Aaron Van Winkle

Television and Persuasion: The Changing Epistemology of the Modern Age The 20th Century featured many technological advances which had wide-ranging consequences on the ways that Westerners communicate, both with each other and with mass audiences. Prior to the Electronic Age, mass communication was concerned with the widespread distribution of the printed word, through books, magazines, and newspapers. These media encouraged thoughtful rumination and reflection; a book was something to be consumed and digested over a period of days, and required active participation by the reader in order to visualize and internalize the concepts or situations described. News traveled slowly; news accounts in the 19th century tended to be much longer than those of today, and described the background surrounding an event in much greater detail than the newspapers of modern times. The advent of radio in the 1920's signaled a change in mass communication; messages and content could be delivered to a wide audience with an immediacy which printed media could not match. Television was developed soon after, and postwar America took to the new medium in huge numbers; by the mid-1950's, almost every household in the U.S. had a television set. With these new media came a cultural shift; the printed word started to lose its importance as a primary vehicle of communication, and was gradually replaced with the immediate, flashy visual imagery of television as the primary messenger in American culture. Now, in 21st century America, we live in a culture which is less concerned with truth in messages, and is more concerned with the way in which messages are presented to us. This paper will endeavor to explain the epistemological shift in American culture, then examine the ways in which important social institutions (in this case, the financial

industry) have adapted to the new, simplified cultural epistemology. When I was first confronted with the term epistemology as a communications scholar, I looked it up in the dictionary. The study of knowledge, I thought to myself. Doesn't that apply to all studies? Unfortunately, my dictionary applied a bit too much brevity to the concept; epistemology can be more accurately described as the study of the nature of knowledge and how human beings value and categorize different kinds of knowledge and types of thinking. Neil Postman, in his book Amusing Ourselves to Death (1985, rev. 2005), quotes scholar Northrop Frye when attempting to explain epistemology: Frye makes use of a principle called resonance, in which a particular statement in a particular context acquires a universal significance. (Postman, p. 17) Essentially, through cultural resonance, objects, places, and people (both real and fictional) take on meanings beyond their original states of being. Athens, for instance, is more than the capital of Greece; it has become a symbol of intellectual excellence due to our cultural association with the classical Greek scholars. Hamlet is more than a character in a play; he is a metaphor of brooding indecisiveness, just as Lewis Carroll's Alice is a metaphor of a search for order in a world of semantic nonsense (Postman, p.18). These examples have become a bit dated, however; cultural resonance in the 21st century can be seen more in the image of Osama bin Laden as a metaphor for evil in the Muslim world, or the image of Los Vegas as a metaphor for accepted cultural decadence. Every medium employs resonance, says Postman, because resonance is metaphor writ large... Because of the way it directs us to organize our minds and integrate our experience of the world, it imposes itself on our consciousness and social institutions in myriad forms... It is always implicated in the ways we define and regulate our ideas of truth. (Postman, p. 18) The epistemology of cultures pre-typography (i.e. oral cultures) tended to value

rhetoric which was of a poetic nature; proverbs and epic poems were seen as important cultural currency, and memorization and retention of long passages was seen as an important human quality. Postman gives the example of a west African tribe which possesses no writing system but has a rich oral tradition which has defined the tribe's application of civil law: When a dispute arises, the complainants come before the chief of the tribe and state their grievances. With no written law to guide him, the task of the chief is to search through his vast repertoire of proverbs and sayings to find one that suits the situation and is equally satisfying to both complainants. (Postman, p. 18) This method was employed in pre-typographic cultures in the West, as well; mnemonic devices, formulaic expressions, and parables were a means of discovering and revealing truth. (Postman, p.18) With the advent of the printing press, the nature of legal disputes and resolutions changed dramatically; while the spoken word still carries weight in the modern courtroom, through spoken testimony, there is a much stronger belief in the authenticity of the printed word. A modern judge who bases his decision on a proverb or homily will likely be disbarred; modern epistemology dictates that his decision be based on what previous legislators and judges have written. The weight of the printed word is likewise seen in a university environment; Postman articulates the challenge of a student publishing his doctoral thesis; the oral examiners challenged the student's use of a spoken interview as a source for his paper. The student pointed out that there were no fewer than 300 references to published works in his thesis, and the examiners had not challenged the accuracy of any of them, so why would they challenge the accuracy of a personal interview? The examiners responded that You are mistaken in believing that the form in which an idea is conveyed is irrelevant to its truth, (Postman, p.21) meaning that in the academic world, the published word is given greater weight and prestige than the spoken word. Ironically, the doctoral oral

