What is even more interesting is the fact that today smartphone is one thousand times faster, 100 thousand times smaller and 1 million times cheaper than the MIT supercomputer from 1965. It is equipped with wide screen, touch UI, GPS, and accelerometer orientation sensors, loud-speakers, WiFi, CPU and GPU capable of running 3D games. Mobile devices, with that kind of equipment, offer what computers cannot - constant access to information everywhere. In this way mobile learning has become very sufficient way of acquiring knowledge. 2.1. REVISING THE DEFINITION OF MOBILE LEARNING

Unfortunately there is no one definition of mobile learning but there are several most popular. At the beginning the most popular definitions emphasized technological aspect of the process. But with the time the other important factors has been incorporated, such as: personal, social and ubiquitous learning. When defining mobile learning or mlearning, two perspectives can be distinguished, depending on whether the mobility of the learner is stressed or the use of mobile technology. Addressing the first perspective the use of a mobile device is not always necessary, because access to the internet or a network allows the learner also to be mobile. Addressing the second perspective, the learner is always mobile, but does not need to be all the time. When stressing the use of a mobile device when defining mobile learning, a distinction can be made between the use of mobile technology as the only tool for learning or mobile technology as one of the tools. Moreover, a distinction can be made

between learning within an educational institute (i.e., school or university), or learning on location (i.e., natural environment or workplace). The two perspectives described are complementary and can be combined in a definition for mlearning in which mobile devices increase the mobility of the learner. Thus, mlearning may be defined as the provision of education and training on mobile devices. However, to facilitate this mobility, the mobile device should meet several requirements. The learner must be able to use the mobile device wirelessly, standing and with minimal effort. Moreover, the device should be small enough to be held in one hand and should be easy to take along (Dye, 2007). Examples of such devices are PDAs (personal digital assistants), smartphones, mobile phones, handhelds, palmtops, MP3 players, and iPods. So we could find mobile learning defined as any educational provision where the sole or dominant technologies are handheld () devices (Kukulska-Hume & Traxler, 2005). Another author considers that "mobile learning should be restricted to learning on devices which a lady can carry in her handbag or a gentleman can carry in his pocket (Keegan, 2005). But as mentioned for other definitions, technology was not most important aspect. One of the best descriptions of mobile learning was presented by MOBIlearn Project: ... when considering mobility from the learner's point of view rather than technology's, it can be argued that mobile learning goes on everywhere - for example, pupils revising for exams on the bus to school, doctors updating their language skills while traveling abroad. All these instances of formal or informal learning do not necessarily involve the use of mobile technologies, but have been taking place while people are on the move and should therefore be classified as instances of mobile learning. Moreover, mobile technologies can be used at a person's usual learning environment. In fact, there has been substantial amount of research in recent years looking at the employment of PDAs in classrooms. By virtue of the technology's mobility, such PDA-based classroom learning has also been considered as mobile learning (O'Malley, et al., 2005). For operational purposes in the context of proposed methodology which is directed to usage mobile devices, we could say that mobile learning happens when people implement their mobile devices to the process of learning and therefore they are not limited to specific location.

2.2. WHY IS MOBILE LEARNING DIFFERENT?

These perspectives also help to distinguish the field of m-learning from e-learning. M-learning is a specific type of learning within the field of e-learning. It focuses on learning across contexts and on learning supported by mobile technology, whereas e-learning does not necessarily involve mobile

devices. The task for the field of m-learning is to move on from the field of e-learning to the development of m-learning. Specifically and practically this means the evolution from the wired virtual learning environment of today, to the wireless virtual learning environment of tomorrow. We can compare traditional learning to e-learning and e-learning to m-learning. Criteria are very simple how, when and where. E-learning gives a possibility to acquire knowledge without appearing personally on stationary courses and when time is the most suitable for a user. The limitation concerns accessibility to a computer and internet network. It is also important that rules concerning communication between students and teachers are different than in traditional learning. Mobile learning is some sort of extension of e-learning and often is complementary to it. It could be also complementary to traditional trainings. Because of the fact that mobile devices are used to support m-learning process there are technical limitations of the appearance of course content and its length. Mobile learning appears most efficient when it delivers very short piece of information and when it is not overloaded with multimedia. At the beginning of mobile learning, the fastest and the cheapest way to prepare mobile content was to resize down previous eLearning material. But after several years it became clear that mobile learning could not be e-learning on small screen devices. The development of mobile learning methodology shows that courses materials for mobile learning must be prepared differently than for e-learning. If not, they are usually ineffective. The reason is simple. As it is written above and will be mentioned below mobile devices have certain limitations. If educational content is not prepared due to specification of the device, some audio-video material could be displayed incorrectly, font could be too small and a quantity of text could be too large. There is also another very important thing besides use of modern technology. It is way of thinking. Mobile learning is a sign of important shift of educational paradigm. Learning becomes more ubiquitous than ever. With personal computer and the Internet we have gained access to vast amount of data. With the mobile revolution this access we have everywhere. This is powerful tool we have. Now we must learn how to use it efficiently. Thats why Horton (Horton, 2012) distinguishes between the two meanings of the term mobile learning: Participation in conventional learning by mobile individuals. Mobile learning techniques and technologies allow mobile individuals to participate in established forms of learning including classroom learning, virtual-classroom learning, standalone e-learning, social learning, and performance support. Real mobile learning. In real mobile learning, we learn not from the mobile device but from the world around us. Real mobile learning requires learning from objects, environments, and fellow learners that we encounter as we move about in the real world. There is an old adage in distance education research which states It is not technologies with inherent pedagogical advantages which are successful in distance education, but technologies which are generally available to citizens. Never in the history of the use of technology in education has there been a technology as available to citizens as mobile telephony today. One can safely assume that every student in every program in every institution in every one of the 27 states of the

European Union possesses one. They use these mobile devices constantly in every walk of life except their education. With the exception of a few notable large-scale implementations of podcasting in the USA, and leaving aside many short-term projects, the university sector has not yet adopted m-learning, despite widespread use of e-learning. It is the role of the field of mobile learning to harness for education and training this unprecedented availability of technology, especially because there are specific problems in university learning that mobile technologies can help overcome: limited real world context, limited access to learning resources, low student engagement in classes, and lack of practical experience in learning about mobile technologies. A promising approach to convince students to use their mobile devices for educational purposes comes from the more user-centered studies on m-learning, which propose to thread innovative uses of technology into the existing fabric of behavior (Pettit & Kukulska-Hulme, 2007). The existing pattern of students use of mobile devices identified forms the basis for mobile education. Furthermore, when designing m-learning it is important to do this from the perspective of the learning process and the learner and not from the perspective of mobile technology. That is, the decision to use a mobile device to deliver training or information should not be driven by the mere availability of the mobile device, but should be based on the added value of this device for the students learning processes.

2.3. SUPPORTIVE VS. INSTRUCTIONAL TOOL

Mobile devices can be integrated as (a) a supportive tool or (b) an instructional tool. As a tool to support educators mobile devices allow the recording and maintenance of the lessons that take place, the instructional procedures, the type of mentoring and the pedagogical approach, the role of the teacher and students. Additionally, they facilitate communication between faculty members and students through file sharing capabilities, built-in networking and a friendly interface with on-line discussion and e-mail options. On the other hand, mobile devices can be used as instructional tools to construct learning. Mobile devices can be treated as tools that help students execute their tasks and promote the balanced development of their mental abilities by functioning as intellectual partners to the instructor and the learner. Educators can provide students with electronic books, content reference sites, graphic calculator, dictionary, and thesaurus etc. Finally, electronic quizzes and tests can be taken through mobile devices.

2.4. FOUR LEVELS OF MOBILE LEARNING

Mobile learning is now a decade old as its origins can be traced to the work of Sharples (Sharples, 2000) with the use of PDAs in primary schools in the United Kingdom. Over the decade four levels of provision of mobile learning have emerged, with each requiring different instructional design guidelines.

Level 1: SMS messaging. The use of SMS messaging in educational contexts stems from the daily need of all schools, colleges and universities to communicate with some or all of their student bodies. For urgent communications (e.g., cancellation of a lecture), the main avenues for communication used by these institutions are: the postal services, email or SMS messaging. In many cases the postal services are too slow and not all students check their emails regularly, making these means not effective for this type of communication. However, all students enrolled in schools, colleges and universities carry a sophisticated communications device. If the institutions communication is sent to the students mobile phones by SMS messaging, the message will be received immediately by all students. An SMS messaging system can be set up by in-house development or by using an SMS service provider. Level 2: Screenshots of educational content. Mobile devices are ideal for receiving short, five to six screen presentations of educational content, such as a course summary, advice on examination preparation, and assistance with a part of a course that has caused difficulties to students in the past, tutorial advice or even multiple choice tests. It is important to note that the limitation of having only 160 characters available (including spaces) for an SMS text message poses some very interesting challenges when it comes to the formulation of SMS messages for education. It is a real challenge to formulate the correct message that provides the exact information you want to communicate without leaving possibilities of misunderstandings or misinterpretations. One badly formulated SMS can create lots of chaos with financial and many other implications. Level 3: Course modules. Presenting full mobile learning courses on Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) cause no problems. A comfortable didactic environment can be created by using Microsoft Reader Works to display the content. However, the challenge today is to solve the problems of screen size for the presentation of course modules in mobile learning on the slightly smaller screens of smartphones and mobile phones. Many experts in the field of mobile learning have argued that mobile devices are only suitable for snippets of learning information and cannot be used for the presentation of full course modules. If this position were accepted mobile learning would remain forever peripheral to mainstream education and never be incorporated into mainstream education and training. For mobile learning to succeed the following need to be achieved: Mobile learning courseware needs to be assessed in the same way as face-to-face courses, distance education and e-learning Mobile learning courseware needs to be accredited as at least part of normal degree or diploma programs Mobile learning courses need to be listed in the college or university prospectus as are faceto-face courses, distance education and e-learning Students need to pay for studying mobile learning courses (in those countries in which it is normal for students to pay for education). Level 4: Course modules with location and context sensitivity characteristics. Mobile learning course development with context sensitive and location sensitive characteristics places learning in context. It enables learners to study information while being in the context to which this information applies, seeing the environment which the study material refers to. Mediascapes and QR codes can be used for the manipulation and delivery of the course. Mediascapes are a new form of media which combine and layer digital sight, sounds and interactions into the physical world to create immersive and interactive experiences. Users

equipped with a mobile device can move through the physical world and trigger digital media with GPS via an invisible interactive map, in response to their physical location. Mediascape design is a process of experience design which involves interaction design, choice of location, media region design, and an overall specification of the program logic and content production. Mediascapes involve producing specific narrative scripts of the work package training and specifying the logic for the interaction flow of the dialog. Any time dependencies for playing the scripts are also built in. Deciding how, when and in what form the user can interact with the media is central. A QR or Quick response code allows the attaching of information to space. The QR code is a two dimension bar code that can be read by all mobile camera phones. When a QR code is read it will automatically open the mobile web browser and access a web page. This adds significant value as it improves accessibility to information on the move. The QR code leads to the clickable world where any physical object can become an interface to the virtual world.

2.5. ADVANTAGES AND OPPORTUNITIES

It is becoming more and more popular to have personal smartphone or tablet. This type of mobile devices, due to its small size and lightness, opposite to laptop, can be easily taken everywhere opposite to a laptop. Additionally they usually allow to connect with the Internet. Having modern electronic device with an access to the Internet one can easily participate in mobile educational process. A possibility of learning in mobile environment responds to current situation of many people. They are constantly in a hurry doing couple of things at the same time. Mobile accesses to learning database give them great possibility to spend potentially non-productive time for acquiring new information and skills. One can learn everywhere; it could be queue in a market or an office, a bus or a train, a bench in the park etc. In this point of technical development and social needs, educational bodies have great opportunity to use mobile devices to deliver specially prepared content to the individual users. It could be files, a piece of short information about important events. But what is the most important it also could be highly interactive educational content. Possibility of collaborations with other participants is also an available and very useful option. Learning material could be provided everywhere when it is needed. Only internet access must be available. According to Shuler in (Shuler, 2009), mobile learning has some unique attributes that can enhance education beyond the anywhere, anytime learning. This view is shared by other authors: Mobile devices reach places that traditional learning cannot. Along these lines, Colley said, Twenty-first century learning is not confined to a geographical location, or a particular space designated for learning purposes (Colley & Stead, 2007). Learning is more user-centered. Mobile device-based learning works best as part of a blend of approaches. Mobile device-based learning works best if it is perceived as another tool that can be used to fit a learning need (Sharples, Corlett, & Westmancott, 2002), (Stead, 2005).

Mobile devices can be used to remove some of the formality of education that nontraditional learners may find unattractive (Attwell, 2005). Mobile devices can increase motivation and engagement with learning. Mobile learning is ideal for facilitating collaboration and communication. Mobile technology can foster the growing shift from an instructor-centered classroom teaching to constructivist learner-centered educational settings (Holzinger, Nischelwitzer, & Meisenberger, 2005). Mobile devices make the learning process faster, easier, more attractive and more acceptable to disenfranchised learners (Attewell, 2002). Every time when it is suitable for somebody. Thanks to the fact that mobile devices could be easy carried there is no problem to use them in the right time (Stone, 2010). Through mobile devices the access to specific information is possible in the moment of need Mobile learning allows to save time. In this way one can learn when normally it will be not possible. For young people their smartphones are part of everyday life. They talk, send text messages, play, browse the Internet and do a lot of other things using them. Often they cannot imagine life without them.

2.6. CHALLENGES AND RISKS

Elearnitys report on mobile learning (Elearnity, 2011) addresses some of the most common challenges of using mobile devices for learning: Small screen of mobile devices. It is natural that mobile device, to be still mobile, must be small. Therefore, it is possible to carry it easily. As a result screen size is also limited. This problem was partly solved by resignation of traditional keyboard in favor of bigger screen. There is also constantly new technology under development to bring better and better screen resolution and quality of colors. It results in improvement of visual experience without making devices bigger. Short battery lifetime. Today smartphones and tablets are as much powerful as computers ten years earlier. New Samsung Galaxy III has a CPU with four cores. To run such powerful machine a lot of energy is necessary. It is clear that developers made a decision. They prefer giving more powerful devices now than wait for new, more efficient battery technology. As an effect, we have fancy smartphones that need to be charged usually every day. Slow internet connection and high prices for bandwidth. To have quick access to a piece of information (and it was not preloaded) one must have good speed of internet connection. It is not always granted. Some problem with the Internet could occur even in developed countries in Europe. It is especially true in rural areas. Touch keyboard. In most smartphones there is no real keyboard which is replaced by touch keyboard displayed on a screen. One of disadvantages of this solution is the fact that, when keyboard is displayed, space for other visual elements is limited. Technical limitations of operating systems. On the market there are several operating systems for mobile devices. Main are iOS and Android other are Symbian, RIM, Bada and

Windows Phone3. Each has different capabilities of playing multimedia files. For example, iOS does not support flash files and it is great limitation for content creators. As a result content must be prepared with awareness of each platform limitation. Designing mobile content. The preparation of content for mobile devices is different process than preparation for standard eLearning. Due to technical capacity some technical aspects must be fulfilled. The main aspects are processing the speed of device, system capabilities and the size of screens. It requires appropriate set of skills from designers team. Furthermore, there is serious technological limitation concerning mobile devices. For example: Apples devices do not support flash. Generally every kind of mobile devices requires specific skills that should be fulfilled. This process may be simplified by using special software which automatically sets up parameters of the materials. This type of software usually cost a lot of money. Organizational challenges. Nowadays people are more and more advanced in using mobile devices but one must assume that it is possible that somebody could have problems with using mobile device in learning environment. Secondly mobile learning is not well acknowledged by people (HR, CEOs) responsible for strategic decisions in companies and even by trainers yet. If we want mobile learning to develop it must be supported by wide range of professionals. Shuler (Shuler, 2009) also affirms that some critical challenges must be addressed to achieve successful implementation of m-learning: Negative aspects of mobile learning, such as potential distraction or privacy issues. Cultural norms and attitudes. No mobile theory of learning. Currently, there is no established theory of mobile learning addressing assessment, pedagogy and instructional design issues. Differentiated access and technology. The wide range of technologies and their inner complexities must be overcome by teachers and learners. Corbeil addressed other challenges about mobile learning: Mobile devices may make it easier to cheat. Mobile learning could give tech-savvy students an advantage over non-technical students. Mobile devices could create a feeling of isolation or of being out-of-the-loop for nontechnical students. Mobile learning may require media to be reformatted or offered in multiple formats. Mobile learning could create an additional learning obstacle for non-technical students and instructors. Mobile devices may be used as a new high-tech package for the same old dull and boring content. This last challenge is very interesting because it captures the reality of many current m-learning applications. These projects tend to provide the same content with the same methodology but through a different technological delivery method. These projects do not take advantage of the fact that mobile devices offer a totally different set of features aside from content provision and support evaluation.

