Digital Signal Processing (L.

Notes :710-01)
Prof M S Prasad
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Analog, Discrete, and digital signals:

An analog signal is represented as a continuous function of time, and at any point in time it has a continuous values. A discrete-time signal is represented only at discrete time instants, but at those time instances can have a continuous values. A digital signal is a discrete-time signal which is quantized to specic (discrete) levels Analog signals are typically processed only by physical systems (hardware), while digital signals can be processed by hardware or software systems. Real and complex signals: Complex representation of signals and systems is a useful mathematical abstraction which can help to simplify the analysis of signals and systems. This kind of representation is particularly useful for nding or analyzing information pertaining to delays (timing) and phase relationships. For example, suppose that there is an AC circuit with a voltage source, v(t) = sin(xt) Volts, connected to a series combination of a resistor( R ohms) and a capacitance ( c farads).This impedance is given by Z = R - j/RC .The advantage of using this kind of complex representation is that the phase relationships between the current and the voltage in the circuit can be easily obtained and It is easy to show that the current leads the voltage by an angle of tan -1 | imag(z) / Real ( z) = [1/( RC)]. 3. Periodic and non-periodic signals: A periodic time signal repeats its value after the time instant which is known as Period. For example, the signal x(t) = cos(2fo t) and sin(2 fo t) is periodic with a period To = 1/fo (corresponding to the inverse of the lowest frequency present in the signal). The signal,

x(t) = e t , on the other hand, is non-periodic.

4. Deterministic and random signals: A deterministic signal is a time function

with a known and perfectly predictable structure. For example, x(t) = sin(xt) is deterministicits exact value is known at any point in time.
A random signal cannot be perfectly predicted. One can only estimate (or guess) its value based on its statistical properties. For example, the thermal noise, n(t), that occurs naturally in many electrical devices is a random signal, as it cannot be predicted exactly. This kind of unpredictability often presents a practical design and analysis challenge for engineers. 5. Single-channel and multi-channel signals: single channel signals are associated with a single source, whereas multi-channel signals are associated with multiple sources. For example, a black- and-white TV picture is a single- channel signal, whereas a color TV picture is a threechannel signal. 6. Power and energy signals: Power is dened as the time average of energy. A power signal is a signal with nite power over the time interval (-t, t),

Continuous Signal
Any physical quantity that is represented as a function of an independent variable is called a signal. Primarily Signal is a function and the Independent variable can be time, frequency, space, etc.

A Sinusoids ( e.g A Sin ) plays a very important role in signal processing, because They are easy to generate . And Periodic in nature. They are easy to work with their mathematical properties are well known. Most importantly: All signals can be represented as a sum of sinusoids

A continuous Sinusoids signal representation :-

The Signals could be a complex signal also as shown below :-

Rectangular Function / Signal ( Pulse signal commonly referred as ) f(t) = 1 < t < 0 other wise

Consider compressing the rectangular function in such a way that the area under the rectangle stays constant, as 1. The function you would obtain as the width of the rectangle approaches zero, is called the unit impulse function it is a commonly used test signal.Since the area under the rectangle was kept constant, the impulse function has the following properties :-

t>0 t< 0

Some Important Properties of Impulse function .

Discrete Time Signals A discrete-time signal, commonly referred to as a sequence, is only defined at discrete time instances, where t is defined to take integer values only. Discrete Time signals is generally written as a sequence of numbers inside braces: X[n] = [ 1,2,5,4,] ,n indicates discrete time, in integer intervals, the bold-face denotes time t=0. Discrete time signals are often generated from continuous time signals by sampling which can roughly be interpreted as quantizing the independent variable time.

Digital signal Processing Mathematical and algorithmic manipulation of discretized and quantized or naturally digital signals in order to extract the most relevant and pertinent information that is carried by the signal. Signals can be characterized in several ways: Continuous time signals vs. discrete time signals Continuous time and continuous valued : Analog signal Discrete time and continuous valued: Sampled signal which after quantification is known as Discrete time and discrete values: Digital signal Real valued signals vs. complex valued signals Scalar signals vs. vector valued (multichannel) signals e.g Blood pressure signal 128 channel EEG Deterministic vs. random signal: One-dimensional vs. two dimensional vs. multidimensional signals

DAC
Processed sig What is Signal processing? The processing of Digital signal depends on the application, some of them are as under :-

Communication Modulation and demodulation Signal security Encryption and decryption Multiplexing and demultiplexing Data Compression Signal de noising Filtering for noise reduction Speaker / system identification Audio processing signal enhancement equalization Image processing image de noising, enhancement, watermarking, reconstruction

Data analysis and feature extraction Frequency / spectral analysis Signal generation TOUCH-TONE Dialing

Why DSP? We digitally process the signals in discrete domain, because it is More flexible , more accurate, easier to mass produce Easier to design System characteristics can easily be changed by programming