originated in the Middle Ages, before printing was introduced; interviews were originally the primary way in which candidates gathered information for their theses. However, epistemological changes dictated cultural changes, and today both the legal and academic worlds rely heavily on printed material for their authority and societal relevance. Two developments in the 19th century had effects on the epistemology of the typographic age, and can be seen as the precursors to the epistemological shift of the 20th century : the telegraph and the photograph. The telegraph was the first electronic medium; whereas news used to travel as fast as a horse coud run, the telegraph allowed information to be transmitted almost instantly over vast distances. This speed came with a cost, however; whereas a printed medium's length was restrained only by the cost of paper and ink, the telegraph demanded brevity due to its commercial nature. Telegraph companies charged by the word; brevity became a virtue when transmitting knowledge. Information began to be seen as a commodity, and while news traveled more quickly than ever before, the nature of news became simplified as news publishers struggled to flesh out the telegraph's news briefs into full articles. Another consequence of the telegraph was the sudden influx of useless information and the distribution of what we today call trivia; in his landmark work Walden, Henry David Thoreau remarked that We are in great haste to construct a magnetic telegraph from Maine to Texas; but Maine and Texas, it may be, have nothing important to communicate... We are eager to tunnel under the Atlantic and bring the old world some weeks nearer to the new; but perchance the first news that will leak through into the broad flapping American ear will be that Princess Adelaide has the whooping cough. (Thoreau, p. 36) Postman describes the telegraph as instigating a three-pronged attack on typography's definition of discourse, introducing on a large scale irrelevance,

impotence, and incoherence (Postman, p. 65). Newspapers ceased to be judged based on the quality or practicality of the information they disclosed, but by the amount of information and the distances and speed in which this information was delivered. News media began to offer a great deal of information on issues which were inconsequential to most people's lives; the printed word gave the news media cultural authority, and the public struggled to reconcile the influx of inconsequential facts with their own lives. One development of the 19th century which helped the public use this information overload was the crossword puzzle; trivia contests and game shows are a modern evolution of this dichotomy. The photograph was another development which, on the surface, had nothing but positive effects on the distribution of knowledge; but when seen in practice, the photograph contained internal biases which were not readily evident to the public eye. While it has been said that a picture is worth a thousand words, it can also be said that none of these words are conceptual or abstract. A picture cannot depict man, only a single man from a specific angle at defined time and place. A picture of a city may give the viewer an idea of a certain location, but only from the perspective and time of the photographer. This is not to say that photography is worthless; far from it, as photographs can often impart visual ideas much better than the finest prose. However, photography is contextual without providing apparent context; photographs are often seen as definitive, when they in fact only define a specific moment in time and space. Combined with the development of the telegraph, American epistemology began to shift from valuing thoughtful, well-elucidated concepts to seeing information as a commodity, an intellectual fast-food to be consumed voraciously and without reflection. Into this environment of simplifying messages came the mass media developments of the early 20th century. It is important to note that despite the

trivialization of news noted above, electronic media have served useful purposes for the public as a whole. The first commercial radio broadcast occurred in November of 1920 with the broadcast of election results from the U.S. presidential election. New Jersey radio station KDKA broadcast the results to thousands of listeners in the New York/New Jersey area live as they were reported. As noted by Beville, We can readily appreciate that Harding's election in 1920 had nowhere near the impact on the future of American life as did the broadcast of the election returns on KDKA. The electronic age had arrived. (Beville, p. 1) However, while hearing presidential election results live was compelling to the general public, it was entertainment which solidified the public's appetite for the new electronic media; in 1921, WJY-New Jersey broadcast a live account of the Dempsey-Carpentier heavyweight boxing match and attracted 200,000 listeners. The listeners of this fight were lucky, as the new station's transmitter burned out about a minute after the end of the fight. (Sterling/Kitross, p. 61) Despite a few technological hitches, the ability to hear concerts and sporting events as they happened accelerated the widespread adoption of radio sets by the American public. Radio had effects on epistemology, although these were somewhat muted compared to the changes wrought by television; the spoken word retained tremendous influence in an audio medium, and while entertainment was a key motivation of radio programmers (due to the commercial aspect of the industry), language and the ability to convey thoughts and ideas through words was still seen as a very important American value. This began to change in the 1950's as television was adopted by the American public. Suddenly, moving images and sound were brought into the American living room, with an intensity and spectacle which were difficult to ignore. Television combined the immediacy of the telegraph with the hidden bias of the photograph, and through this combination, the American epistemological focus shifted once more.