Sales of smartphone in 1 quarter of 2012 with division by operating system: Android 56.1%, iOS 22,9%, Symbian 8,6%, RIM 6,9%, Bada 2,7%, Windows Phone 1,9%, other 0,9%. Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_operating_system#Market_share

Actually, according to Corbeil, mobile learning supports learning experiences that are collaborative, accessible, and integrated with the world beyond the classroom (Corbeil, 2007). According to Najima, mobile learning allows the learner to keep track of his learning activities from any location, even while moving from one place to another (Najima & Rachida, 2008). In addition to traditional learning activities such as courses and multiple choice exercises, mobile learning provides a suitable environment for practical training. For example, mobile devices can be used to request assistance, to carry out practical work, and to project realization, as they allow the learner to follow these activities in a realistic context. In summary, most authors agree that the achievement of a successful mobile learning application requires Developing new pedagogical theories for mobile learning. Educational innovations to produce new applications for new environments. Training teachers and learners to adopt mobile technologies and incorporate them into the learning process.

2.7. MOBILE LEARNING APPLICATIONS, USES, AND EXPERIENCES

We propose the following classification of mobile learning applications: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Communication and collaboration Location aware applications Data collection Referential information Reminders and schedulers Assessment and evaluation

Communication and collaboration Collaborative applications are all those that encourage knowledge sharing, making use of the learners physical location and mobility (Clough, Jones, McAndrew, & Scanlon, 2009). This covers various collaborative activities (form text messaging to social media), games, simulations and virtual worlds, user generated content, as well as mentoring and cognitive apprenticeship (Woodill, 2011). Thanks to the Web 2.0 the role of an information provider that creates the content and an audience that consumes it is changing. Currently the audience is both provider and subscriber, having as main example Wikipedia. Educators can incorporate this feature into education to help learners taking an active position in their own learning. The objective is not only to study what teachers say. Learners can be more involved in the learning process. The mobile devices were created to allow communication and they are perfect tool to support social learning. [M]obile learning technologies allow for collaborative learning, social networking, building of communities of practice, learning games, simulations, virtual worlds, immersive

language learning, mentoring, and messaging. They allow learners to work on projects from anywhere in the world while they are mobile. (Woodill, 2011). Boticki carried out a pilot project about learning fractions. In this pilot each student had a fraction in the device (e.g. 1/3, 3/8, 2/5) and should interact with the peers to find others with a fraction that makes the unit. In this application, for example a student with the 1/3 fraction should interact with other students trying to find other with a 2/3 fraction, or two students with a 1/3 fraction. This application involved students collaborating to solve a problem. At the same time they learn how to sum fractions to get a unit (Boticki, Looi, & Wong, 2009). Technical capabilities of modern mobile devices and vide range of content creation and sharing apps (like extremely popular photo app Instagram) permitted extend communication far beyond voice callas and short text messages. Users can now take pictures, record and edit audio or video, or use text-to-speech (or speech-to-text) tools to create original content directly on their phone and share it in an instant with the world. This content can document learning, be part of the assessment, learners mobile portfolio or learning content for others. Another field of application is mobile games. Mobile learning and educational games are two trends that are rapidly converging. The main reason is because gaming is a very well-known language for new generation of students (Kirriemur & McFarlane, 2004). Most of them spend several hours every day with these platforms, using video games consoles such as Playstation, Wii, or Xbox. In addition, there are also mobile video games consoles, such as PSP or NintendoDS. This last product offers educational products, such as Brain Training with a great acceptance focused in a new public target: adults. In this game the motivation is to improve the mental age by solving mathematics-related problems. According to that concept, authors such as Becker have pointed out aspects of videogames very related to constructivist principles (Becker, 2007), which can be used to promote students to play active roles and learn through experience rather than just memorization. While users play they feel as an active element, free to explore the in-game world, which can help in the acquisition of deep knowledge about the domain of study (Lavn-Mera, Torrente, Moreno-Ger, & Fernndez-Manjn, 2009). The AudioGene project proposes an interesting approach where an educative and collaborative game integrates blind and non-blind students to solve biology problems (Sanchez & Aguayo, 2008). Results showed that the game helped to create a work environment where students forget about their vision differences to solve problems and build knowledge together. Location aware applications Location aware applications contextualize information, allowing learners to interact directly with their environment; for example, collecting environmental data linked to geographical context or accessing contextually relevant reference material (Clough, Jones, McAndrew, & Scanlon, 2009). Context-based systems (where context is defined as a compilation of location, profile, etc.) provide a very interesting added-value to mobile learning applications. Context-aware applications let students interact with the environment in a totally new way. Authors like Baldauf in (Baldauf, Dustdar, & Rosenberg, 2007) defines context-aware systems such as applications able to adapt their operations to the current context without explicit user intervention and thus aim at increasing usability and effectiveness by taking environmental context

into account. Particularly when it comes to using mobile devices, it is desirable that programs and services react specifically to their current location, time and other environment attributes and adapt their behavior according to the changing circumstances as context data may change rapidly. For instance, a student in the restaurant will have different needs than in a museum or in a garden; or a teacher in a classroom will need different information than in an office. Knowing where the user is in each moment it is possible to offer personalized learning through the mobile device depending not only on the profile but also on the moment and the location. There are examples of this kind of application for informal learning at cultural environments, such as museums or historical places. In this case, the system would offer information about master pieces, buildings or areas when the user approaches to them. Users could enjoy not only with text, but also with funny videos or animations related to the content. Mobile context-aware learning applications seem to cater for certain specialties more than others such as: agronomy, biology, geology, archaeology, etc. Data collection Data collection applications use the handheld devices ability to record data in the form of text, image, video, and audio (Clough, Jones, McAndrew, & Scanlon, 2009). Those can be used for assessment and evaluation (we will discuss it below), feedback gathering, polling and voting, creating media (see discussion on user generated content above), or monitoring (especially in medical field). Referential information According to Clough at al., [r]eferential applications [are those] that use dictionaries, translators and e-books to deliver content when and where it is needed (Clough, Jones, McAndrew, & Scanlon, 2009). Speaking of content delivery, Woodill (Woodill, 2011) mentions also RSS feeds, digital media channels (podcasts, video), job aids and other applications. A natively mobile content are podcasts, or audio recordings delivered originally via iTunes library to Apple iPod (hence the name). Podcast allows ubiquitous learning whereby students can access a variety of educational material anywhere, anytime on iPods, MP3 and MP4 players or mobile phones. Podcasts permit students to access educational materials at home, while travelling to university or work, or doing any activity they choose. They can play the recordings at any time which is convenient to them rather than be confined to set class times. Podcasts in the educational setting allow students on-demand access to audio or video-recordings of lectures or other learning materials at their convenience (Nataatmadja & Dyson, 2008). Schedulers and reminders This kind of applications basically sends some piece of information to the student to help him/her remind something. They can be classified in two different groups depending if they offer administrative or learning information. Accordingly, they can provide or remind some useful and most up-to-date administrative information, like exams results, deadlines, appointments or course schedules, or deliver learning content in a push model. The learning content schedulers can also be location-sensitive, combining scheduling with location. In (Montalvo & Torres, 2004) a Mobile Context-aware and Adaptive Learning Schedule (mCALS) tool is described. It creates and enhances opportunities for students to study in different locations. The goal of the system is to select appropriate learning objects for students based on their current user contexts (location, concentration level and frequency of interruption) and user preferences (knowledge level of a topic and available time). Assessment, evaluation and research

Mobile devices can be used to track and report on learner progress in many different kinds of tasks, to perform tests and examinations, facilitate feedback during the learning process, or gather data for research. From the point of view of the learning process, the main categories are: Formative assessment and evaluation are methods used for feedback while learning. Adaptive assessment and evaluation are used to individualize the learning path. For example, a preliminary quiz can determine the level of knowledge of the learner and allow determine next steps, like skipping content thats too basic or rehearsing before continue to the next level. Demonstrative assessment and evaluation are used to demonstrate knowledge and skills achieved, for example by tracking and reporting learner progress. From the point of view of agents involved in learning process, we can distinguish between automatic evaluation, expert evaluation, peer evaluation or self-evaluation.

2.8. MOBILE LEARNING CONTENT SOURCES

Often you dont need to build a powerful mobile app from scratch to deliver learning content. Good news is that you are likely to already have training content that can be easily transformed into mobile forms. Here is a list of content types that can be used: Formal learning modules (must be shorter than traditional e-learning) Supplemental content or review materials as part of a blended learning program (Stone, 2010) Social media Searchable references (like Wikipedia, or your companys databases) Expert videos Job aids and checklists Podcasts and video Audio books eBooks or book abstracts Abstracts and refreshers to complement traditional e-learning training SMS and video calls Quizzes and assessments Test-prep flashcards (Stone, 2010) Follow-up quick-tips (Stone, 2010) Job aids and checklists Mobile e-reference (Stone, 2010)

2.9. LMS INTEGRATION

Analysing the academic literature about m-learning applications, most mobile learning systems are isolated applications. The applications are made ad-hoc for a particular case, environment, or

project. Most applications do not make use of the knowledge already existing in e-learning platforms, despite the fact that on-line education has employed these platforms for years. E-learning platforms at the centre of on-line education are a repository of both content and services and thus should be incorporated into mobile learning applications. Mobile applications should not be designed independently without taking advantage of all existing resources. Cheung showed an example of the integration of traditional e-learning into mobile learning environments (Cheung, Steward, & McGreal, 2006), where a prototype was developed enabling Moodle LMS to be used through smartphones (Cheung, Steward, & McGreal, 2006). These authors exchanged the three-frame template of Moodle for a one-frame template to allow users to better visualise the content. The prototype did not offer the full functionality of Moodle because many of the features did not work properly in a smartphone. One of the features that could not be moved was SCORM, which is a fundamental part of the evaluation process in Moodle and must be incorporated in the design of mobile applications including assessment. Chat, quizzes with timers and crosswords were also unavailable. Another example is the use of a web service-based architecture to move some of the functionalities of Moodle to a mobile device (Conde, 2009). This also allows the re-use of some of the existing services in LMS such as authentication and monitoring, making it unnecessary to create them again in the mobile application. The result of this development was MLE Moodle (Mobile Learning Engine). Since then, various mobile LMs appeared on the market, mostly being mobile adaptations of existing corporate e-learning environments. Some of them are SumTotal LMS, Upside2Go (learning management system designed especially for mobile), eXact Mobile (an extension of eXact LCMS), or official Moodle native iOS app that largely replaced the previously mentioned MLE Moodle.

3. ANDRAGOGICAL ASPECTS OF MOBILE LEARNING

1. LEARNING THEORY FOR MOBILE LEARNING

Mobile devices are always available and can be used for a variety of learning functionality providing access to content (both informational and instructional), review and assessment, and for communication and collaboration purposes. They can be used for formal or informal learning purposes as well as for performance support, i.e. for delivering information and support just-intime and in context. Mobile devices are popular and well used by many people within m-learning project target groups. They are regarded as personal technologies, and as such likely to encourage a positive response. With the current rate of development mobile devices will have the capability of delivering high quality, multi-media content at affordable prices within the next few years. If considering the fact

that more people have mobile phones than computers we can assert that m-learning is more accessible than e-learning. If we are interested in enhancing adult learning, a priority must be to design m-learning and teaching strategies that involve active learning, for example, in experiential fieldwork, simulations, role-plays and games (Leigh & Spindler, 2004). Learning and teaching strategies are needed that provide opportunities for learner adaptation and reflection (Laurillard, 1993), that encourage critical thinking, and that support students professional development through self and peer evaluation, feedback, review and assessment opportunities (Raban & Litchfield, 2007). Effective and practical strategies are needed that support learners to gain knowledge and skills in specific identified graduate attributes, curriculum objectives and stated learning outcomes.

1.1. THE NEED FOR A REVISION EXISTING PEDAGOGIES AND LEARNING THEORIES Emergent technologies for learning demand that educators revisit existing pedagogies and learning theories. Those existing pedagogical frameworks may no longer be sufficient when learning is delivered using mobile devices. To continue to subscribe to existing models and practices of teaching and learning is to limit the learning experience afforded by these brave new technologies. In order to exploit the full affordance of mobile technologies it is necessary, at the very least, to reexamine existing pedagogies. Conversely, the phrase Pedagogy before technology is presented by Beetham and Sharpe, in their introduction to Rethinking pedagogy for a Digital Age. The suggestion being that, rather than creating a new pedagogy for new technologies, it better serves the practitioner to locate new technologies within proven practices and models of teaching. When talking about mobile learning in corporate contexts, we need to remember that employees are adults and their motivation and learning is different than those of children. We propose andragogy, constructivism and connectivism as main learning theories relevant to mobile learning. Andragogy is a theory of adult learning proposed by Malcolm Knowles. His theory con be stated with the following six principles of how adults learn: Adults are internally motivated and self-directed Adults bring life experiences and knowledge to learning experiences Adults are goal oriented Adults are relevancy oriented Adults are practical Adult learners like to be respected Guidelines for mobile learning: Mobile learning supports learners motivation and sense of control over their own learning. It allows them to use the devices they are familiar with and to learn at a time convenient to them. You should also give learners control over pacing and freedom to navigate the course in their own way. Provide real-life problems and examples. Create a meaningful context: realistic case studies that learners have to solve for themselves, provide guidance resources needed and feedback after they have submitted a solution.

