UD 6-81-5 E

A Guide to Cold Weather Operations

Booklet 5

Movement

HEADQUAKTERS DEFENCE COMMAND NORWAY THE ARMY STAFF 1989

UD 6-81-5 E (English edition) A Guide to Cold Weather Operations - booklet 5 Movement has been issued for use by the allied wintercourses and foreign units exercising under Norwegian Command.
Oslo December 1987.

D. Danielsen Major General Inspector General of the Norwegian Army

A. Pran Brigader Inspector of Infantry

UD 6-81 E A GUIDE TO COLD WEATHER OPERATIONS includes: UD6-81- l E UD6-81- 2 E UD6-81- 3 E UD6-81- 4 E UD6-81- 5 E UD6-81- 6 E UD6-81- 7 E UD6-81- 8 E UD6-81- 9 E UD6-8HOE

(Booklet (Booklet (Booklet (Booklet (Booklet (Booklet {Booklet {Booklet (Booklet (Booklet

D 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10)

Winter Conditions Personal Clothing Food Frostbite and Other Injuries Movement Bivouacs Cold Weather Equipment Field Works and Camouflage Snow, Avalanches and Rescue Weapon effects

CONTENTS

Para Page Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l 6

Sluing General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Skiing techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Special techniques of advancing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Improvised ski sled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ski bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Snowshoes General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Movement on snowshoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8 9 11 17 20 21 22 23 26

7 7 7 9 9 10 11 11 11 12 12 12 13 15

Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The pulk General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The pulk trail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Route selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pulling the pulk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Oversnow vehicles

27 28 29 31 The large pulk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 The BV (oversnow vehicle) route . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Skijoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

The snowmobile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wheeled vehicles General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transportation of personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

16 16 16
19

Skijoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Snow clearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

45 46 47 48
49

20 20 20 20
21

Helicopters General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Landing site (LS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Skis and pulks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

50 51 52 53

21 21 21 21

Para Page Danger areas General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 22 Water on ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 22 Avalanche areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 23 Movement on ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 23
Unit marches

General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Route reconnaissance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The trail breaking party . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Route selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Preparations for the march . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . March formations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Measures to be tken during the march . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Halts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Land navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F1GURES

58 58 61 62 65 66 68 69 72 76

25 25 25 25 26 27 28 28 28 29

Figure

l. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
8.

9. 10. 11. 12.

13.

14. 15. 16. 17.

Page Moving "bear-fashion" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Skis made ready for sliding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Improvised ski sled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Ski bundle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Pulk trall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Pulling the pulk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Pulling the pulk uphill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Braking downhill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Skijoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Hitching up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Crossing a lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Surface water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Lifesaving on ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 The trail breaking patrol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Concealing the trail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 The compass patrol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Compass march . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

INTRODUCTION

1. The purpose of this booklet is to consider the cold weather conditions that influence movement on foot, on skis or snowshoes, in wheeled and tracked vehicles, or in a helicopter.

2. Movement in cold weather is of ten tactically and technically difficult. The following factors influence movement: -snow -cold - light conditons - weather - standard of training

3. The snow reduces the mobility of wheeled vehicles and personnel on foot. But it increases the mobility of units when they are equipped with oversnow vehicles, and skis or snowshoes. When there is a lot of snow on the ground the road
network is altered, because some roads cannot be kept open under such conditions. On the other hand it is relatively simple to make new roads in the snow. To move undetected will be difficult; every movement in snow leaves a trail, and it takes a lot of work to conceal it. The choice of routes is therefore very important. The map must be consulted when selecting the route; but remember, it is only after a first hand look at the terrain that you can select the best

route. When selecting the route due consideration must be given to the tactical situation, topography, vegetation, snow conditions, unit proficiency, and time available.
4. Cold can cause great problems; the personnel are in danger of frostbite; the vehicles are difficult to start; the diesel oil nearly freezes; battery life is reduced. On the other hand, f rozen ground and ice on water increase the mobility of vehicles and personnel.

5. The period of daylight is short in wintertime. The further north you go, the darker it becomes. Therefore it is often necessary to move in darkness.
6. The weather is more changeable in the winter, with considerable changes in temperature over short periods of time. The wind and the cold together can make movement impossible.

7. When choosing between skis or snowshoes, the deciding factors are; the snow conditions, the length of the march, the tactical situation, and the proficiency standard of the troops.