To see the extent of this shift, it is instructive to view two sets of presidential debates set one hundred years apart. In 1860, Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas engaged in a series of debates which were viewed with great interest by an American public fractured by the issues of slavery and secession. The structure of one of their debates in Ottowa, Illinois was as such: Douglas would speak for one hour, then Lincoln would be allowed an hour and a half to reply; Douglas was then given half an hour to rebut Lincoln's reply. This format was much shorter than their previous debates; in an 1854 debate in Peoria, Illinois, the two men were given three hours apiece to put forth their positions. The American public voraciously consumed these debates; the town halls in which they occurred were filled to standing-room-only, and newspapers would publish full, word-for-word accounts of the events. The epistemology of the time valued prose, as well as politicians who could structure their thoughts into wellenunciated spoken prose. In 1960, Richard Nixon and John F. Kennedy engaged in a series of televised political debates to decide the upcoming presidential election. These were the first presidential debates which were televised, and attracted a great deal of excitement from the general public. 70 million people tuned in to watch the proceedings, which lasted for two hours and covered many more topics than the Ottowa Lincoln/Douglas debate mentioned above. The debates are well-remembered today, although not for the eloquent arguments provided, nor for their rhetorical brilliance: they are remembered because Richard Nixon was not TV-friendly. Nixon failed to realize the implications of television as a medium; he appeared without makeup, and looked pale and sweaty compared to the composed, good-looking Kennedy. The ramifications of this were a presidential election which was decided primarily by the images its contestants exuded rather than the content of their messages. Television had, less than 10 years after its

widespread adoption, changed the epistemological focus of American discourse to favor image over content. This is seen to the present day; candidates during primary season are often described as appearing Presidential, or not, based on their physical appearance rather than the manner in which they carry themselves. Postman describes the further simplification of thought in American culture when he examines so-called educational programming. Sesame Street began in 1969 as a way to educate toddlers and preschoolers in the basics of spelling, counting, and arithmetic. Widely hailed as a positive development, parents and educators both embraced the show as a valuable tool which encouraged children to embrace education. Postman argues that Sesame Street only teaches children to embrace education when it is like Sesame Street; that is to say, when it entertains. Children who watch the show, Postman argues, learn that learning is a form of entertainment, or, more precisely, that anything worth learning can take the form of an entertainment, and ought to. (Postman, p.154) Sesame Street's format is that of commercial television; rapidfire editing and appealing visual imagery are important facets of the program's ethos. Many segments are commercial-length, and the show is always presented as being sponsored by a letter and number; this conditions children to more readily accept commercials as valid sources of information later in life. This brings us to the modern television commercial and its applications of persuasion when delivering a selling message. Financial institutions represent a very important industry; finance drives commerce, which drives the economy. It would seem wise for a bank or lending institution to appear serious as well as factual when advertising its services; however, in the television age, banks have increasingly adapted to the entertaining nature of television, sometimes at the expense of their perceived credibility.

Wells Fargo is one of the oldest banks in the United States. Founded shortly after the California Gold rush, the bank has been a fixture of the American financial scene for over 150 years. The bank was a part of the Pony Express network in the late 1800's, and also ran a transportation company centered around the company's nowiconic stagecoaches. Print ads from the late 1800's and early 1900's emphasized the company's solid history, the fact that it survived the financial Panic of 1855, and generally emphasized the financial stability the company could provide for its members. However, in the television age, Wells Fargo has changed its advertising emphasis to feature appealing imagery; little is said about loan rates or account interest rates. Recently, the company released a television ad entitled, It Takes a Team (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UpAATJTb9WWU&feature=related). The ad features images of the Wells Fargo stagecoach being pulled by a team of horses; the coach barrels through the landscape of the American West and is accompanied musically by an Aaron Copland-esque orchestral arrangement. Words are sparse; the entirety of the deep-voiced announcer's copy reads: For over 150 years, we've driven our teams to help you build your dreams. Wells Fargo it takes a team to reach the next stage. The commercial is short on specifics, and long on imagery and feeling. It is safe to say that the commercial has nothing to do with the actual experience of banking at Wells Fargo; stagecoaches were long ago retired as viable sources of transport. The 150 years reference is helpful; this lets the viewer know that the bank is at the very least a long-term survivor; the setting of the ad also takes place well before the recent mortgage and lending crisis. However, the commercial still fails to present any concrete facts as to why one would want to bank there; instead, the commercial is selling a lifestyle. In essence, the ad evokes Kenneth Burke's consubstantiality identification theory, which describes the establishment of an overt connection between the persuader