Base your case studies on examples relevant for their work. Take advantage of their experiences and knowledge they already have. Dont provide a complete solution; rather, let learners use their own knowledge to solve the problem. Make sure the course is relevant to them. Adult learners need to know how the training they are undertaking can help them to make their work easier. Set concrete, realistic goals for the course, but remember that possibly every learner will start the course with different goals and expectations. Be flexible keep an eye on your overall course objectives but let learners state their own goals. If possible, coach them to make the best of your mobile course. Motivate learners with realistic scenarios or provide valuable information they can easily apply in their job. Provide meaningful, specific and immediate feedback. Dont waste your learners time with unnecessary information or irrelevant content. Leave out anything that wont help them to achieve their objectives. Use screens, images and case studies which are close to the learners experiences. Make learning interactive. The learners want to participate actively in the course and be able to apply newly-acquired knowledge in practice. This means not only including many course-related activities, but, most of all, activities that give them skills to perform their jobs more effectively. Include practical tips, job aids, and other resources that they will take away to apply in their work. Encourage use of external resources, like knowledge bases, journals, libraries, etc. Show respect by taking care of the high quality of your course. Listen to your learners, their expectations, comments and experiences. The theory of Constructivism is based on a premise that each individual through their learning activities imposes meaning on the world. The learner through his or her learning activities imposes meaning on the world. The learners construct their knowledge and understanding through the learning experience, this knowledge is constructed rather than discovered. Jonassen, D.H. (Ed.) (2004) Handbook of research on educational communications and technology, 2nd. Ed. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Jonassen (Jonassen D. , 2004) proposed that there are eight characteristics that differentiate constructivist learning environments: 1. Constructivist learning environments provide multiple representations of reality. 2. Multiple representations avoid oversimplification and represent the complexity of the real world. 3. Constructivist learning environments emphasize knowledge construction inserted of knowledge reproduction. 4. Constructivist learning environments emphasize authentic tasks in a meaningful context rather than abstract instruction out of context. 5. Constructivist learning environments provide learning environments such as real-world settings or case-based learning instead of predetermined sequences of instruction. 6. Constructivist learning environments encourage thoughtful reflection on experience. 7. Constructivist learning environments" enable context- and content- dependent knowledge construction." 8. Constructivist learning environments support "collaborative construction of knowledge through social negotiation, not competition among learners for recognition." Some of the principles of Connectivism, as described in George Siemenss original 2004 article (Siemens, 2004), are:

Learning and knowledge rest in diversity of opinions. Learning is a process of connecting specialized nodes or information sources. Learning may reside in nonhuman appliances. Capacity to know more is more critical than what is currently known. Nurturing and maintaining connections are needed to facilitate continual learning. Ability to see connections between fields, ideas, and concepts is a core skill. Currency (accurate, up-to-date knowledge) is the intent of all connectivist learning activities. Decision making is itself a learning process. Choosing what to learn and the meaning of incoming information is seen through the lens of a shifting reality. While there is a right answer now, it may be wrong tomorrow because of alterations in the information climate affecting the decision. Examples of application of those teaching frameworks are incorporating the need for students to acquire multiple perspectives or viewpoints on subject matter into the design of the mobile learning course. Also, the requirement to abandon rigid pre specified learning objectives will be examined, and how this will impact on the development of a mobile learning course. In the Constructivist world, it is vital that students create or construct their own knowledge. Sitting in a classroom and passively receiving knowledge from an authority figure is not in keeping with the principles of Constructivism. Interactivity is emphasised, however, it is important to acknowledge that this requirement for interactivity is not merely satisfied by the adoption of a mobile technology into the classroom environment. It is incumbent upon the designers of a mobile learning course to ensure that students are truly able to interact with the digital media in their learning environment. These media as accessed through the mobile technologies, whether video, digital or audio are important aspects in the creation of a learner-centered environment. The overriding importance, however, lies not with the technology, nor the digital media, but with the knowledge constructed by the students as they interact with these tools. The pedagogical framework informed by the Constructivist and Connectivist school places the student at the centre of the learning process. Because emergent technology is exiting and newly available, it is easy to become absorbed by the technology itself. This is true both for researchers in the area and for students employing mobile technology as learning tools. However, it is important that the technology itself does not become a distraction or a diversion. Again, poorly designed or ill structured mobile courseware or a Virtual learning Environment (VLE) may lead to frustrations and anxieties as students attempt to familiarise themselves with the system. Educators, developers and designers who strive for mobile learning environments with a sound pedagogical basis will take pains to avoid this occurrence. An environment of tool should not be a hindrance, but rather an instrument for thinking and problem-solving (Fjortoft and Sageie, 2000) A sound pedagogical framework based on developing the students ability to think creatively and form multiple perspectives on subject matter requires courseware incorporating tasks and subject matter that are authentic and based in the real world. It is not sufficient to develop a series of exercises that demand completion simply for the aim of applying a principle of knowledge. It is incumbent upon educators and developers to draw the tasks from those that the student would be likely to encounter in a real world environment. A personalised approach to learning is central to a pedagogy based upon the principles of Constructivism and Connectivism. The mobile device is a pedagogic tool that enables students to acquire knowledge at a personal level. In order to offer a truly personalised experience, it is

necessary to first understand the learners existing skills and interests. The Futurelab report Towards New Learning Networks advocates the following: Currently most discussions about increasing learner choice and voice are focused around giving learners a greater variety of routes through predetermined and predefined subjects and curriculum content. However, a truly personalised system requires that learners will not only have greater choice and influence over the pace, style and content of learning but that they are also supported to become active partners in developing their own educational pathways and experiences. A pedagogy that advocates personalised learning is one that also by necessity advocates a move towards more informal learning environments, moving outside the classroom. The mobile device is the ideal tool to foster informal learning. The mobile device affords location independent access to information services. Professional knowledge is there for a purpose to be used when professionals need to respond effectively within professional roles Rhoda Sharpe and Martin Oliver consider Erauts influential views on professional knowledge in Rethinking Pedagogy for a Digital Age. Learning knowledge and using knowledge are not separate processes but the same process. The process of using knowledge transforms that knowledge so that it is no longer the same knowledge. Sharpe and Oliver point to various studies to demonstrate difficulties encountered by professionals when asked to explain how they are applying their knowledge and making decisions. They write that tacit knowledge is unexpressed and difficult to capture, posing difficulties when attempting to design effective case studies for students to study. This leads the authors to advocate professional development that takes the form of observation, conversation or shared participation, all informal styles of learning, learning through social networks to access the knowledge of colleagues. Mobility in itself is not the key to the difference, but by focusing on mobility we can, according to the authors, gain a better understanding of how knowledge and skills can be transferred across different environments and life transitions and how technology can aid us as a mobile society seeks to cram learning into the gaps of daily life. A second criterion in their search for a theory of m-learning is the acknowledgement that much learning takes placed outside the typical learning environment, from cafes to cars, locations which are described by the authors as impromptu sites of learning. Thirdly, the authors point to those practices that best enable successful learning and deduce that the social- constructivist approach is one which fosters successful learning. The last factor in their attempt to postulate a theory of learning is the ubiquitous use of personal and shared technology. The authors point to the convergence between new personal and mobile technologies and new conceptions of learning as a personally-managed lifelong activity.

1.2.

THE MOBILE LEARNING SCENARIO

The discussion on the main identified issue is centered around two questions: (a) what are the relationships between pedagogical approaches and technological affordances of mobile devices? and (b) which are the concrete characteristics of the pedagogical approaches that inform the instructional design guidelines for technology-enhanced mobile learning? The traditional instructional methods apparently do not serve the purpose of mobile learning, but there are a number of pedagogical approaches which may match nicely to the technical affordances of mobile learning. Some examples of such approaches, but not limited to, are minimalism (Carroll, 1998), cognitive load theory (Sweller, 1994), anchored learning (Bransford et al, 2005), cognitive

apprenticeship approach (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1996), jigsaw teaching (Bransford, in press), theory of problem solving cognitive style (Kirton, 2003), performance support system approach (Gery, 2002), cognitive flexibility theory (Spiro & Jehng, 1990), peer teaching and assessment (Bransford, in press), and a set of principles (effects) of multimedia learning (Mayer, 2005) such as split-attention principle, modality principle, redundancy principle, segmenting, sequencing and learner pacing principle, guided-discovery principle, work-out example principle, and collaborative principle. The analysis of these theoretical approaches would identify the underlying principles that could be further used to formulate instructional design guidelines for constructing a mobile learning scenario. What follows is a possible blueprint of a such scenario.

1.2.1. A SCENARIO BLUEPRINT

The scenario always begin with building challenges, which should resemble, as much as possible, workplace referent situations (anchored learning, cognitive flexibility theory, guided-discovery principle of multimedia learning) Then students collect the resources for the challenges, which could take any format (text, audio, video). An important part in tackling the challenges are just-in-time, just-enough, and just-at-thepoint-of-need advices (performance support system, worked-out example principle of multimedia learning) by experts (cognitive apprenticeship) and peer teaching from the fellow students (peer teaching and assessment). Experts and fellows help to build a multiple perspectives view on the issue under investigation (cognitive flexibility theory). Students work first individually and then in small groups (collaboration principle of multimedia learning). Working in groups they get hints and learn how to manage the diversity of cognitive styles in order to cooperate effectively (jigsaw teaching, theory of cognitive styles for problem solving). The messages for mobile communication are based on some of the principles of minimalism (use as few words as possible, break the text into small, self-contained modules, usually no more than seven steps for procedures), cognitive load theory and multimedia learning (split-attention principles, modality principle, redundancy principle and segmenting, sequencing and learner pacing principle). Mobile technology offers unprecedented possibilities for combining the strengths of formal and informal education, and professional internship. This technology connect people working at different places (formal, informal, workplaces) with opportunities for expert and peer feedback and co-learning. Some ideas to enrich this scenario could be borrowed from Bransford et al (in press).

1.3.

M-LEARNING THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

A framework for learning and teaching with mobile devices could consist of five components: Pedagogical framework context; defines areas that influence the framework itself and forms the basis for further development. M-learning pedagogical framework context focuses on m-

learning theory and practice, motivational factors, strengths and weaknesses of mobile learning. Pedagogical approaches; promote particularly principles of constructivist theory, along with blended, collaborative and active learning. In a constructivist approach, learners are encouraged to be active constructors of knowledge, mobile devices embedding them in a realistic context, at the same time as offering access to supporting tools. Compelling examples of the implementation of constructivist principles with mobile technologies come from a brand of learning experience termed participatory simulations, where the learners themselves act out key parts in an immersive recreation of a dynamic system. Assessment techniques; define and support diverse types of assessments. The question here is: if its possible to use device-based assessment, self-assessment, peer assessment and tutor assessment? Current pedagogical practices in the partnership countries; different aspects of national specifics (national curricula and educational policy plans, existing pedagogical practices in the partners organizations, technical infrastructure and future users). Teacher training; supports teachers' work and endorses them during content production as well as delivery strategies decision. Techniques and methods to build a learning community and encourage the participants to explore the systems as well as the materials. In general, the authors from the literature raise the following concerns/questions connected to the pedagogical aspects of m-learning: How can mobile devices be used in education/training process? The authors identify mainly two approaches to mobile devices integration: 1) as a supportive tool; and 2) as an instructional tool. As a tool to support educators mobile devices allow the recording and maintenance of the lessons that take place, the instructional procedures, the type of mentoring and the pedagogical approach, the role of the teacher and students. Additionally, they facilitate communication between faculty members and students through file sharing capabilities, built-in networking and a friendly interface with on-line discussion and e-mail options. On the other hand, mobile devices can be used as instructional tools to constructive learning. Mobile devices can be treated as tools that help students execute their tasks and promote the balanced development of their mental abilities by functioning as intellectual partners to the instructor and the learner. Educators can provide students with electronic books, content reference sites, graphing calculator, dictionary, and thesaurus etc. Finally, electronic quizzes and tests can be taken through mobile devices. For what contents could mobile technology be used? The contents which mobile devices can be applied vary. Research so far shows that the experiments took place in various fields such as: Business and specifically MBA classes, Accounting, English, Social Studies, Mathematics, Science and Geography classes etc. Other activities include innovative games, exploring museums and exhibitions. Additionally, mobile learning devices can be used in order to evaluate students learning as well as assess attitudes to learning. What is the role of the educators and the students in the design, development and implementation of the innovation? Educators should be involved throughout the entire process of designing, developing and implementing mobile technology integration. They need to accept and embrace this innovation in order to successfully integrate it in their teaching practices; otherwise they might boycott it as in some cases they did with computer integration. Educators feelings have to be considered regarding this innovation. Positive and negative reactions are expected to emerge.

Educators willingness to integrate mobile devices in their settings should be examined. Along the same lines, students should be also involved in the process of mobile devices integration. Students need to have direct input on the process and features being developed. Additionally, educators need to be trained on how to apply mobile devices in their practices. To integrate computers in classroom practices, researchers were addressing the need that educators should be computer literate; in this case they have to be mobile literate. This is a greater challenge because they have to deal with various types of equipment (hardware) and software. Additionally, as Alexander (Alexander, 2004) supports the role of the educators needs to move towards facilitation and not teaching. Collaboration among various stakeholders: educators, students/ learners, engineers, computer scientists. Adopting an innovation is a risky process. But in order to minimize that risk and increase the success probabilities, it is important to be proactive and apply a systemic, holistic approach to mobile technology integration. The systemic approach to an innovation implies the involvement and participation of different parties in the design, development and implementation of the innovation. Various stakeholders such as educators, students/ learners, computer scientists and engineers should collaborate. Their collaboration is a critical element to successful mobile devices integration in education. The above stakeholders need to communicate, coordinate their actions, transfer and share their knowledge and experiences, as well as align their needs and goals. Educators need the help, support and knowledge of engineers and computer scientists and vice versa. It is not feasible to achieve m-learning without the coordination and knowledge integration of the above fields. What are the educational benefits and gains that can be achieved? It is reasonable and expected that some researchers, educators and practitioners are wondering and trying to understand what the educational benefits from m-learning are. Research showed so far that through mobile devices reluctant learners can be motivated, hard-to-reach learners can be reached, various skills can be developed and improved as well as better communication among learners and between learners and instructors can be achieved. Consequently, there is a need for some experiments to take place in order to examine the integration of mobile devices and their effects on various parameters such as students learning, performance, and behavior, before moving further.

4. MOBILE LEARNING IN CORPORATE CONTEXTS

4.1. BUSINESS DRIVERS OF MOBILE LEARNING

4.1.1. MOBILE IN BUSINESS POINT OF VIEW

Popularity of mobile solutions makes them also important in the business sphere. And this in a very wide range, not only in the sphere of m-learning. It is generally agreed that the greatest benefits of mobile solutions may have representatives of an e-business. However, it is a broad concept for this phenomenon not just e-commerce. Mobile solutions are in fact becoming more and more popular in such areas as: M-Learning Management E-Commerce Marketing and Publishing Banking and Finances Business in any form is dependent on efficient communication. We mean both the internal (training, work) and external (support, promotion) communication. Key factor is the technology and the way you communicate with other market participants, co-workers and so on. Stakeholders see the great potential in using mobile devices and broad access to the web by phone or tablet enywhere and at any time. In this situation, they are investing more and more in mobility. This makes sense, because in the mobile world, both - worker and the client, are always online. So important is improving the effectiveness of communication, and consequently the efficiency of work, education or promotion. As a result, it is profitable to invest in solutions that can benefit both the HR, sales and marketing. Should also remember that e-business companies are by definition very closely connected to the network and new technologies, so mobile solutions are a natural development of their possibilities.

4.1.2. HOW TO START THINKING IN A MOBILE WAY?

There is a whole group of factors which determine the success or the fail of mobile business solutions. Both in the context of opportunities and risks. So before the company will decide to invest in any mobile solution, its decision makers should realize a few facts.