SKIING

General 8. With l metre of snow on the ground, under conditions that are otherwise good, a skier can move at least 3 kilometres in l hour. On foot, under the same conditions, he can perhaps move 500 metres. It takes a lot of practice to make good skiers and good ski units, that can move in darkness and daylight, in deep loose snow, uphill and downhill, between trees and across open fields, with sleds and packs, often under enemy threat. If a unit is to move a considerable distance, in easy terrain, where skijoring is possible, and contact with the enemy improbable, skis rather than snowshoes might be preferred. For far-ranging patrols in easy terrain and on supply routes, skis are better than snowshoes. The soldier's proficiency at skiing is all-important when choosing
the equipment.

Skiing techniques 9. It takes a lot of training to make good skiiers - training for technique, strength and stamina. It mkes no difference for technique whether civilian or military skis are used. Also, cross-country, uphill and downhill skiing require the same techniques.
10. The ski unit must often move outside prepared trails, and such movement requires training. To maintain unit formation is also difficult, and training is necessary.

Special techniques of advancing 11. The state of preparedness is always decisive when choosing the method of movement and the carrying of arms. In section 12 to 15 are described some techniques when approaching enemy forces.

12. Advancing in a crouching form ("bear-fashion"). This is a technique used in deep and loose snow, and uphill. The soldier walks between the skis, supporting his hands on them, gripping the toe-bindings. The poles are carried on the skis, by inserting them through the binding straps from the front. The rifle is slung under the chest, or around the neck.

Figure l Moving "bear-fashion "

13. Advancing by creeping

a. In deep loose snow, and up hill, it is best to creep with the skis. The soldier creeps between the skis, supporting his hands or lower arms on them. The poles are carried through the bindings, inserted from the front (the disc might be over the ski tips), or in some other suitable manner. b. On a hard surface (crusted snow) it may be better to creep and haul the skis behind on a 5 m long rope.

14. Sliding is best on frozen, crusted snow, on flat ground, and downhill. Skis, poles and pack are made into a sled. Or the skis and the poles only are made into a sled. The soldier lies down on the skis, pushing himself forward with arms and legs, Downhill he steers with the legs. Sliding requires little effort, and the skier mkes a small target for enemy fire. Down steep slopes it is often best to sit on the skis. Even poor skiiers can in this manner move quickly down a slope, with little effort, and in good order. For braking the legs are used, for steering both legs and poles. The weapon may be placed on the skis or kept slung

on the body.

Figure 2 2-skis made ready for sliding

15. Rusking with theskis on. This technique is necessary when the enemy has pinned you down, and you are going to use the skies for further movement. Leaping from cover and taking cover normally takes longer with the skies on than on foot. But in deep snow the movement itself is faster with the skis on. On even ground the leap from cover is quickest when the ski tips are kept to the right. Under certain conditions, on crusted snow and uphill, the scissors position may be equally good. Downhill it might be a good idea to utilize the speed and move in one bound all the way to the bottom of the slope.
16. Braking. On downhill slopes where the speed might get too high, ride on the poles in order to brake. Put the poles between the legs and sit on them. The harder the poles are pressed against the body, the deeper the tips dig into the snow, increasing the braking effect. To get to the bottom of a hill in orderly formation, the troops in a unit sit on the poles at the same time as they stem (form the skis into a V position). This reduces the speed quite considerably.
Maintenance 17. The skis must receive the necessary care and maintenance, in the field and in camp. In bivouac the skis must not be exposed to snow, to avoid icing. Brush the snow off the skis after use.

18. Straps and bindings that are wet ought to be dried out during rest periods of some duration, to keep them from freezing. Otherwise it is impossible to use thern again before they have been thawed out,
19. It is important to wax the skis. The officer in charge decides on which kind of wax is to be used, to ensure that the skis in a unit are equaliy good. Be sure that a complete set of wax is brought along into the field.

The improvised ski-sied 20. An improvised ski-sled can be made with 2 pairs of skis, two 5 m ropes and two sticks about 50 cm long, and 4-5 cm in diameter. For pulling the sled a 5 m rope can be used. Figure 3 shows how a ski-sled is made. If the sled is to be used for hauling over a considerable distance, the sticks ought to have notenes made in them, for fitting them snugly over the indiviual skis. This mkes it easier to avoid dislocation of the sticks. If the sled is to be used downhill, there is usually need for a helper to do the braking. He can use a 5 m rope fastened to the sled.