 Any level of accuracy can be obtained by use of appropriate number of bits. More deterministic and reproducible less sensitive to component values, etc. Many things that cannot be done using analog processors can be done digitally. Allows multiplexing, time sharing, multichannel processing, adaptive filtering Easy to cascade, no loading effects, signals can be stored indefinitely w/o loss Allows processing of very low frequency signals, which requires unpractical component values in analog world Discrete Signals The Unit Step Sequence: The unit step sequence u[n] is defined as : U[ n] = {1 for n >eq 0

{ 0 for n < 0 which is shown in Fig.1.a below . Note that the value of u[n] at n = 0 is defined [unlike the continuous-time step function u(t) at t = 0] and equals unity. Similarly, the shifted unit step sequence U[n - k] is defined as shown in fig 1.b

The Unit Impulse Sequence: The unit impulse (or unit sample) sequence [n] is defined as [n] = { 1 for n = 0 and 0 for n not equal 0 This is analogus to Dirac Delta function.

We can write [n] = U[n] U[ n-1] where U [ n] is a step function . also this implies U[n] = X[n] = ( ) [ ] [ ]

The shifting property has one important consequence that is we can always generate a digital sequence with impulse function such as : -

Note : Important Properties of Discrete Signals ?????? Property 1 - Consider x[n]=e j1n and y*n+= ej2n with 0<1< and 2k2 2(k+1), where k is any positive integer. If 2= 1+ 2k, then x*n+ = y*n+ ,Thus, x[n] and y[n] are indistinguishable. Two periodic discrete exponential sequences are indistinguishable, if their angular frequencies are 2k apart from each other !!! Property 2: The frequency of oscillation of A cos(0n) increases as 0 increases from 0 to , and then decreases as 0 increases from to 2 Thus, frequencies in the neighborhood of = 0 or 2k are called low frequencies, whereas, frequencies in the neighborhood of = or (2k+1) are called high frequencies. Note that, the frequencies around = 0 and = 2 are both low frequencies. In fact, = 0 and = 2 are both identical frequencies Due to these two properties a frequency in the neighborhood of = 2 is indistinguishable from a frequency in the neighborhood of = 22k. ( See Note at the end ) Discrete Sequence characteristics Even & Odd sequence A discrete sequence is called Symmetric if, x[n] = x[-n] and Conjugate-symmetric if x[n]=x*[n], If x[n] is real, then symmetric and conjugate-symmetric are the same, and the signal is also referred to as an even sequence.

A sequence is Conjugate-anti symmetric if x[n]=-x*[-n] If x[n] is real, the signal is called simply as anti symmetric or odd sequence.

Even

Odd Sequence

Any real sequence can be expressed as a sum of its even part and its odd part: Where as any complex sequence can be expressed as a sum of its conjugate-symmetric part and its conjugate-anti symmetric part

Causal and Non causal Systems: A system is called causal if its output y(t) at an arbitrary time t = t,, depends on only the input x(t) for t < 0. That is, the output of a causal system at the present time depends on only the present and/or past values of the input, not on its future values. Thus, in a causal system, it is not possible to obtain an output before an input is applied to the system. A system is called non causal if it is not causal. Examples of non causal systems are y (t) = x( t+1) or Y[n] = x[-n].

exponential Signals (Complex Signals ) We can represent a Sinusoids in terms of complex exponentials using Euler theorem i.e

This form of sinusoids representation is better for many manipulations of signals such as :a. Differentiation and Integration which is nothing but simply :-

b. Time shift becomes

Note the most important thing to note is the sinusoids in exponential for m has clearly two frequencies ( one positive and negative of same amplitude .

This one way to understand Aliasing or Dual side band in communication or Fourier transforms. Similarity In continuous & Digital signals Is there a one-to-one correspondence between each complex exponential signal x(t) or x[n] and its frequency representation? This is important because if this is true, then there if, no ambiguity in going from the time domain to the frequency domain. Another way of posing this question is : whether we can find two sinusoids that have different frequencies and yet be identical in time? In continuous time the answer to this question is yes: There is a one-to-one correspondence between complex exponentials in time and their frequency representation. Any two complex exponentials Xt(t) = ej2F1t and X2(t) = e j2F2t with different frequencies FI and F2 are two different signals in the time domain. In discrete time, it is no so. The two sequences x1[n] = ejw1n and x2[n) =ejw2n with w1 =w2 + k 2, and k being any integer. are indistinguishable in the time domain. In fact, when this is the case, we can write :-

Since both k and n are integers hence e

jk2n

= 1.

Acknowledgements This lecture note has been prepared from a large number of wonderful books on Digital Signal Processing and some notes of Prof available on Google search. The respective materials are copy right of all those authors. It is only for class room teaching and aid to students , who can refer so many books and ref..