Positive factors
access to resources anywhere ease of use bring your own device friendly more hits on the website more sales opportunities for the company people love mobile tools

Negative factors
unequal access to the mobile hardware and to the Web many solutions that do not match each other (e.g. screen size, files format) poor battery performance life not as useful as a laptop (usually) can be dangerous without security solutions (e.g. viruses, hacking)

In any case, e-business representatives are faced with important decisions, if they have ambitions to seriously interested in mobile:

Hardware, software and technology aspect - You must remember that the success is the appropriate use of hardware and software. Note that the mobile hardware device is both: cell phones, smartphones, PDAs, tablets and even netbooks. Software can be native or web based. User experience Check exactly what is the experience and capabilities of users. If you do not pay attention to it, your project will be a failure. Many people do not have much experience, except calling or texting. If you show them a very sophisticated solutions, they may not be able to use its. On the other hand, experienced people will not appreciate simple solutions. In both cases, the efficiency will be low. Possibility to use Is it possible to use mobile technology for these purposes, which have before you and your company? In some cases, non-mobile solutions can be better, even if you have thought differently. So you have to double-check your assumptions and verify the facts: Do mobile is the best solution? Or you may want to use it because it is popular? Your success depends on carefully considering those issues. In this case you can use mobile technology to many activities. Were focusing on mobile learning, but many of the following actions contains the elements of the learning (e.g., customer education), even if they are not immediately apparent. So, what you can use the mobile for? management commerce and finances (shopping, mobile finance service, mobile payment, near field communication, m-ticketing) marketing (geolocalisation, gamefication, qr codes, augmented reality) publishing (social media) security As seen previously, some items from the list above can also suitable in learning context. Lets see how to use it.

4.1.3. MOBILE LEARNING IN COMPANY

In the mobile learning the most important is the fact that learning process takes place by using mobile tools (software, devices). But more importantly - that process takes place in specific mobile environment. In any other case classic e-learning can be better, that is more popular and standardized. However here access to the content context matters - anytime, anywhere, although as we said - in specific terms that may not facilitate the reception. Even today it is difficult to imagine the learning process with mobile devices, because the way we use mobile devices more tends to teach or support in the context of specific situations or problems. It is also important that the m-learning in company does not need to concern only their own employees. Mobile solutions can be successfully used for the education of the market and thanks to gain new customers. This is an area closely linked with m-marketing. However, in this case, besides knowledge of the marketing will be essential knowledge of the methodology of teaching with the use of mobile devices.

It is also worth look at how the mobile operators react to new trends in mobile learning. In the world is now more than 900 companies providing such services4. Although the most popular products are still calls or text messages delivered through the GSM network, but their contribution is declining steadily. It's not just about increasing opportunities for hardware, user appetites or ambitions of companies wanting to communicate with buyers of their products through mobile technology. What matters is the fact that traditional GSM services are becoming less profitable (drastic fall of rental costs and prices of services provided in recent years). Providers know that nowadays they can earn more by selling data transfer. Until that the customers need more efficient hardware, more useful software and fast access to network resources (www, mail servers, vpn protocols, cloud resources etc.). The new "phones" in providers catalogs often are not even phones - see the iPad: does not have any ability to carry voice calls over GSM). In this situation, more and more profitable is to create a native mobile content, as the number of devices and connections to the global network is growing. Factors that have a major impact on the mobile business are also associated with the location. In Europe, the biggest increase in mobile and Internet connections can be observed in developing countries. For example, in Poland there are more registered SIM cards than people living. Mobile market is not only the hardware and users, but especially applications. They allow companies to provide various services, including the areas of e-business. The value and market dynamics of applications is therefore in some sense a reflection of the entire mobile market. However, if mobile learning is a regular part of business in your company, may be necessary to standardize the equipment and the ways its use. Already, many companies give their staff mobile phones to have access to them. Until now, the key factor was the monthly cost of use in GSM network (ringing and writing text messages only). It was enough just to choose this parameter in order to gain as much as possible with as little expenditure. In the context of mobile learning there are a number of other factors when choosing provider of equipment and technology. It's not just a question: iPhone or Blackberry. We also have to know: Connectivity - quality, ease of use and conditions are very important if we require the employee had permanent access to the network Battery life - it is very important if you often use in situations where there is no power source. Camera resolution and memory size - often use the built in camera in mobile devices to document and archive data. Tech support and replacement - in case of damage or lost. If the device is a major working tool we cannot wait 14 days or more on replacement or repair. To better understand this, think about it: far enough in case of failure you have to only to move the SIM card into any other phone, use it and wait patiently few days for repair. Nowadays if the device is used for m-learning, is not that simple. In the event of failure, you may lose your saved files, test results, access to the m-learning platform. For the company it is a potentially dangerous situation too - the risk of losing data or confidential data drain out. Therefore, some devices can be erased remotely (for theft) and allows a very detailed protect accounts and content.
4

http://www.cisco.com/en/US/solutions/collateral/ns341/ns525/ns537/ns705/ns827/white_paper_c11520862.html

Apps and mobile solutions developers more frequently direct their products directly to the managers and supervisors. It comes to showing the idea of facilitating access to content and learning. Therefore on the market appeared a lot of applications integrating personal and professional needs. They show the possibility of tools (QR codes, location, content aggregation, performance support, etc.). It is important that top executives in the organization experienced a the benefits of the use of such solutions.

4.2. CONTEXTS
People use mobile phones and other mobile devices primarily for entertainment. When we see people in mass communication, we often find, that phone or tablet becomes their game consoles, media players or libraries. That means one thing: they get bored. Get bored on the way to work, at school, during breaks between classes, in line to the doctor or waiting for the delivery of pizza. Mobile technology allows to use this time more effectively, that would otherwise be wasted or at least non-optimally exploited. So if it can be used for entertainment, it can also for learning (for more: entertainment and learning are not conflicting goals). It is a lot of contexts for e-learning using mobile devices. We look at the most popular.

4.2.1. TRAINING CONTENT DELIVERY

Training content is one of the most expensive part of training. Using mobile tools to reduce training costs can also overall learning experience. But it is also a great challenge. On the market today are several thousand models of mobile devices. Even if only about 100 of them is popular, we are still talking about the need to deliver content to different operating systems: Symbian, iOS, Windows Mobile, Android, Blackberry and many others which will appear in the future. The materials must therefore be supplied in suitable form, so that each user can access them without any limitations. For example, a Power Point presentation on the screen with a resolution of 320x240 pixels can be unreadable. Consequently - the user will have to open the material through a computer, which in turn ensure that the entire idea makes no sense. It's easier to send email. Mobile is the form of content, not only the form of delivery. How it can works in practice? Direct sales company designer and developer for their sales representatives a special web-app that provides materials about the latest products and newly solutions. Due to the dispersed structure of the Staff, it was much more efficient solution than sending materials by courier. Representatives who are on the Road (form client to another client, head office, warehouse etc.), more often use cell phone, than e-mail. All employees are equipped with the mobile

phones in the same class and mobile Internet connection, in order to increase efficiency. Such activities not only increase product knowledge, but also influenced the ease of communication. Pros: Reduction of the cost of materials Current knowledge of the product increases the efficiency Fast delivery of materials Cons: Problems with accessibility for all on the same level The cost of purchase phone calls and configuration

4.2.2. ACTIVATING KNOWLEDGE BEFORE TRAINING

Mobile devices can also be used to activate the participants before the classical training. For the same purpose may also be used PCs but it is worth to give the participants a choice - growing number of people determine the possibility of using applications in a mobile version. Mobile versions of the application are becoming as obvious as internet access in a mobile phone. Moreover, this solution works well in large groups, where we cannot assume that every participant has access to a PC. And even if it is difficult to determine the time and place of use of the materials. How it can works in practice? Training company can use mobile phones of training participants to activate their participation in the journey to the place of training. This allows trainer to properly prepare and introduce the topic of training. Estimated in this way can save several hours of training to be spent on more valuable activities. As you know, trainings in the classical form are expensive. You have to pay for place, meals, accommodation and materials. Its good if even part of the content can be pass in the mobile form. Pros: Saving time Engaging of training participants Cons: Differential access to material

4.2.3. SUMMARIZING/REFRESHING KNOWLEDGE

The easy availability of mobile devices and the Internet makes them the ideal tool to refresh knowledge. It is used primarily by the fact that m-learning process can take place in moments when

the user has time, and it takes only seconds to run. So you can take advantage of even small pieces of time. This model of learning usually does not have rigidly fixed resources and guidelines, because the user of mobile device is not always able to spend as much time for learning as the script of lesson would require from him . In one case it is 10 minutes, in another - 1 hour or longer. Therefore it is important to give access to knowledge resources for each type of user. The disadvantage of such solutions is that the user can easily forget them. If you do not feel the need to refresh or supplement knowledge, you will not use this opportunity and see any benefits. It is important to develop system of learning requirements or reminders about the tool. If it is a native application, it must be up to date and rich in content. In the days when turning on the phone and launch a web browser takes a few seconds, user will more frequent use of Wikipedia or other open sources, if the application's database is incomplete. Therefore the hard to create an application will be wasted. How it can works in practice? A good example are the applications to learn foreign languages that do not have lessons but the system themed cards or tasks. Frequency of learning depends on the user. Applications can record his progress and usually allow to verify it. This solution is very close to the idea of mobile learning. The participant learns when she/he can. It does not have to spend on a specific time. These solutions are great for exercise knowledge, which often changes or should be continuously updated to be effective in practice (foreign languages, law and procedures). Pros: knowledge at doses relevant to the possibility of user employee's continuous development Cons: lack of control over the progress require solid motivation

4.2.4. ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION

Lot is being said of assessments and evaluations of each training process. Usually, we are lacking the time or resources to perform it as it should. This is especially important in e-learning, where a coach or tutor does not have physical contact with the participant. Evaluation is often limited to performance the report and statistics of participation. Of course, it's definitely not enough to make sense. The use of mobile devices allows maintain this process better and more adequately. Participant may get an assessment on cell phone and read it at any time. Communication via e-mail or LMS platform in such a case less effective.

But more and more important the content of the evaluation than the form in which we can provide. Today's mobile devices allow you to display text, animations, charts. Applications can automatically generate reports and send them to interested users. But it's important to note that the evaluation process itself cannot be completely automatic, because will lose relevance for all involved. How it can works in practice? In cases where the contact between the employee and management is rare (because of the structure of the organization), mobile devices can be used as an assessment tool. We can use them for immediate feedback after mystery customer survey. This allows examine the process faster and more reliably. In this case, the employee, who was tested does not have to wait several weeks for the appropriate report. He can learn the lessons almost immediately, thanks to mobile communications. All you need to do is develop a reporting system. In a simplified version of this can be a simple text message. In a more sophisticated version multimedia attachments or satisfaction surveys can be added. Mystery shopper survey is highly reliable but also expensive. Therefore it is important to take advantage of inexpensive and available tools. Pros: short content delivery time Cons: no contact with real human

4.2.5. PERFORMANCE SUPPORT

The main advantage of mobility is a direct and immediate access to important resources. By definition mobile phone or smartphone is always at hand. In the era of the popularization of wireless Internet access to the network is no longer a problem. Performance support uses a particular need to gain knowledge "here and now." Sometimes it was hard data, other times models to resolve. It is easier to run a mobile phone than to look for information in paper documents. This works only if the employee has access to good and rich knowledge base. Such a database should be the official source of information, if employees have to make decisions on its basis. For this purpose, you can create even a simple repository of knowledge, procedures, schemas. It is important to make it useful and easy to use. The important in performance support is data access time. How it can works in practice? It can be used when success depends on rapid access to the strict knowledge or data. Such tools can be used by employees who sign a lot agreements and contracts outside the company. This

includes for example insurance companies. Access to the database forms and client data much increases the effectiveness of business meetings. Pros: access to knowledge anytime, anywhere Cons: need to care of the content relevance

4.2.6. WORKFLOW SUPPORT

Workflow is one of the most important elements of each company. Provides proper flow of information about the processes related to the operation of the company. Thanks to that work is more efficient. However, in most cases, it's difficult to talk about the use of modern tools to support these processes. Also in the context of learning. The primary data collection tool in many companies is still paper or spreadsheet. Can we use mobile devices to support a modern business in the workflow? It seems so. One solution may also be a mobile data collection, which effectively replaces paper and pencil. Workflow support should be designed to avoid problems with the quality of data provided. Communication in these processes must be fast and stable, so poor Internet connection or a short battery life (for some devices) may be a problem. If the solution will operate within a single company (headquarter), you should turn it into a corporate Intranet. This will ensure the stability of the connection and protect data against theft (access from outside the company will be impossible). It is also important the authorities approach. Do employees have experience working in a computing cloud? Does the company take appropriate steps to abandon the "paper" procedures to digitize their? Do your virtual environment is safe? Is your budget assumes the purchase of applications and hardware? It's the key questions that should be to ask each manager. Without that mobile workflow support makes no sense. How it can works in practice? Filed sales representatives using handheld devices to complete forms about costumers and their orders. The data can be then synchronized with the companys CRM. Pros: possibility of automation of data entry less time spent on manual paperwork

increase in sales Cons: connection issues battery life

4.2.7. COMMUNICATION AND COLLABORATION

That is oldest and most practical way of using mobile devices. They have been designed and created just for contact. Originally only via voice contact. With time, introduced text message, e-mail , and the possibility of live video talks. Not every device complies with all requirements in this regard. For example, you cannot receive text messages on many tablets, even if you have active SIM card inside. On the other hand, not every mobile device works on a network connection. How it can works in practice? Some companies need to communicate at a level much higher than offer traditional telecommunications services. If a company depends on a unique sound quality, ability to transfer images/videos, group work (teleconference), some specialized application may be useful. It work only in connection with Internet (outside the GSM network), but offer much more than talk. More and more operators are added such applications to its portfolio. Quality may be crucial in the case of training, where nonverbal communication is important (e.g. role played scenes). Pros: high quality of content (compared with GSM network) Cons: cost of internet connection

4.3. MOBILE LEARNING TOOLS

4.3.1. AUDIO AND VIDEO

Modern mobile devices allow play audio and video content at high resolution, increasingly by using the surround sound and 3D. Technology gives us an incredible opportunity to share knowledge with very attractive forms. Many aspects cannot be effectively presented using text and even pictures and diagrams. This is theory.

In fact, there is a wide variation among the possibilities of mobile devices. We are not talking only about old mobile phones, which uses small number of users, but also of modern products that are not smartphones. We are talking about such factors as: The size and quality of the screen - a standard phone has a screen resolution of 320x240 pixels, but modern smartphones - 1280x800. The result is a picture composed of 77 thousand or 1 million points. The difference is very large. Speed of the processor, memory and graphic chip - not all devices have been equipped with systems allowing efficient media playback. Possibilities for play certain media file format - so far not established one universal media file format. For most devices can be files mp4 (if we speak about movies) and swf (if we speak about animation), but older devices suit only the 3gp, format which is obsolete. As well swf can be a problem also for the new devices which do not support Flash. Also important is the fact that the media tend to have large volume. For example - 1 minute video may need to download to the device, even tens of megabytes of data. Also, if the material is displayed in the form of live streaming, data are collected. Often users do not have such awareness. The growing availability of mobile on the Web does not mean that in any case, it involves the lack of restrictions. Despite these difficulties, It is worth use video and audio content for learning. It supports the learning process, makes it more attractive. But we must to take into attention some limitations that are due to unequal access to technology. So how to design such materials? We need to know who and under what conditions will use. It is also important that these materials are crucial dl. If so - inability to use them can block the learning process of a person. In such cases, we should develop file formats and resolutions, and the application should detect the device, so itself selects the best format for the conditions. If possible it is worth allow download material in advance and play them offline. This can save time and money in a situation where you have limited access to the Internet (e.g. abroad). It is important that, thanks to mobile devices, the user can also be the creator of multimedia content. Almost every modern mobile device has a built-in camera. Often allows record video with the quality High Definition. This is an excellent way to document and support the learning process.