10

Figure 3 Improvised ski-sled

Ski bundles 21, If the troops are to advance on foot, they can lea ve the skis behind and collect them later. Each man can pull or carry his own skis, or ski bundles can be made. One bundle per section/squad is suitable. A. man from each section can pull the skis forward.

Figure 4 A ski-bundle

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SNOWSHOES
General

22. In most conditions, snowshoes have proved to be more suitable than skis for movement of individuals and units in wintertime. The reasons are several, among them the following: a. It takes very little training to make good use of snowshoes. b. A snowshoe-unit can move through the same areas where personnel move on foot in summertime. This means that a snowshoe-unit can move through terrain where ski-units cannot move, in dense forest, gullies and other difficult terrain, ie. over ground that gives the unit concealment and cover. c. The unit stays together during the movement. Formation and tactics remain the same as in summer conditions. d. The equipment does not require waxing. e. The more difficult the terrain, the faster a snowshoe-unit will move, in comparison with a ski unit.
Movement on snowshoes 23. Walking on snowshoes is about the same as walking on foot, Therefore, when selecting the route, primary consideration can be given to concealment, cover and tactical advantages.

24. It might be a good idea to use poles, at least when pulling a sled, or when engaged in trail breaking. Also, the poles are required when using the familiar wintertime firing positions.
25. If a unit is to change from skis to snowshoes, it is often necessary to have a rear unit collect the skis (battalion logistic area). To facilitate the collection each section/squad ought to have the pairs of skis bundled up and marked.
Maintenance 26. Snowshoes require little upkeep in the fteld.

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THE PULK
General 27. When raoving in winter, the carrying capacity of a unit can be considerably increased by the use of pulks. A pulk is normally used for the transport of ammunition and equipment; but it may also be used as a weapon carrier, and for casualty evacuation. It is hard work to pull a pulk. Thorough preparation is therefore important. The physical condition of the men has to be good, and close attention should be paid to the loading of the pulk, and to maintenance.
The pulk trail 28. To ease the pulling of the pulk a trail for it ought to be broken in the following manner. Soldier No 2 in the file ought to walk with his left or right ski outside the trail made by the soldier in front, to make a triple trail. Of the soldiers following behind, every other man will move with one ski to the right of the trail made by the point man, and every other man will move with a ski to the left (Figure 5), The men pulling the pulk ought to be as far back in the unit as possible. If snowshoes are used, the width of the trail ought to be 2-3 snowshoe widths. It is a good idea to let the trail breakers go without their packs. This improves the pace of the unit.

Figure 5 Pulk trail

Route selection 29. For personnel on skis it is technically difficult to pull a pulk. The selection of route is important. The distance from the rear end of the pulk to the men pulling it is such that moving through dense forest or brush takes a lot of time and effort. The tactical situation is, however, the most important factor to be considered when selecting the route.

13

30. Try to keep at the same altitude; uphill and downhill movement requires a lot of effort. If the route has to go uphill, make the ascent in gentle traverses.
Pulling the pulk

31. Figures 6-8 show how a pulk can be moved through various types of terrain. On even ground the rope to the assistant puller ought to be tight. The pulling ought to be at an easy and even tempo; jerky movements ought to be avoided.

Figure 6 Pulling the pulk Notice how the soldier in the rear pushes the pulk with his pole from behind;
{figure 7} this is of great help for the men pulling. On long downhill slopes the assistant puller ought to be disengaged, and hitched up again when the bottom

has been reached. The soldier behind the pulk takes the rear braking rope and helps with the braking. If the slope is very steep and long, and the skiing conditions good, the forward braking rope ought also to be used. Remember that the tarpaulin cover is to fit snugly to prevent the snow from getting into the pulk.

14

Figure 7 Pulling the pulk uphill

15

Figure 8 Braking downhill

The larg pulk

32. The pulks are so constructed that a number of them can be joined together and pulled behind an oversnow vehicle. The towing device must be in place on the vehicle before pulks can be pulled. The BV206 can pull about 2,5 tons, the BV202 somewhat less. The pulk has a cargo capacity of 250 kilos. Experience shows, however, that in difficult terrain no more than 4 pulks ought to be hitched up behind the tracked vehicle, 2 in each track. It is very difficuit to back the vehicle with more pulks than that. Where the terrain is open and fairly even, and on roads, the number of pulks may be increased.

