A

f
960 MHz
124

935.2 MHz 915 MHz

1 20 MHz 124

200 kHz

890.2 MHz

collision 417 s 1 2 3 downlink 11 12 1 2 3 uplink 11 12 t sender A sender B sender C t collision sender A sender B sender C t

collision

Aloha

reserved

Aloha

reserved

Aloha

reserved

Aloha

reservation

N mini-slots 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 frame1 A C D A B A frame2 A C frame3 A frame4 A A B A B A F B A F D t collision at reservation attempts reservations for data-slots F time-slot

N * k data-slots

e.g. N=6, k=2

other stations can use free data-slots based on a round-robin scheme

frame5 A C E E B A F D

RTS CTS A B CTS C

RTS CTS A B

RTS

sender
idle packet ready to send; RTS RxBusy ACK time-out NAK; RTS wait for ACK wait for the right to send time-out; RTS data; ACK time-out data; NAK

receiver
idle

RTS; CTS

CTS; data wait for data RTS; RxBusy

ACK: positive acknowledgement NAK: negative acknowledgement

RxBusy: receiver busy

data A key A key sequence A data key

Ad

0 1

1 0 0 1

1 0 0 1

0 1 1 1

0 0

0 0 1 0 0 1

0 1 0 0

1 0 0 1

0 1 1 0

1 0

Ak

signal A

As

Real systems use much longer keys resulting in a larger distance between single code words in code space.

signal A

As 1 0 0 Bd

data A

1
As + B s

Ad

data B key B key sequence B data key

0 1

0 0 1 1

1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 1 0

1 1 1 1 1 1

Bk

Ak

signal B

Bs

(As + Bs) * Ak integrator output comparator output

A s + Bs

data B

Bd
As + B s

A s + Bs wrong key K Bk (As + Bs) *K (As + Bs) * Bk integrator output comparator output integrator output

comparator output

(0)

(0)

Approach Idea

SDMA
segment space into cells/sectors

TDMA
segment sending time into disjoint time-slots, demand driven or fixed patterns all terminals are active for short periods of time on the same frequency synchronization in the time domain

FDMA
segment the frequency band into disjoint sub-bands

CDMA
spread the spectrum using orthogonal codes

Terminals

only one terminal can be active in one cell/one sector cell structure, directed antennas

every terminal has its own frequency, uninterrupted filtering in the frequency domain simple, established, robust inflexible, frequencies are a scarce resource

collision sender A sender B 1 0 0 1 1 1 narrow band

Signal separation

all terminals can be active at the same place at the same moment, uninterrupted code plus special receivers flexible, less frequency planning needed, soft handover complex receivers, needs more complicated power control for senders

Advantages very simple, increases established, fully

capacity per km inflexible, antennas Disadvantages typically fixed digital, flexible guard space needed (multipath propagation), synchronization difficult standard in fixed networks, together with FDMA/SDMA used in many mobile networks

send for a shorter period with higher power spread the signal e.g. using the chipping sequence 110101 (CDMA without CD) t Problem: find a chipping sequence with good characteristics

Comment

only in combination with TDMA, FDMA or CDMA useful

typically combined with TDMA (frequency hopping patterns) and SDMA (frequency reuse)

still faces some problems, higher complexity, lowered expectations; will be integrated with TDMA/FDMA