4.3.2. INTERACTIONS
The most popular tools for interaction in mobile devices are still text messages - mainly SMS, MMS less frequently. In both cases, the simplicity and speed are important. Therefore, many m-learning courses is based on these solutions. This is not a good choice, considering the opportunities available today. This does not change the fact that many designers are using text massages often because they know that every mobile phone user has the ability to send and receive such content.

But this is not a principle in the mobile world, because many devices are not mobile phones and do not have access to the GSM network. In addition, text messages has huge limitations, such as the length and form of communication (typically up to 160 characters per message).

4.3.3. ANIMATION
Animations are perfect in m-learning. This form can be combined with voice narration too. It is more interesting than plain text, even enriched with graphics. Besides it is less complicated than the video (production costs, system requirements, etc.). Animation more engages users, because it has a more friendly form. Usually, it is also cheaper to make, than video. A good animator is able submit the content of training wisely, even by using the small screen of mobile device. Files with animations are usually smaller than similar length videos. A limitation is the difference in the size of the screens. On the screens between 3 "and 10" the difference in the amount of detail is very large and may affect the final result. This form may also contain a variety of interactive components, so it can be used very well in games.

4.3.4. QUIZZES AND POLLS

Quizzes and polls are a great way to engage participants in the learning process. Those elements are easy to prepare, usually do not need much space (you can display them on every screen), the results can be collected and evaluated automatically. An additional value is that thanks to these features you can: Ask participants to view Check the knowledge and progress of participants Increase involvement in the learning process Quizzes and polls can be simple (e.g. sending a text message) or expanded (eg, as a multi-level surveys). Both of these solutions has its advantages. Simple polls allow contact with the user as easily as sending an SMS. Can be send directly by the GSM network, as SMS or MMS, which eliminates the problem of availability of the Internet. More expanded forms can also contain text boxes, but remember to use them wisely. In some older devices entering large amounts of text may be difficult, so users will give up before completing a survey or give very short answers. Simple forms of this kind are frequently used in mobile marketing with elements of m-learning, such as knowledge contests and loyalty programs.

4.3.5. JUST-IN-TIME TOOLS (CALCULATORS, GLOSSARIES, REFERENCES, ETC.)

An excellent set of tools are those which we can use just-in-time: various calculators and glossaries. Specialist often needs specific knowledge or the result of the calculation. Small mobile device that is always close at hand, perfectly suited to this. Keep in mind that in this case, the device is used not to learn, but to gain specific knowledge in a specific context. It cannot be mistake in content or form of its presentation. Imagine an electrician who makes complex calculations based on data obtained through the mobile tool. The measure of success is not does he learnt, but if properly done the job. If he make a mistake the consequences could be large. Typically, such solutions should be designed individually for each company, because knowledge and scope are variable. However, some areas of knowledge are universal, such as economic law , science and encyclopedic knowledge. Choosing a solution must always be from the company. Too universal tool will not be often used. The customized tool may be too expensive.

4.2.6. SOCIAL TOOLS

Social networking tools are trendy and still growing fast. No wonder that the majority of users of mobile devices with Internet access use them gladly. Mobile versions of social tools are easy to use and - usually - just functional as their non-mobile versions. It is good to take advantage of this trend in the company. In the company we can use a variety of solutions: Texting in groups (forums) Media sharing (Wikis) Social networking (cooperation) Geo tagging (status change)

4.2.7. GAMES AND SIMULATIONS

Games market is the most dynamic branch of mobile applications. There is no indication that in the near future this will change. Many companies have already very serious plans to combine elearning with entertainment (edutainment). Games seem to be the perfect solution. Games involve participants in the learning process very much, but may be a certain risk - often are so interesting and engaging that learning can go into the background. Games for learning should be designed very sensibly. M-learning games can be designed for temporal use in short bursts. In that case the user is not dependent on the tutor's plan or agenda, but on his own desire to play. This has pros and cons. However, the development of mobile games is still a costly challenge. Not only the performance of the application, but its maintenance, and also provide on various platforms editions - for different mobile devices. Such investments make sense mainly when the estimated number of users is large. For small and medium enterprises, it is better to seek universal solutions. At present we have more and more solutions which allow you to create your own applications using WYSIWYG editing (without knowledge of the subjects the app developer), available in a SaaS model.

When designing mobile game should take into account some important technical factors: Number of users and ways of interaction between them Necessity of permanent communication with game server Size of the screen Ways of navigation (keyboard, touch screen, touchpad) Use of other elements (sound, vibration) A good game should also have clear rules of evaluation (bonuses, points etc.) and the purpose.

4.2.8. VIRTUAL CLASSROOMS

An increasing number of developers of applications to conduct remote meetings also provides its solutions in a mobile version. These applications allow you to participate in a virtual classroom and with a lot of functionality: communicate with other by directly messages access to the same documents and synchronized work work together on group in tasks instant help from tutor or manager As you can see these features give the magnitude potential for m-learning and have many features of social media tools too. Solutions such as virtual classroom often require a good Internet connection. It is a condition of participation in the class synchronized, while working on documents, collaboration in the group, etc. It also requires a complete focus on the subject of work, so these solutions must be precisely considered.

4.2.9. LOCATION-BASED APPLICATIONS

The idea of geolocation isnt new. The fact that mobile devices and their users are in the network and this network has its own structure, it is possible to identify with some precision location of the device - and indirectly - the user. This can be use in the context of: requesting the nearest division of the company locating people displayed on a map on the mobile phone (e.g. in education game) receiving alerts as traffic jams , shop sales location-based mobile advertising social events ... and much more.

When you are designing solutions based on these items, remember that they may be bad judged by some users. This is related to the privacy policy and the fact that not everyone is willing to share information about the location of his residence. It must be a very good background of what we want to use Location Based Services. If this is part of the educational game, it is easier to justify, than in the case when we turn this feature only for satisfaction. You should also remember that mobile devices and different types of networks in different ways to interpret location, so there may be major differences. For example: GSM - accuracy between several meters and several kilometers (depending on the distance between the three closest transceiver stations) 3G/UMTS - accuracy up to several meters, but in many cases, the displayed data may be false (the system often shows the location of an Internet service provider, not the user of the device) GPS - the most accurate system (up to several meters), but not every device has a GPS module.

5. MOBILE PERFORMANCE SUPPORT SYSTEM

5.1. INTRODUCTION
A performance support system (PSS) is a promising approach in business and industry training to empower workers to perform tasks with a minimum amount of external intervention or training (Gery, 2002). A PSS is a computer-based system that improves worker productivity by providing on-the-job access to integrated information, advice, and learning experiences by providing computer support just-in-time, just-enough and just-at-the-point-of need for an effective and efficient job performance. A PSS could also be introduced in the field of education, making the learning process more performance-centered. This performance-centered approach to learning helps students to perform job-related tasks and develop job-related skills by providing them with job aids (i.e., performance support) during training. They are provided in a timely way with sufficient and relevant information to perform tasks closely related to tasks they will perform in their future job. Previous research on performance-centered learning in education shows that this approach is more effective than a traditional lecture-practice-test approach in training for higher order skills, in preparing learners for self-directed learning and for adaptation for changing jobs. The performance support can be provided through various devices. In a previous project students received performance support through wired computers or laptops. In the current project how performance centered learning can be provided by mobile devices is investigated. The use of mobile devices enhances the flexibility of the performance support, making it possible to deliver the support just-in-time and just-at-the point-of-need. It also allows training to take place where the

actual work takes place. Moreover, it enhances the flexibility of the learners, who can learn wherever they are and whenever they want to learn. This document will provide a model for Performance-centered Mobile Learning. First performancecentered learning and mobile learning are discussed. Next a model for Performance-centered Mobile Learning (PML) is introduced. The model provides a pedagogical framework for performance-centered mobile learning and offers several implementation scenarios and guidelines for development and implementation of PML.

5.2. PERFORMANCE-CENTERED LEARNING

Performance-Centered Learning is based on the concept of performance support systems used in industry. A typical performance support system is an integrated electronic environment that is available to, and easily accessible by, each employee and is structured to provide immediate, individualized on-line access to the full range of information, software, guidance, advice and assistance, data, images, tools, and assessment and monitoring systems to permit job performance with minimal support and intervention by others. Most PSSs consists of four components: an advisory component, an information component, a training component, and the user interface component. Applying this concept in the context of education, performance-centered learning provides students with relevant information, advice, assistance, data etcetera during a specific learning situation in which they train their job-related skills. The support enables students to perform the job, enabling them to experience the job in a holistic manner, and at the same time they can start to develop specific job-related skills in a job-related context. However, research (Stoyanow, Kommers, Bastiaens, & Martinez Mediano, 2008) shows that the concept as it was developed in business and industry cannot be automatically implemented in higher education on a one-to-one basis. Only if adapted to address the specific goals and characteristics of higher education could there be some positive consequences of performance support for learning. It is thus important to keep in mind the specific goals of education when developing the support to improve learning. This means that the student should not only be supported to perform the task at hand well, but also to understand underlying processes and concepts. Integrating performance-centered learning and m-learning, results in a performance-centered mobile learning (PML) approach, in which students receive performance support via a mobile device when performing job-related tasks. Important features of m-learning are that it makes learning processes more flexible and it offers the opportunity to individualize the learning material and environment. By using a mobile device that meets the aforementioned requirements (i.e., small, easy to carry) the learner has access to information at the right time (i.e., just-in-time), for the specific learning situation at hand (i.e., just-in-case), which fits his or her need (i.e., just enough) and fits his or her learning style (i.e., just-for-me). These features are in line with the aims of performance-centered learning. Performance-centered m-learning (PML) (i.e., mobile performance support systems) are similar to traditional PSS. That is, m-learning solutions integrate mobile devices within the learning process to help students perform a task by providing information,

guidance, and learning experiences when and where they are needed. Some of the advantages of PML are: PML enables training when it is needed. Wireless and mobile learning can empower teachable moments - moments when those interested in a particular issue are attentive, willing, and receptive to learn. Using mobile devices, learners can access job aids, reference materials, or instruction when needed. PML allows use of rich media when appropriate. Some of the wireless and mobile devices support rich media such as video, photographs, images, audio, and animation. These media can make instruction, reference material, or job aids more effective. PML provides access to experts. Wireless devices can be used to connect to and learn from experts. Using a PDA with instant messaging and awareness (i.e., the ability to tell if someone is accessible via e-mail, instant messaging, or phone), learners can access expertise. PML builds a community of practice. Using wireless devices, a community of practice can contribute to a forum or threaded discussion. Questions and answers posted to the discussion forum can be accessed from the field. Wireless devices can also be used to download tools like templates, sample letters, spreadsheets for estimating, sales scripts, and other documents that the team has developed over time. It can also be a tool for instant messaging, e-mail, or other communication and dialog. PML knows users expertise. The users expertise can be located by connecting and continuously sync training to back-end systems. The ability to connect and sync means that you can have training records that are current and easy to report on. A back-end system would track when learners need to take certification training and send the learner a reminder on the wireless device four to six weeks in advance of the certification expiration date.

5.3. IMPLEMENTATION OF PERFORMANCE SUPPORT SCENARIOS

Mobile performance support systems can be implemented in education according to four possible instructional design scenarios: 1. 2. 3. 4. Mobile performance support courseware Industry-based mobile performance support systems Mobile social support systems Integrated mobile performance support learning

Each scenario requires a different structure and presentation of the content and addresses different educational goals. The scenarios will be explained in more detail in the next sections.

5.3.1. SCENARIO 1. PERFORMANCE SUPPORT COURSEWARE

In the first scenario mobile learning is interpreted as mobility of the content. A course provided via a wired device is simply repackaged and transferred to a wireless mobile device. The goal of this scenario is that the student can consult the learning content anytime, anywhere, because it is available through a mobile device. It is important that the existing course is developed according to the principles of performance support for learning derived from the empirical validation of the concept of performance support system in higher education (Stoyanow, Kommers, Bastiaens, & Martinez Mediano, 2008), as described in the previous section. The repackaging of the structure of performance-oriented courseware to fit the mobile device can be done according to two approaches: (a) the structure is maintained as it is and directly implemented, including background information, examples and procedures, or (b) the minimalist structure, as described above, is accepted. The background information is mentioned in About topic and some part of it in Details; Examples are incorporated into Examples topic; the Procedures section goes to Ways To and eventually Details. Most of the studies on mobile learning claim that just repackaging content previously delivered by other devices is not an effective approach. As they say learning should not be a facsimile of a webbased course on a mobile phone. Learning design should be less course like and should have more a support orientation (Learndirect & Kineo, 2007). Content creation for the mobile phone is not a technological debate; phones are now generally considered multi-media devices. It is better to design for the mobile environment than attempt to simply port existing content to m-learning. The users or target audience must be engaged; and how they assimilate the material is very different from a classroom or desktop environment. Users attention spans are lower due to the smaller nature of the mobile device and also the environment the students may be in, for example waiting in an airport lounge or commuting to and from work. Users of mobile devices, such as phones, tend to be more cost conscious if the application is deployed over a network and a data charge is incurred. There is a lower tolerance for delays and difficult navigation of applications. Phones have been traditionally easy to use and reliable and users can be very unforgiving when trying out new applications or services. In addition, publications on mobile learning suggest that it is rare for mobile learning to be the primary delivery platform for providing instruction. However, it should be noted that these studies did not apply strong (experimental) research design. A pilot experimental study conducted by Merrill Lynch (Brown, Metcalf, & Christian, 2008) showed results pointing to the opposite direction. The experimental group achieved a higher score in half the time, although there was no information on whether the difference was significant. In addition, crucial information is lacking on the instructional design of these courses. What was the structure of the learning activities that led to these successful outcomes?

5.3.2. SCENARIO 2. IMPLEMENTING INDUSTRY-BASED MOBILE PERFORMANCE SUPPORT

In the second scenario the performance support system is implemented in higher education in a similar way as the support system is implemented in industry. That is, according to the definition of performance support system in higher education (Stoyanow, Kommers, Bastiaens, & Martinez Mediano, 2008), a performance oriented course in higher education should reflect as much as possible future work real-life situations where the acquired knowledge and skills will be applied. In these real-life situations mobile performance support systems provide just-in-time, just-enough, and just-in-point-of-need and on demand support, to suggest an immediate solution to a problem in various situations. When training students for these situations, the mobile performance support systems can be used to support students to learn to perform correctly in these situations. In general, there is a set of situations where performance support could be an appropriate solution: situations that require location specific context (reviewing tips for effective presentation); situations where best practices can be presented (coaching, recruitment, sales skills) and situations in which the users are more likely to benefit from an access to learning on the move, e.g salespersons, field workers. The only differences between the application of the performance support system in industry and education, is that in education the support is aimed at not only improving performance, but also learning; students should also learn from the support. Guidelines for implementation External, extrinsic or intrinsic support Mobile performance support systems can be classified as external, extrinsic and intrinsic (Gery, 2002). They are external when in order to accomplish a task, a connection to an external source of information needs to be made. They are extrinsic when the support is available in the system, although a break in the action is needed to get the necessary information (e.g getting an additional help). They are intrinsic when the support provided is context-sensitive and it is part of the workflow (e.g tracks the position, providing navigational assistance and relevant information and tools). Intrinsic mobile performance support system can automatically detect context through a combination of context-aware computing and ubiquitous and pervasive techniques to adapt to user preferences, location, time and environment (Specht & Kravcik, 2006). Research showed, contrary to initial expectations, that external and extrinsic performance support systems are more effective than intrinsic ones (Nguyen, Klein, & Sullivan, 2005). However, it would be speculation to expect that this would be the case with mobile performance support systems as well. Copy from industry If you know about mobile performance support systems used in the industry to which the content you teach is related, try to implement these systems in your teaching practice. You can demonstrate them, but it would be much more effective if you arrange learning design in such a way that stimulates your students to apply mobile performance support systems for solving real-life problems. Thought-provocation Rossett & Schafer (Rossett & Schafer, 2006) suggest that performance support systems should not merely be considered as a job aid to help accomplish a procedure during performance (called

sidekicks). Performance support systems should also be thought-provoking before and after performance as they coach for better performance (called planners). These latter performance support systems answer the question how but in a different way from procedural performance support. That is, How or in what way can I think about it or approach it? Thought-provoking performance support systems also answer the question why, and in addition include quality standards and stimulate a dialogue with the user.