OVERSNOW VEHICLES
General 33. Snow and ice increase the mobility of the oversnow vehicle outside roads. The snow covers rocks, screes and various uneven features, making them easy to get across. The mobility of the oversnow vehicle can be further increased if roads are made in the snow through particularly difficult terrain. The BV (oversnow vehicle) route 34. Before moving out, the route for the oversnow vehicles ought to be reconnoitred and, if necessary, prepared. If this is not possible, an experienced man ought to be in charge of the BV transport through the terrain. On difficult terrain a man ought to walk in front of the vehicles and direct it to the best and safest route, to avoid ground where it might overturn, or break down in some other way. Sloping ground ought to be kept clear of, to avoid turning over. Deep snow reduces the mobility, especially uphill. Remember that snowdrifts tend to form in depressions in the ground while crests are relatively bare.
35. In some years a lot of snow falls before the marshes freeze over. The snow provides good insulation, keeping the marshes below wet throughout the winter. Wet mud that sticks to the stearing gear or tracks, freezes solid in a few minutes in cold weather, and will ruin the vehicle if driving is continued. The mud must therefore be removed at once. The best thing is to drive around such marshes.

36. In some places there is a layer of ice on the ground. It is impossible to get up an ice-covered slope. Find another route instead. Driving downhill in such places is dangerous. The tracks lose their grip on the surface, the braking doesn't work, and the vehicle skids out of control.
Skijoring 37. If the conditions for it are good, towing of personnel by an oversnow vehicle will facilitate the movement of units on skis. In dense forest and on steep downhill slopes ski joring is not to be recommended.

38. Up to 20 men can be pulled by an oversnow vehicle, 10 men on each rope. The ropes are fastened to the tow-hook, passed through the padeyes mounted above the track, and thence stretched out behind. The soldiers hitch on to the rope with their poles, from the vehicie rearwards, in such a manner that they stand on the outside of the ropes. One pole ought to be inserted in the other. Keep the disc against the body as shown to facilitate the pulling. It saves you from gripping the rope and the poles too hard.

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1 1/2 ski

Figure 9 Skijoring

18

39. Remember that the personnel on the rope are standing still. The wind created when driving increases the chill factor. If the skijoring is to last for any length of time, therefore, the personnel must have on proper clothing. The rucksacks ought to be loaded onto the vehicle, if possible.
40. A soldier is to sit in the rear cab to oversee the skijoring. If the vehicle has to stop because a soldier has fallen off the rope, or for any other reason, the soldier in the rear is to use the buzzer to signal the driver to stop. The signals used are as follows; one long buzz for stop, two short buzzes for drive.

Figure 10 Hitching up
41. Some advice to the soldiers skijoring - when starting up, take a few steps to get a gliding start, then let the rope pull you forward - on a dowhill slope of any length, everyone ought to unhitch, and then hitch up again when the bottom of the slope has been reached - use the stemming technique to brake on easy downhill slopes - avoid running into the man ahead, try to keep the rope tight at all times - if you should fall, let go the rope and the poles and throw yourself out of the track to avoid being run into from behind - it can be very cold to stand still during the joring. Move your toes, your feet and your body as best you can. In that way you can keep warm better than if you stand stock still - to fellow in the track when the BV turns, the personnel must press or pull the rope outwards.

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THE SNOWMOBILE 42. The snowmobile is a fast and effective vehicle for use outside roads in wintertime. It is well suited for reconnaissance, intelligence gathering and small security tasks. Normally only one person rides on the snowmobile, but it can seat two persons fairly comfortably, Personnel can also be pulled behind the snowmobile. A pulk can be pulled by hitching it up to the snowmobile's tow-hook.
43. For planning purposes, the carrying capacity is; - up to two men on the snowmobile - 250 kilos on pulk - up to 4 men on a rope

44. The snowmobile mkes such a lot of noise that it can be heard over a considerable distance, That is a drawback with this type of vehicle.

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WHEELED VEHICLES
General 45. The snow reduces the mobility of all kinds of wheeled vehicles, but 30 centimetres or less of snow on the groimd is no great hindrance. If there is more than