and audience. (Swartz, p. 175) Wells Fargo is hoping to draw a connection between the viewer's identity as an American, and the bank's roots in the country's history. The bank is counting on the audience to see the bank's history as the audience's history; interest rates and mortgage terms are inconsequential next to the bank's rich history in the dusty American west. The competing firm Capital One has chosen a much different approach for its commercials. Capital One is a much younger company than Wells Fargo, having been established in 1988, but has seen exceptional growth in the last twenty years. The company currently does extensive national television advertising and is a prominent sponsor/advertiser at many U.S. sporting events. Capital One's slogan, What's in Your Wallet? has been featured in a long-running humorous television ad campaign featuring Visigoth invaders in a contemporary setting. This campaign started in the fall of 2000. The original commercial in the series (http://www.youtube.com/watch? v=drqO8aySdFg&p=44FB85E25351B274&playnext=1&index=6) features a suburban couple discussing their Christmas purchases while a rampaging Visigoth horde descends upon their home. When the husband reveals that he had used a Capital One credit card to do their Christmas shopping, dispelling the wife's worries about high interest rates, the horde stops abruptly in disappointment, then attacks the home of their non-Capital One-using neighbors. This commercial was well-received by the public, and actually does give some concrete information about the bank's services, relating to the audience that the bank's interest rates are lower than those of its competitors, who are represented by the Visigoths. This commercial is a good example of the attribution theory of persuasion, which describes the way we assign causation to the actions of others. (Swartz, p.149) Capital One seeks to make a connection between its rampaging barbarian hordes, and the policies of competing banks. By attributing barbaric qualities

to its competition, Capital One seeks to position itself as the honest, responsible choice for credit-card customers. One of the most recent in the series shows how the bank has emphasized entertainment over substance in its advertising messages, mostly to its detriment. Entitled Visigoth Ski Vacation (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K91nNiC3BkA), the commercial promotes Capital One's Venture credit card, of which the main selling point is that the card's users receive perks for double miles which they can then use on airline tickets for vacations. The ad starts with a Visigoth excitedly explaining that through the use of his Capital One Venture card, he and his family have earned a ski vacation twice as fast as with competing travel miles credit cards. The commercial continues with fast images of Visigoths falling off ski lifts, bumbling destructively through a gift shop, attempting to buy a lift ticket for a goat, and finally ending in a ski lodge where a weathered Visigoth delivers the company's slogan, What's in Your Wallet? The commercial itself is rather humorous; however, humor is not necessarily the most effective vehicle in an industry which relies on the public's trust to be successful. One of the most glaring changes in the newer ad concerns the role of the Visigoths: in the original ad, the Visigoths represented Capital One's competitors and their higher interest rates. In the current crop of ads, the Visigoths represent Capital One's customers. This is an interesting choice equating customers with bumbling, uncivilized barbarians could lead to the perception of a company which disdains the people who use its services. In an era in which the public trust in banks has been eroded, the commercial does very little to advance the notion that the bank holds its customers in high regard. Another problem rests in the company's slogan, What's in Your Wallet? In the wake of a controversial government bailout in which the financial

industry was widely accused of stealing from the public, a slogan which is reminiscent of a mugger's stickup line seems to be a poor choice. Both the shift in the role of the Visigoths and the robbery-evocative slogan are perfectly in line with the modern epistemology of the television age, however; modern commercials are first and foremost vehicles for entertainment. The Visigoths of the first ad were so popular with the commercial audience that the company was compelled to keep them; it is likely that very few people have noted the shift in the Visigoths' role, as the commercials are flashy and entertaining. Indeed, the Visigoths have come to be less the metaphors they started out to be, and are now spokesmen for the company, much like Ronald McDonald for McDonald's Hamburgers. Likewise, the aggressive slogan stands out and is memorable; while someone saying that line to you outside of a bank may seem to be a threatening act, on television an aggressive delivery seems perfectly natural and in line with the medium's ethos. The American cultural landscape has been undergoing a severe change since the advent of television; persuasive messages can (and must) be simpler than ever before, and through television, they can be so subtle that the audience doesn't even know they're present. The confluence of television and entertainment is so natural and essential to the medium that the public is becoming immune to any information that is not delivered in an entertaining manner. Bankers and politicians have adapted to this new paradigm, and the result is political elections that are decided without any matters of substance being discussed, and banks which act in immoral and sometimes illegal ways (the recent lending crisis being a prime example) but whose public image is colored only by the entertaining commercials aired during national sporting events. Insurance companies rely on talking lizards and ducks to relay their messages; it's less important to be seen as the best insurer, only the most entertaining. As Swartz points out, we are bombarded

by persuasive messages every day of our lives; the danger is that these messages are less overt and more entertaining as time goes by, and the public is increasingly indoctrinated to accept these entertaining persuasions without question. Hopefully the Internet will help reverse this trend; if not, our society and culture may be in grave danger.

Bibliography Beville, Jr., Hugh Malcolm, Audience Ratings: Radio, Television, and Cable, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Hillsdale, NJ, 1988 Postman, Neil, Amusing Ourselves to Death, Penguin Press, New York, NY, 1985 (rev. 2005) Sterling, Christopher H. and Kitross, John M., Stay Tuned: a Concise History of American Broadcasting, Wadsworth Publishing Co., Belmont, CA, 1990 Swartz, Omar, Persuasion as a Critical Activity, Kendall Hunt Publishing Co., Dubuque, IA, 2001 (rev. 2009) Thoreau, Henry David, Walden, Riverside Editions, Houghton Mifflen, Boston, 1957