5.3.3. SCENARIO 3. SOCIAL SUPPORT SYSTEMS

Learning as a lifelong activity implies that it may happen anywhere and anytime. The advent of technology and its impact in our daily life provides an opportunity to support learning in different situations, irrespective of time and location. Current computer technologies to support learning are mainly focused on formal education settings (classroom teaching, computer lab or home-based learning using Learning Management systems). However, this still ties the learner to a specific location and the need for expensive computer systems to support learners. As lifelong learners we are continually on the move, we learn and apply the knowledge at different places. We learn in different time spans of life and constantly re-use the knowledge gained. In the current mobile age, the availability of mobile devices provides sufficient confidence to use them for learning activities. The use of mobile devices would expand the learning possibilities irrespective of location. Especially for a lifelong-learner, mobile learning adds value to the formal and informal learning. Mobile technology provides the opportunity to shift from the pure instruction-centered classroom teaching to constructivist learner centered educational settings (Holzinger and Motschnig-Pitrik 2005). The students can go beyond the classroom to an outside learning environment. They can know more using their mobile devices about Geography by visiting terrain (mountains, river or forest), History by going to Museums, Chemistry by visiting a chemical industry and so on. The technology itself may provide them with motivation that would enhance their learning (Holzinger & Motschink-Pitrik, 2005). This expands the learning scenarios that can be well supported by mobile devices combining the formal, informal and professional internship situations. Mobile devices can also be used to bring learners into contact with each other at different locations. For example a learner browsing some information on impressionist paintings at a Museum of Art, may get to know who else is accessing similar information; they may contact each other to share their knowledge and interests. This scenario calls for developing social applications for mobile devices to bring learners into contact with each other. We may call Mobile Social Support Systems (MoSoSuSy) the applications which help people connect with each other according to their common interests in learning objects or resources at a specific location (for example, Museum, Exhibitions, Famous Buildings, Industries etc). This idea provides an opportunity to develop social applications (MoSoSuSy) to bring people together in contact for mutual benefit. We can also experiment to evaluate the impact of students learning by socializing using mobile devices. This issue addresses the opportunity to research the community-centered ways of successful learning as referred to in the report of the National Research Council (National Research Council, 1999). Community-centered learning focuses on a social-constructivist approach

to learning, which requires learning to involve an active process of constructing knowledge through practice within a supportive community.

5.3.4. SCENARIO 4. INTEGRATED MOBILE PERFORMANCE SUPPORT SYSTEM

In the fourth scenario mobile performance support is part of a blended solution of knowledge distribution rather than a primary channel for content delivery. This scenario is based on the assumption that mobile learning is effective if considered as only one of the components of the overall programme of learning interventions. Another assumption that underlies this scenario is that when applying mobile performance support systems in education, instructors should use different materials, devices and resources as building blocks to develop a learning design. For each type of information the most suitable information, delivery device and resource should be selected. This means, that only when delivering support through a mobile device has an added value for learning mobile performance support should be implemented. Building blocks A blueprint within the fourth scenario could contain the following building blocks: Challenges Start the scenario with building challenges, which should resemble, as much as possible, workplace referent situations. One of the first principles of instructional design is that learning is promoted when learners are engaged with solving real-world problems (Merrill, 2002). A number of representative instructional design theories support this principle, namely anchored learning (Bransford, Slowinski, Vye, & Mosborg, 2008), cognitive flexibility theory (Spiro & Jehng, 1990), constructivist learning environment (Jonassen, 2004) and guided-discovery principle of multimedia learning (Mayer, 2005). Resources Give opportunities of the students to collect the resources for solving the problem. The resources could take any format (text, audio, video). Collaboration, help, and advice from others Students work first individually and then continue in small groups. An important part in tackling the challenges is to get just-in-time, just-enough, and just-at-the-point-of-need advice by experts and fellow students. Experts and fellows help to build a multiple perspective view on the issue under investigation. Working in groups students get hints and learn how to manage the diversity of cognitive styles in order to cooperate effectively. You can use mobile devices to support all of these activities but think of efficiency, perhaps other devices are better options for this purpose. Mobile devices will perhaps be involved in only a limited number of small educational episodes. It seems that expert help for group composition and managing diversity of problem solving style is where mobile devices would be an appropriate solution. Some tips sent around to the participants is also a

possibility. The same applies to exchanging information across the students as to how to approach the problem. When designing instructional messages for mobile devices keep in mind the principles of minimalism (use as few words as possible, break the text into small, self-contained modules, usually no more than seven steps for procedures), cognitive load theory and multimedia learning (splitattention principle, modality principle, redundancy principle and segmenting, sequencing and learner pacing principle). Constructing a scenario blueprint In the previous sections some general assertions and principles, but also some concrete heuristics and guidelines were provided. Because of the format required, the guidelines may seem a sort of cookbook. They should not be. You may like or dislike some of them or you can possibly reject the whole proposal. To construct a mobile performance support system a technique used by Walt Disney, might be useful. Disney played three roles: the dreamer, the realist and the critic. First play the role of a dreamer. Try to design your own ideal mobile performance support scenario using (or not) the description of the different scenarios provided in the previous sections. Imagine you have all the capabilities, power and resources to do what you want to do; no restrictions, no obstacles. Try to list as many wishes as possible. Write down everything that comes to your mind. Generate wishes, do not evaluate or judge whether they are good or not. Just follow the flow of your associations. Next play the realist. Try to make your scenario more practical and feasible but as close as possible to your ideal scenario. How can you approximate the wish by achieving something similar to the desired effect? Be positive and constructive. Finally, play the critic and list all possible weakness of your scenario. When ready with the scenario framework, you can look at the guidelines and select those of them that are appropriate for the scenario. The guidelines are like LEGO blocks: you can combine them in a way you want in order to construct your design blueprint. A worked-out example of scenario 4 As an illustration of the considerations regarding the fourth scenario, let us consider the following case. As part of the course Software Engineering Design, a MSc students class from a Computer Science department gets the assignment to design a software application for educational and training purposes. For the design they are going to apply one of the recent developments in the field, called Rapid Contextual Design. Some of the activities of this design methodology are Contextual Inquiry Interview, Task Analysis and Workflow Modeling, Affinity Diagram, Writing Persona, Interactive Scenarios, and Storyboarding. These are the activities they have to do before going to use cases, activity diagrams and other more formal methods. The students have to apply the methodology on a real-life case and to work with real people. The students can get information about the methodology during a few face-to-face meetings, but it is also available in the universitys learning content management system. The students work in small groups and divide the responsibilities for the tasks between themselves. Those of the students who are expected to conduct contextual inquiry interview might want to take with them on their mobile telephones some tips and tricks and consult them while on their way to the interview site or use it during down time. This simple job aid could significantly reduce cognitive load to retain information which is new. The practice of applying the Rapid Contextual Design activities is much

richer than their description on paper. There are always questions to ask. The students, while at work places, can consult their tutors on these questions. For structuring students activities any of the existing formats can be used: problem-based learning, anchored learning, jigsaw collaboration and action learning, to mention but a few. As you have probably noticed these instructional approaches pay attention mainly to how to support the accomplishment of the task at hand, in this case designing a particular software application. They provide little support (if any) on how to manage diversity in groups. Being aware of yours and others personal strengths and weaknesses as a team member and knowing how to deal with it is a competence too and students need it for their initial professional adaptation and further development. Differences among team members that can rise due to differences in level of knowledge or ability are well known. Less known are differences due to diversity in problem solving styles. Even when the level of knowledge is similar, students still could have problems to work together if the gap in their problem solving style is considerable. Some expert advice on mobile phones by tutors on how to manage diversity in groups would be helpful. These are two possible ways of using mobile devices to promote performance in complex learning situations.

5.3.5. SCENARIO 5. IMPLEMENTING MOBILE PERFORMANCE SUPPORT SYSTEM FOR TRAINING IN E-BUSINESS
If we consider mobile performance support system as electronic learning system (LMS) so it can easily be adapted and used for training in e-business. Electronic business commonly referred to as "eBusiness" or "e-business", or an internet business, may be defined as the application of information and communication technologies (ICT) in support of all the activities of business. Commerce constitutes the exchange of products and services between businesses, groups and individuals and can be seen as one of the essential activities of any business. Electronic commerce focuses on the use of ICT to enable the external activities and relationships of the business with individuals, groups and other businesses. The e-business surveys (e-business watch 2011) shows that there are many sectors of European economy in which the penetration of e-business is not in a appropriate level as it is in USA and other countries. This is in the sectors where the moving of the goods and services is not as easy as when they are sold in an electronic store. The sectors which are suffered from a lack of e-business are chemical industry, steel industry, furniture industry and some other heavy industrial areas. One explanation of this situation is the lack of staff training in this area for those sectors of the economy. This is where the use of traditional or mobile performance support system can fill the gap for the lack of training in the workplace without leaving the staff of its daily duties, in this case the mobile performance support system will support the staff in taking decisions when implementing some new methods of working, selling goods or services or just exchanging information with other companies. In practice, e-business is more than just e-commerce. E-business involves business processes spanning the entire value chain: electronic purchasing and supply chain management, processing orders electronically, handling customer service, and cooperating with business partners. Special technical standards for e-business facilitate the exchange of data between companies. E-business

software solutions allow the integration of intra and inter firm business processes. E-business can be conducted using the Web, the Internet, intranets, extranets, or some combination of these. One of the very important processes in a supply chain is the exchange the data between companies. Lets consider the that company A is using one type ERP system and company B is producing some parts for company A using other type of ERP system. It is essential to transfer data between 2 companies electronically without the use of many workforce loads. The solution is to connect two ERP systems and exchange the data electronically in an automatic way while they are processed in local systems. But if company A uses a different format than company B so there is need of training of the staff which processes data so to fulfill their needs. This is the place where the mobile performance support system can be used very effectively, integrating it in the ERP network environment in the 2 companies. Also because it is mobile it can be loaded in mobile devices (PDAs, smart phones, electronic input terminals, bar code readers and other mobile devices which processes data) and when the staff doesnt know what to do or how to process the data according to the standards of other company so it can easy learn using the mobile performance-support system while working and in the time when the data are collected and processed. This is just one example of the use of the mobile performance support system to support the staff while working, just in time using mobile device. E-business contains many subsets which also can benefit from the use of mobile performance support system for staff training in the workplace. These subsets are: 1. Internal business systems: customer relationship management mpps can provide training for the use pf CRM enterprise resource planning mpps can provide training for the documentation of ERP and its very useful when they both are installed on a mobile device document management systems as a help instrument human resources management - as an training instrument 2. Enterprise communication and collaboration: VoIP content management system e-mail voice mail Web conferencing Digital work flows (or business process management) this case was presented in our scenario 3. electronic commerce - business-to-business consumer electronic commerce (B2C): internet shop supply chain management online marketing offline marketing electronic commerce (B2B) or business-to-

Mobile performance support systems can help an organization to reduce the cost of training staff while increasing productivity and performance. It can empower employees to perform tasks with a minimum amount of external intervention or training.

Moreover the mobile performance support system provides training while the staff is doing it everyday duties. By using this type of system an employee, especially a new employee, will not only be able to complete his or her work more quickly and accurately, but, as a secondary benefit, will also learn more about the job and the employer's business. An MPSS should be considered when workers require knowledge to achieve individual performance in a business environment. It should furthermore be considered when skilled performers are spending a lot of time helping less skilled performers; when new workers must begin to perform immediately and training is impractical, unavailable or constrained; or when employees need to be guided through a complex process or task that cannot be memorized. These situations often occur when new systems (e.g. Customer Relationship Management, Enterprise Resource Planning) are introduced, upgraded or consolidated, and in certain call centres when agents must perform using complex systems, processes or products.

6. DESIGNING AND DELIVERING MOBILE LEARNING

6.1. GENERAL ASPECTS OF MOBILE DESIGN

We have already said that mobile devices are the most personal of all the tools we use for learning, working and communicating. Thats why any mobile interface and content needs to be designed with end user in mind. The following illustration comes from Lyndon Cerejos (Cerejo, 2011) article on user centrered mobile web design. We have adapted his thesis to better cover the m-learning design.

Image source: Cerejo 2011 1. Assess Current Situation The first question you need to ask is: do we really need mobile learning now? Look for a learning or performance problem and analyze carefully if mobile learning is the best solution. Are your users really mobile enough to warrant a mobile learning approach? What are they already doing with mobile? Will mobile access help achieve their learning goals? Ask yourself what form of mobile learning suits your needs. Do you need content push or pull? Will you be using collaborative tools? Assessment tools? Performance support? What actions or activities do you want to track? Do you already have learning materials that could be converted into a mobile format? Is your content appropriate for mobile use? What tools, applications and mobile device affordances (GPS, multi-touch, voice, cameras, video recording) con you use to enhance learning? Is mobile the best option for your budget? How does it fit into your corporate strategies? Ask yourself what kind of mobile learning can you afford with your resources (staff, IT infrastructure, etc.)? 2. Understand Your Users According to Cerejo, User-centered design relies on user involvement throughout the design process, leading to a solution that users will find useful and want to use. To achieve that, you first need to have a clear understanding of your users, grouped into a prioritized set of user groups

whose needs can be thought of individually. For a pharmaceutical company, those groups could be patients, healthcare professionals and caregivers, with the first two groups being the primary user groups, and caregivers being a secondary user group with very similar needs to patients. Identifying your key user groups and creating personas will help you design better for your main users. (Cerejo, 2011). For business mobile learning, you should also create personas of your end users. Who are they (employees, partners, customers)? What mobile devices do they use? How do they spend most time with their mobile devices (gaming, texting, creating and sharing content, socializing, surfing the web)? What features, apps or tools do they use most? 3. Prioritize Mobile Features Devices are equipped with various features that could be used to enhance learning. Think what tools and devices may be more accommodating for the type of learning activity you need to deliver. See Chapter 1 for details. 4. Design Considerations Design for smaller screen sizes: It is important to consider size and resolution of your target audience's device(s) as well as its aspect ratio. A mobile device has a small screen when compared to a desktop screen. Moreover, screen sizes vary largely in both display size and resolution. Common resolutions for mobile phone screens vary from 128x160 or 128x128 pixels on low-end devices (simple phones) 7201280 pixels on some smartphones, with screen sizes range from 2 inches to over 4 inches. Simplify layout and navigation: As Luke Wroblewski (Wroblewski, 2011) puts it, Small screen sizes force you to prioritize what really matters to your customers and business. There simply isnt room for anything else. Minimize user input: Remember that typing on a mobile device can be difficult and take more time than on a computer keyboard, so keep data entry to a minimum. Limit responses to optional choices or short fill-in-the-blanks. (Quesinberry, 2011) Design for Intermittent Connectivity: Keep in mind that your learners may not have continuous network connections, that they can use various telephone and computer network protocols such as Wi-Fi, EDGE, 4G, and 3G, and that connection may be unreliable or slower in remote locations. We will address those issues below in more detail. 5. Prototype, Review & Refine Even if designing a native app, consider prototyping with web app first. This will allow you to simulate and refine the user experience and modify your course more easily.