30 centimetres of snow, the roads that have been cleared will tend to canalize traffic. This basic rule varies, however, with such local conditions as the consistency of the snow and the nature of the ground.
Transportation of personnel 46. When personnel are carried for periods of considerable length in trucks or other unheated vehicles, the danger of frostbite and hypothermia is great. In order to avoid such injury the personnel must wear the proper clothing. If necessary the sleeping bag and sleeping mat are to be used. Also the equipment skis, snowshoes, packs and pulk - ought to be on the same vehicle as the sol diers that are to use them. The skis should be made up by the pair for the trip. Frequent stops ought to be made to let the personnel exercise themselves warm. It is also a good idea to serve hot drinks. Set up a soup station along the way, or take along hot drink in containere,
Skijoring 47. Skijoring behind wheeled vehicles on roads is possible, but it is fraught with danger. The person in charge of such movement must remember the following: - speed; it is easy to commit the mistake of driving too fast. If men fall they receive serious injuries. Frostbite also occurs more frequently. - oncoming traffic; the personnel on the rope can slide over to the opposite lne and crash into an oncoming vehicle - warning; a soldier is to sit in the rear of the vehicle to oversee the personnel on the rope. He should be able to notify the driver to stop at once. Chains 48. When driving on ice or hard-packed snow the vehicle must be fitted with chains. Also, outside the roads or in loose snow, etc., chains are normally needed to move the vehicle.

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SNOW CLEARING
49. In addition to other wintertime field works, routes and areas have to be cleared of snow as follows; - axes of advance and snow-covered roads - unit locations - train areas - kitchen and base areas Such work takes a long time. The amount of snow, the vegetation and the nature of the ground ought to be reconnoitred and a snow clearing plan made out. Before moving to a new area the proper roads must be cleared. Otherwise vehicles get stuck on the road, causing traffic jams. Moreover, such vehicles are easy targets for enemy aircraft. A good snow clearing plan is an absolute prerequisite when the commanding officer mkes out the operational plan. HELICOPTERS
General

50. The use of helicopters in wintertime does not change the rules otherwise in effect. Various civilian helicopters will at mobilization or outbreak of war be requisitioned by the Armed Forces. To plan their use, the personnel ought to become familier with their characteristics at an early stage.
Landing Site (LS) 51. Some helicopters - mainly civilian, but also some Allied machines - are not fitted with skis. These helicopters will, on landing, sink deep into the snow and perhaps be damaged by stones or stumps. The snow at the LS should therefore be packed hard by men stamping feet, skis, snowshoes, or by tracked vehicle.

Skis and pulks 52. Skis and pulks can be tken on board the helicopter, and on some models they can be fastened to the outside of the fuselage. The skis ought to be made up by the pair before transportation by helicopter, and the pairs ought to be bundled by the section/squad. Two men are responsible for loading and unloading the skis.
Safety 53. The snow whirled up by the rotor wash mkes it difficult to see for the pilot and the personnel on the ground. The soldier marking the LS ought therefore to remain in position until the helicopter has landed. The personnel that are to embark must see the aircraft properly before moving. On debarking it is important that the personnel get out quickly, lie down and remain lying down until the aircraft has lifted off and flown out of the area.

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DANGER AREAS

General 54. UD 2-1 (Safety Regulationsfor the Army) gives a detailed description of the rules to be observed when crossing rivers or lakes in wintertime. Follow the rules! The safety of personnel and matriel must be decisive when selecting the route, or when passing through danger areas.

Figure U
Crossing a lake

Water on ice 55. Be aware of the danger of water on ice (surface water), which can be found all winter long, also on lakes in high altitudes, See Figure 12.

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Snow

Thin layer of ice Surface water Water

Figure 12 Surface water

Surface water is normally found close to shore, especially in the vicinity of heights or mountain tops. Once a vehicle has gone into the water, it is hard work to get it out again - wet, time consuming, and cold. But don't delay. The combination of water, coid and metal mkes it worse if you do.
Avalanche areas 56. When passing through an avalanche area, the interval in the column ought to be increased so that only one person is in the danger area at the time. In war this rule may have to be waived, but in peacetime it is an absolute requirement. Behaviour in avalanche areas is described in Booklet 9. Movement on ice 57. If personnel should go through the ice they may be helped as shown in Figure 13. It might be a good idea to take along the bayonet when crossing a lake or river with rotten ice. It is very handy when it comes to getting out of the water and back onto the ice. The bayonet may be fastened to the body by rope.