6.2. MOBILE USABILITY

Usability is defined as the extent to which a product can be used by specified users to achieve specified goals with effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction in a specified context of use. (International Organization for Standardization [ISO 9241-11], 1998). The usability of a learning environment is important attribute because it leads to more effective and efficient learning. A good starting point is Nielsens ten general principles (heuristics) for user interface design (Nielsen, 2005): 1. Visibility of system status The system should always keep users informed about what is going on, through appropriate feedback within reasonable time. 2. Match between system and the real world The system should speak the users' language, with words, phrases and concepts familiar to the user, rather than system-oriented terms. Follow real-world conventions, making information appear in a natural and logical order. 3. User control and freedom Users often choose system functions by mistake and will need a clearly marked "emergency exit" to leave the unwanted state without having to go through an extended dialogue. Support undo and redo. 4. Consistency and standards Users should not have to wonder whether different words, situations, or actions mean the same thing. Follow platform conventions. 5. Error prevention Even better than good error messages is a careful design which prevents a problem from occurring in the first place. Either eliminate error-prone conditions or check for them and present users with a confirmation option before they commit to the action. 6. Recognition rather than recall Minimize the user's memory load by making objects, actions, and options visible. The user should not have to remember information from one part of the dialogue to another. Instructions for use of the system should be visible or easily retrievable whenever appropriate. 7. Flexibility and efficiency of use Accelerators -- unseen by the novice user -- may often speed up the interaction for the expert user such that the system can cater to both inexperienced and experienced users. Allow users to tailor frequent actions. 8. Aesthetic and minimalist design Dialogues should not contain information which is irrelevant or rarely needed. Every extra unit of information in a dialogue competes with the relevant units of information and diminishes their relative visibility. 9. Help users recognize, diagnose, and recover from errors Error messages should be expressed in plain language (no codes), precisely indicate the problem, and constructively suggest a solution. 10. Help and documentation Even though it is better if the system can be used without documentation, it may be necessary to provide help and documentation. Any such information should be easy to search, focused on the user's task, list concrete steps to be carried out, and not be too large. When considering web usability, we are talking mainly about user interface. The hardware and software used for surfing the web a personal computer or laptop, a web browser are popular,

standardized and widely accepted vehicles for transmitting content and dont present mayor challenge for most users. However, things are different with mobile devices. There are a variety of models, operating systems, browsers, tools, functionalities and contexts of use, which affects the user experience. The five quality components of usability (learnability, efficiency, memorability, error prevention and user satisfaction) depend largely not only on the presentation of content, but also on physical and technical aspects of the device and on users behavior. Our experience will not be the same when dealing with a simple mobile phone and a tablet; we will not use our Blackberry in the same way as we would use an iPhone. As Economides (Economides & Nikolaou, 2008) points out, mobile devices can be evaluated in three distinct areas usability, technical, and functional. USABILITY CRITERIA USER INTERFACE 1. Appropriate display layout 2. Simple to understand and easy to use - menus, toolbars, buttons, status messages, etc. 3. Multilingual support 4. Ability to personalize/customize device 5. Disabled access friendliness PRESENTATION & MEDIA 1. Easy of reading, writing, or providing other input to the device 2. Varied media support (text, graphics, images, audio, video) 3. Fidelity of multimedia reproduction (consider reduction in render quality of media due to device limitations) NAVIGATION 1. Simple information organization and structure File system Tools Shortcuts 2. Home and help links on every screen 3. Search capabilities 4. Consistency in user interface and interactions PHYSICAL DIMENSIONS 1. Size 2. Weight 3. Design attributes TECHNICAL CRITERIA COMMUNICATIONS 1. Phone 2. E-mail 3. Web access 4. Asynchronous text messaging 5. Synchronous instant messaging 6. Multimedia messaging 7. TV 8. Internet data download/upload access

INFORMATION & KNOWLEDGE TOOLS 1. Recorders 2. Office applications 3. Calculators 4. Drawing tools 5. Media Player and Gallery 6. Voice to Text and Text to Voice features 7. File sharing 8. Dictionaries and Translators ORGANIZATION & MANAGEMENT TOOLS 1. Calendars & Clocks 2. Database access tools 3. Agenda tools, organizers, alerts, reminders, etc. RECREATION & ENTERTAINMENT OPTIONS 1. Accessing varied media including music and film 2. Playing games 3. Using multimedia tools FUNCTIONAL CRITERIA PERFORMANCE 1. Processing power 2. RAM and speed of ram 3. Expansion storage options and limits 4. Communication technologies (Telephony, GPRS, IrDA, WiFi, 3G, HSPDA, Bluetooth, etc) SENSORY SYSTEMS 1. Display 2. Keyboard and Buttons 3. Cameras, Microphones, Recorders 4. GPS navigation 5. Special purpose RFID readers, bar code scanners, augmented reality scanners, smart card functionality, cashless transaction technology COMPATIBILITY 1. Open Source vs. Closed Source hardware, Operating systems and Applications (vs. iPhone, WinMo, Android, Symbian, etc.) 2. Specific focus on Browser Applications 3. Multimedia format support SECURITY 1. Security certificates 2. Encryption and Cryptography Support 3. Antivirus, anti spam, online protection 4. Password/passkey functionality 5. Screen/Keypad locking feature 6. Biometric identification features RELIABILITY 1. Battery life 2. Hardware and software crash handling and recovery 3. Online updates to firmware, OS, applications 4. Technical support and documentations

While you should always consider the characteristics of the device(s) you are targeting, we have summarized some general rules that you should have in mind when designing mobile content. Regardless of differences, there are two main characteristics of mobile learning that influence the design: smaller screen size and mobility of the learner.

6.2.1. USER INTERFACES AND NAVIGATIONS

Simplify functionality: The interface layout, the menus, toolbars, buttons, etc. should be as simple as possible. Avoid complex interactions. When dealing with a small screen, small selection regions, no mouse and limited bandwidth and processing capacity, you should limit the functionality and simplify user interface to the minimum needed to achieve learning goal. Mobile users demand quick, clear, and easy-to-use applications, so interfaces should be intuitive and task-oriented. (Quesinberry N. , 2011) Design for a single-column layout. Put secondary content at the bottom of the page. This way it does not distract learners or waste space in the first scrolling zone. The bottom is a good place for optional navigation controls, emblems, badges, copyright notices, and other legal notices (Horton, 2012).

Image source: http://www.jibc.ca/programs-courses/elearning/mobile-applications Flexibility: Ensure that the content adjust well to different screen sizes and aspect ratios. Make sure that it display correctly even on the smallest and narrowest screens. Test your design on small screens. Use a fluid layout. Most smartphones have G-sensor, which understands the orientation of the phone and displays information accordingly in landscape or portrait depending upon

how the handset is held. By keeping the fluid layout, your content can fit the screen perfectly (Brahme, 2010).

How content displays on devices with different aspect ratio. Source: (Brahme, 2010)

The same content viewed in landscape and portrait. Source: (Brahme, 2010) Keep navigation simple: Typically a mobile user is looking for specific information within an app. Minimize any additional or unrelated information. Show the user exactly what he or she needs (FabriQate, 2012). Include visual cues to let learner know how deep a section goes (Boller, 2011) Consider the fact that users expect to get the information they need in just a few clicks/taps. This is particularly important if youre designing a mobile performance support app. Structure information so it can be easily accessed (Malamed, 2011). Ensure the basic navigation menus are visible on every screen (Turner, 2012). Sound and color:

The learners should be able to use the mobile devices in any situation, even when they are moving, in an outdoors environment, buses, trains, etc., with varied lightning, noise and frequent distractions and interruptions. Therefore, we should consider use high contrast color combinations, and make sure that information conveyed with color is also clear without color, by using symbols or text labels. If you want to be sure that your design is color independent, a good test is to view the page in monochrome mode (MDDE 615 Mobile Learning Group, 2011) Dont rely on sound-only notifications etc. Let the users adjust the sound and provide alternatives (text, image, symbols) to audio. Links and buttons: Use clear, concise and consistent labels for navigation across all pages. Clearly identify the target of each link. Mark the visited links or sections with different colors or underlining. Design to minimize selection errors. Keep in mind that many users will use only one hand to operate their device, some can have clumsy finger or large hands (Malamed, 2011). Consider ways to reduce tap errors, such as bigger buttons, surrounding selection areas with as much white space as possible, or increasing clickable area around links. According to Lyndon Cerejo (Cerejo, 2011) the tap size (width or height) for the navigation item should be at least 30 pixels. The buttons should be in 3D style to give the user the sensation of pressing to get required action (FabriQate, 2012).

Image source: http://www.byki.com/itunesclick.html Help, search and home: Offer help and search engine easily accessible from any screen. Let the user return to the home page from everywhere within one step (Economides & Nikolaou, 2008). Controls at bottom:

This is one of the key design guidelines for mobile devices where our holding style determines that the buttons should be at the bottom ensuring maximum screen space to display content. The Thumb is a key control for most users so add the key action buttons in the thumb-hotzone (FabriQate, 2012).

While holding a touch screen phone with only your right hand, its easy to hit the dark green area and a stretch to tap the yellow area with your thumb (Wroblewski, 2011). Show progress: Include a screen ID such as Screen 2 of 24 to inform users of how far they have progressed through a lesson and how much there is left to do (Turner, 2012). Avoid excessive scrolling: If possible, avoid horizontal and vertical scrolling. If you cant, at least keep any one screens contents to no more than three scroll lengths.

Image source: http://emerginged.com/adlmobile

6.2.3. USER INTERACTIONS

Design for touch Today's mobile devices are mostly touch-based. Although the gestures supported depend on phones model and operating system, there is a basic repertoire of touch commands thats becoming a standard for interacting with touch screen (Wroblewski, 2011). Tap: Briefly touch surface with fingertip Double tap: Rapidly touch surface twice with fingertip Drag: Move fingertip over surface without losing contact Flick: Quickly brush surface with fingertip Pinch: Touch surface with two fingers and bring them closer together Spread: touch surface with two fingers and move them apart Press: Touch surface for extended period of time Press and tap: Press surface with one finger and briefly touch surface with second finger Press and drag: Press surface with one finger and move second finger over surface without losing contact Rotate: Touch surface with two fingers and move them in a clockwise or counterclockwise direction

Those are the basic interactions most users are becoming familiar with. But when dealing with less experienced users, you should follow Noleen Turners (Turner, 2012) advice and [s]tick to simple touch tap or swipe commands to manage navigation between screens (for now). Dont assume that

everyone knows how to use all the interface features of their smartphone / tablet e.g. pinch open gesture to magnify text. Alternatively, provide short introduction or help on how to use the course. Minimize user input The difficulties of data input into mobile phones is another factor in the use of mobile learning. In distance education and e-learning data input is used mainly for student-to-tutor contact, studentto-student contact, group based activities and assessments. The first three activities should present few difficulties for m-learning because young people of today can achieve text input with remarkable skill and rapidity and because the reintegration of voice-based communication into distance education and e-learning can be achieved by m-learning. As the human voice has always played a major role in educational communications, its elimination to a large extent in both distance education and e-learning is al loss that mobile learning can restore. Assignments which are useful on small screens are short questions with automatic feedback, quizzes, multiple choice assignments and other assignments requiring little amounts of textual input from the user, such as a vocabulary test. It is possible to design multimedia assignments, for instance in Flash, such as drag and drop and other types of assignments if the device has support for them. Multiple choice questions with 4 possible answers fit easily on the screens of mobile devices. Follow Cerejos (Cerejo, 2011) guidelines for text input: Keep your URL as short as possible, keeping in mind, feature phone users have to repeatedly press a key for most alphabets (key presses for com are 222-666-6). Use alternate input mechanisms where possible. Limit input to essential fields. Select the best mobile input option (e.g. allowing users to select from a list of options is often faster than typing). When users need to log in, offer the option to stay signed in, especially since mobile devices are personal and not usually shared.

6.2.4. CONTENT AND PRESENTATION

Simplicity: Use simple and clear language, with bigger font and short paragraphs. Remember that its difficult to read on a small screen. Let learners quickly find the small piece of text they really need. Consider using headlines, bullet points or checklists to make contextual information more precise. Convert paragraphs to easily skimmed tables and lists. (Horton, 2012) Present a brief version linked to a complete version. For example, link thumbnail graphics to an enlargement. Or link an overview to a complete article. (Horton, 2012) Bit-sized learning:

The information density should be lower than typical e-learning content. The context in which mobile learning takes place affects the ability to absorb information. Design for short attention span and memory limitation and provide bit-sized information chunks which last no longer than five minutes. Ideally, no more than two minutes each. According to Gerry Griffin (Griffin, 2011), after about 90 seconds the user begins to lose concentration. Each chunk should be available as a stand-alone module allow learners view the course in a non-linear fashion and access important information when it is needed, without having to go through the entire course. Present only relevant content: Give learners just the content they need, avoid extraneous or good-to-know information. Provide tools to find extra info when they need (Boller, 2011). Consider using phrases like For more information or To learn more (ADL, 2011) and make it easy for learners to ask questions (Horton, 2012). Engagement: Add some interactivity or diversify presentation formats. Mobile users tend to multitask or switch attention if the content is not engaging them. Text: The use of bold and/or italic is the same as with the traditional e-learning web pages. Do not use them exceedingly, but only to emphasize the message. It is easier to read bold than italic so it is recommended to use bold if the word is of importance for the readers understanding. Varying the font mark up, color, size and type is recommended and can help emphasize the look and feel of the material. A recommendation would be to use a distinct font and color for application instructions, navigation or help and use a different dedicated font for course content and learning objectives. Furthermore a separate distinct font type and size for actual learning content or subject matter is also recommended. The following is a list of the most common typefaces for e-learning design which should also be effective for m-learning: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif Times New Roman, Times, serif Courier New, Courier, mono Georgia, Times New Roman, Times, serif Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif Geneva, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif Multimedia: Main issues with the use of multimedia for mobile learning are related to technical aspects of mobile devices, such as processing memory, screen size, variety of supported formats etc. As [2] states, Do NOT use media in situations where its not required, splash animations, graphics that are purely aesthetic and unnecessary interaction. In most cases, there is a cost associated with

developing and accessing such content, as it is likely that there is cost for downloads and bandwidth. Additionally, intensive use of multimedia elements increases learners cognitive load, making learning inefficient especially in situations of limited attention, multitasking or in presence of distracters and hard environmental conditions. As stated in [9], multimedia content should be considered when: It stimulates a variety of learning intelligences and potentially increases audience and satisfaction. It uses content that cannot be expressed in words/text. It provides options for learners with disabilities It allows increased collaboration (via video or audio posts) When creating multimedia for mobile, you should make sure that it renders in the smallest format possible while considering minimum quality requirements. Dont make the download obligatory: allow users with limited bandwidth choose which content they want to view. Make the decision easier by providing description of the content and its size. If possible, consider simple, clear illustration in place of complex videos or animations. Since not all smartphones support Flash animations, use videos or convert your Flash content to video or HTML5. Make available lower-bandwidth versions and alternative media for crucial content. William Horton (Horton, 2012) provides a list of tips for addressing the low bandwidth issues:

High-bandwidth medium Video

Lower-bandwidth version Shorten clips. Reduce width and height. Compress more highly.

Video chat or conferencing

Photographs

Audio

Slide presentation as video

Smaller window. Only the current speaker visible. Crop the image to just the essential part. Reduce the width and height. Compress the graphic more highly. Shorten segments. Convert stereo to mono. Compress more highly. Choose a file format like .mp3 that is designed for small size. Slides at smaller size and

Alternative media Stills and audio. Still photograph and a transcript. Just a transcript if the visual component is not essential. Audio chat or phone conference. Text chat. Include a thumbnail image linked to the full-sized graphic.

Text transcript or description of sounds. Text summary of a discussion.

Still pictures and transcript.

audio more compressed. To address the specific characteristics of each device(s) youre targeting, see the official user interface (UI) and user experience (UX) guidelines from the manufacturers. Below you can find guidelines for most popular mobile operating systems: iOS Human Interface Guidelines Android User Interface Guidelines Blackberry Smartphones UI Guidelines UI Guidelines for Windows Mobile Nokia Developer Design Portal

6.2.5. DESIGN FOR MOBILITY

As we have already said, the mobile learner is, well, mobile we cannot predict every condition, time and place where our learners can happen to study. We should adapt our design to various, often difficult conditions and help learners with their tasks. Horton (Horton, 2012) again gives us good tips on how to deal with mobility-related issues:

Characteristic Busy, engaged in activities they consider more important than learning. Traveling

Issues Learning must fir between higher priority activities.

Guidelines Design short, self-contained sequences. Let learners quit at any time and resume wherever they left off.

The learner may be out of contact for hours or days.

Learners may suffer fatigue or jet lag. Distracted Other tasks limit attention available for mobile learning. Eyesight and hearing may likewise be occupied. Slow speed connection.

Enable learners to download entire lessons and courses and play then offline. Announce deadlines well in advance. Include FAQ and Help so learners can solve their own problems. Set generous deadlines for activities. Do not base grades on participation in realtime meetings. Make content available as text and as audio. Let learners decide when to advance. Make the replay function clear.

In remote locations, possibly off the grid.

Intermittent connection.

Provide alternatives to high-bandwidth media. Publish a low- bandwidth version of each lesson or page. Enable learners to download entire lessons

Or none. Battery life is limited.

In a different time zone.

Out of sync with class meetings.

Using a personal, rather than a corporate, device.

The learner determines the device and how it is configured.

and courses and play them offline. Do not enforce prerequisites. Provide a solar charger and extra batteries. Allow learners to work from paper for simple reading activities. Minimize required meetings. Meet in the middle of the day or at a time that accommodates most remote learners. Acknowledge that remote learners may be half asleep. Publish notes. Design for the mobile devices learners already have.

6.3. MULTIMEDIA AND LEARNING

6.3.1 COGNITIVE LOAD THEORY AND MULTI-MEDIA LEARNING

Cognitive load theory (Sweller, 1994), (Clark, Nguyen, & Sweller, 2006) and multimedia learning (Mayer, 2005) are both based on two basic principles which underlie the cognitive processes which operate in supporting or inhibiting human learning. First, the theories make a distinction between working memory and long-term memory. These two types of memory form a complimentary partnership, although they work in different ways. In working memory all cognitive processing occurs, but it has a very limited capacity and could be easily overloaded. These limitations of working memory should be taken into account, when designing courses. Second, the theories propose the existence of two channels of processing information in working memory: visual and audio. Being a sub-component of working memory, each of these channels has a limited capacity and should both be used to make learning more efficient. Based on these principles of cognitive load theory and multimedia learning the following relevant guidelines can be formulated for the design of performance support in higher education: MULTIMEDIA PRINCIPLE: Individuals learn, retain, and transfer information better when the instructional environment involves words (spoken or on-screen text) and pictures (static, like photos, illustrations or diagrams, or dynamic, like animations or video), rather than words or pictures alone. Clark and Mayer (Clark & Meyer, 2011) recommend minimizing graphics that decorate the page or simply represent a single object, and incorporating graphics that help the learner understand or organize the material. They identify four functions of graphics in e-learning:

teaching specific lesson content such as facts, concepts, processes, procedures, and principles organizing content by showing relationships among topics in a lesson showing relationship, mainly in the form of dynamic and static graphs used as a lesson interface, mainly to present case studies. Advices for m-learning: Use graphics and text to present instructional content. If using on-screen text, keep it short and separate text from graphics (can be illegible on smaller screens). For larger explanations, consider a voice-over, but try to make graphics self-explanatory and understandable without audio. Avoid decorative graphics. Make all graphics relevant to the instructional purpose. Limit the use of animations. Use them only if your content cant be as readily shown with a series of static images. Use simple, easily understandable graphics (icons) for organizing content. Contrary as to e-learning, you should limit or avoid graphics as lesson interface. They usually render bad on small screen and occupy to much space and bandwidth.

CONTIGUITY PRINCIPLE: Individuals learn, retain, and transfer information better in an instructional environment where words or narration and pictures or animation are presented simultaneously in time and space. Clark and Mayer (Clark & Meyer, 2011) recommend that corresponding graphics and printed words be placed near each other on the screen (that is, contiguous in space). If using audio, corresponding graphics and spoken words should be presented at the same time (that is, contiguousnext to each otherin time). Advices for m-learning: If a text is used to describe image, place it on the same screen. If using audio narration, it should play at the same time as the graphic (animation or video) is depicting the event. In quizzes, feedback should appear on the same screen as the question and responses. Clark and Mayer recommend using pop-up messages when dealing with too much text to fit on the screen. However, you should be aware that not every mobile browser supports popups.

MODALITY PRINCIPLE: Individuals learn, retain, and transfer information better when the instructional environment involves auditory narration and animation, rather than on-screen text and animation. Advices for m-learning: Use both words and illustrations or graphs. Explain diagrams with words presented in audio narration.

Use audio for learners with a low level of prior knowledge. Only use diagrams and audio if diagrams and/or text require explanation (i.e., only in a case they do not provide self-explanation). Use text rather than audio when learners need reference to content. Provide text as a backup for audio explanations for learners with hearing impairments or unable to listen to audio (e.g. in a public place or noisy environment). Keep narration short to ease-up on download time. The principle does not always apply; for example, if presenting technical terms, key steps in a procedure, or giving directions to a practice exercise, you should provide written words. This is especially important for m-learning, which often is used as reference or performance support.

REDUNDANCY PRINCIPLE Individuals learn, retain, and transfer information better when the instructional environment involves narration and animation, rather than on-screen text, narration, and animation. Clark and Mayer (Clark & Meyer, 2011) recommend that you avoid e-learning courses that contain redundant onscreen text presented at the same time as onscreen graphics and narration, because it is difficult for the learner to concentrate on graphics, text and audio at the same time. In addition, the learners are distracted trying to compare and reconcile on-screen text and the narration. Advices for m-learning: Keep content down to essentials. Avoid presenting words as narration and identical text in the presence of graphics. Eliminate extraneous visuals, text and audio. If a diagram is self-explanatory do not add a text to it. On-screen text can be narrated when the screens do not include graphics. These guidelines do not apply when there are no pictures or the learner has difficulties processing the pictures and words. This might be the case with mobile learning; and the learner might have difficulty processing words.

COHERENCE PRINCIPLE Individuals learn, retain, and transfer information better when the instructional environment is free of extraneous words, pictures, or sounds. This principle applies especially to m-learning. As we already said, designing form mobile learning requires short chunks of content and there is no place for any extraneous information. According to Harp and Mayer (Clark & Meyer, 2011), extraneous pictures (and their text captions) can interfere with learning in three ways: Distraction by guiding the learners limited attention away from the relevant material and toward the irrelevant material; Disruption by preventing the learner from building appropriate links among pieces of relevant material because pieces of irrelevant material are in the way; and

Seduction by priming inappropriate existing knowledge (suggested by the added pictures), which is then used to organize the incoming content. Advices for m-learning: Do not add background music and sounds to a narrated animation, especially in situations in which the learner may experience heavy cognitive load. Avoid adding extra entertaining or good-to-know material or decorative images not that are not essential to the instructional goal. Use the minimal amount of words and graphics needed to help the learner understand the main points.

PERSONALIZATION PRINCIPLE Individuals learn and transfer information better when the instructional environment involves a more conversational style, rather than formal. Research on discourse processing shows that people work harder to understand material when they feel they are in a conversation with a partner, rather than simply receiving information (Clark & Meyer, 2011). Thus, they recommend informal style, first or second person narration, and the use a coach, or pedagogical agent (cartoon, photo or animated avatar), to support learning. Advices for m-learning: Use conversational language in first and second person Concentrate on audio quality. Prefer human voice to machine-generated voice. When designing for mobile, you often dont have spare space for on-screen avatar image. Use an audio coach instead or let learners access the coach by tapping an icon.

SEGMENTING AND PRETRAINING PRINCIPLES Individuals learn and transfer information better in an instructional environment where individuals experience concurrent narration and animation in short, user-controlled segments, rather than as a longer continuous presentation. Clark and Mayer (Clark & Meyer, 2011) recommend breaking a complex lesson into smaller parts, which allows the learner to engage essential processing without overloading the learners cognitive system. To help learners understand complex topics, we should provide pretraining in the names and characteristics of the key concepts in a lesson. Advices for m-learning: Teach system components before teaching the complete process. Present and visually segregate each component in context of the whole process/system. Give learners control over pacing.

6.4. TOOLS FOR DEVELOPING MOBILE LEARNING

There are two main ways to create mobile learning course: you can develop a mobile app or use one of the existing content creation and learning management tools optimized for mobile. As we have already mentioned in Chapter 1, the mobile applications can be created as native, hybrid or Web based. Generally, the manufacturers provide frameworks and tools for developers of native apps. You can also find a number of cross-platform development tools that allows you to create native, hybrid or web apps what can be deployed on various devices. NATIVE APPLICATIONS DEVELOPMENT iOS SDK Android SDK Blackberry Symbian Bada Windows Phone CROSS-PLATFORM DEVELOPMENT RhoMobile Motorola Solutions' RhoMobile Suite is the HTML5 application development platform that works with any device type, operating system and screen size, including Windows Embedded Handheld, Windows CE, Windows Phone 7, Apple iOS, Android and BlackBerry. Appcelerator Appcelerators Titanium Development Platform allows for the development of native iOS, Android, hybrid, and mobile web apps as well as desktop applications from a single code base. PhoneGap Open source and free HTML5-based tool, PhoneGap leverages web such as HTML and JavaScript. MoSync The MoSync Mobile SDK is a complete, rich, cross-platform mobile application development SDK. It allows to build and compile apps for up to nine different platforms at once, using C/C++ or HTML5/JavaScript, or a combination of both to create hybrid apps. Sencha Touch 2 Sencha Touch is a high-performance, mobile HTML5 application framework. It lets you create sophisticated web apps apps that work on iOS, Android, BlackBerry, Kindle Fire, and more. WEB APPLICATION DEVELOPMENT iUI iUI is a framework consisting of a JavaScript library, CSS, and images for developing advanced mobile webapps for iPhone and comparable/compatible devices. iWebkit iWebKit is a free framework designed for the creation of iPhone and iPod touch compatible websites or webapps.

jQuery Mobile jQuery Mobile is a HTML5-based user interface system for all popular mobile device platforms, built on jQuery library. RAPID AUTHORING TOOLS AND LMS Below we compile a list of most popular tools for creating content for mobile learning. SumTotal HotLava Mobile Upside2Go Lectora eXact Mobile Saba Anywhere Meridian Anywhere Mobile LMS SumTotal Mobile Rapid Intake Knowledge Direct Learncast Xyleme Claro Moodle: there were various intents to make the most popular open source LMS mobile-friendly. In September 2011, the official (i.e., developed by Moodle HQ team) Moodle iPhone app was released. With Moodle 2.0 the first mobile theme (build on JQuery) was announced.

7. FINAL REMARKS

7.1. TIPS FOR IMPLEMENTING MOBILE LEARNING

Here are some tips for implementing mobile learning in the enterprise: Identify learning objectives In the beginning you need to first identify the potential learning goals. What is the problem you are trying to solve? Is the mobile solution the best option? What are the alternatives? What mobile capabilities would enhance learning? Will they help learners be more productive? Before investing in any new technology you must be sure that it is the best answer for training issues you are facing. Make your objectives SMART (Specific, Measured, Attainable, Relevant and Time-bound). Think about evaluation. How will you know if you have achieved your goals? How will you measure Return of Investment? Identify your users

The next step is to understand the targeted end-users and their contexts. What problems are they facing? What are their needs? How would the mobile technology help them in achieving those needs? Are they already familiar with using the mobile devices? What are the use context? What devices do they own? Decide if you are going to provide them with targeted devices or let them use their own. Which mobile capabilities would actually be most beneficent for the users: do they need a specific application? location-based services? communication and collaboration? Remember that the employees will accept your mobile program only if they feel its relevant for them. How can you facilitate the acceptance of new technologies? What kind of support will your endusers need? Who will handle the necessary support? Know your training staff Think who will provide the content and facilitate training. What skills do they need to have? Do you have to provide training for them? Will they need a manual or/and methodology? How will you provide support for them? Identify content sources and types What content do you need to make accessible via mobile devices? Does that content already exist within your organization? What type of content will you use? In most cases, you will not want to deliver the full training via mobile devices. Ask yourself what exactly will it be: short learning modules? video or podcasts? quizzes and assessments? checklists and performance support? If the content already exists, what are the formats? Are they easy to convert for mobile? Do you need to create content from scratch? Who will provide the content needed? Possibly most of the content is already in hands of your training or L&D department. Do you consider elements of collaboration and/or user generated content? Who will create it? How will it be assess? Do you need special politics for accepting the content? What about intellectual property? Who have/will have rights to the content? Who will handle any necessary updates and modifications? Identify the technology Consider benefits and limitations of technologies involved. How will the content be created, delivered and distributed (LMS, web, intranet, offline)? What security mechanism will be used? What actions and activities do you want to track? Consider your content formats and delivery options. Do you want to create a native app? Do you need your content to be delivered also in desktop version? Keep in mind the contexts of you users. See Chapter 6 for tips on how to adapt to environmental conditions and distractions related with learners mobility. Define your budget plan What would be the cost of implementation? What are your financial resources? If your budget is short, it doesnt mean you have to forget mobile learning. Consider low-cost solutions like using social media or SMS for communication, free

apps for content delivery, mobile RSS channel for updates or implementing mobile-friendly version of your website. What are your personal resources (IT staff, trainers, instructional designers)? After implementation, will you be able to maintain, support, update and develop your mobile solution? Your effort will be in vain if you invest all your resources in the first phase and cannot afford the maintenance. Develop a prototype Create a functional prototype or beta version. Test it with a group or end-users using target devices. Evaluate and modify. In most cases, there will be need to create more than one beta versions and discuss them with representatives of all the groups involved between launching the final version.

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