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Figure 13 Lifesaving on ice

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UNIT MARCHES General 58. Marching in cold weather conditions is very strenuous. It takes greater physical and psychological stamina in the individual to cope with the snow and the cold, than with summer conditions. In cold weather conditions small details can be entirely decisive for maintaining combat effectiveness. This requires good planning and preparation. Ignorance, inexperience and poor preparation may have dangerous consequences. Paragraphs 59-78 are mainly devoted to unit marches on skis or snowshoes.
Planning

59. When planning movement in wintertime, the following conditions must be considered: - existing tracks that can be used - unit proficiency - ground conditions - ice conditions - snow conditions - timing - bottlenecks, especially for vehicles - roads that are cleared / not cleared - weather forecast 60. For planning purposes it is normal to use the pace of 3 km per hour for ski and snowshoe units. Add one hour for each 300 meters of climbing or 800 meters of descent. Route reconnaissance 61. The tactical situation and the type of unit to be moved decide whether reconnaissance is necessary. The purpose of the reconaissance is to gather information about snow, ice, topography, frozen ground, danger areas, the need for snow clearing etc., to give the CO the essentials he needs for planning the movement. Experienced officers or NCOs ought to carry out the reconnaissance. They can move on foot, on skis or snowshoes, or by vehicle, helicopter or plane. Contacts among the civilian population can provide much information.
The trail breaking party 62. If the tactical situation permits, a force ought to be sent out in good time to prepare the route. Its tasks may be to mark trails, to break pulk trails, clear forest where it is necessary, and construct or improve routes for oversnow vehicles. In wintertime there may be so many trails in a given area that they may need to be marked.

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Figure 14 The trail breaking party

The trail breaking party must be organized and equipped as necessary. Normally it will be a section/squad, or a platoon. If time is short, the tasks of route reconnaissance and trail breaking can be combined. 63. It is very strenuous to move in front of the unit, breaking the trail. The two lead soldiers ought to be relieved frequently. The two men move aside, let number 3 and 4 take their places, and then move to the rear of the line. 64. If the party is larger than a section/squad, then the lead squad ought to be relieved frequently. The squad stops, steps aside, the second squad in the formation takes over at the front, and the relieved squad falls in at the rear of the unit. The leader of the trail breaking party ought to be at point to guide the advance and to see that the best route is chosen.
Route selection 65. The route chosen must be suitable for the unit that is to move over it. The trail should run along places where it is least likely to be detected by the enemy, from the ground or from the air. Ski units ought to move around large obstacles such as dense brush, tree-felling areas and steep slopes. Through open terrain

the trail ought to run along fences, hedges, or in shaded areas.

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Figure 15
Concealing the trail

If the trail has to run up or down a hill or steep slope, use gentle traverses to ascend ordescend. Avalanche prone areas ought to be avoided. Sharp turns are difficult, especially for personnel pulling a sled. When crossing lakes or rivers it must be remembered that the ice can be very trim in places, especially where rivers issue into and out of lakes, and along the shores. In darkness even small obstables are difficult to pass; the trail broken for night marching must therefore be better prepared than one broken for a day march.
Preparations for the march

66. Be sure that the normal field routines are followed, both by the individual soldiers and the units. The following factors may be mentioned: replenishment of supplies; control and maintenance of matriel and equipment; eating; hot food; sleeping; rest and personal hygiene; waxing of skis and pulks. 67. At the same time there should be planning, orders groups, reconnaissance, and work on trails and routes.

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March formations 68. The usual tactical formations are used. For a unit moving on skis the intervals will often be greater than for a unit on snowshoes. On contact with the enemy, a ski unit takes longer to react than a snowshoe unit, almost twice as long. When contact with the enemy is probable, a platoon or a company ought not to be in single file, but in a formation that keeps the larger part of the main body together.
Measures to be tken during the march 69. In cold weather the personnel will often start out wearing plenty of clothing. After 10 to 15 minutes, stop the march, remove clothing and other outfit as necessary. It is important to avoid perspiration.

70. On steep and long downhill slopes it is important that each man keeps his place in the formation; passing is prohibited. If there is a danger that the speed may become too great, or if the slope is too difficult, the skis ought to be tken off and carried. The unit then descends on foot.

71. If a soldier has to stop, perhaps because of problems with his bindings, he ought to step out of the trail, put his bindings right, and take his place in the formation again as soon as possible.
Halts 72. Halts must be tken as the tactical situation permits. The weather and skiing conditions, the physical condition of the unit, and the availability of a suitable place, are also important when deciding on a halt.

73. A unit skijoring should make a halt of 5-10 minutes to let the personnel warm up by walking or running. A unit marching mkes a halt to rest and for the off icer in charge to inspect his troops. The halt must not be so long that the personnel begin to freeze. Short and frequent halts are better than long and infrequent ones. 74. A long halt of about one hour is tken to let the personnel eat and make themselves some warm drink. In wintertime it is a good idea to set up a tent where the personnel can take shelter. A snow wall can also be useful. A thing to be avoided in cold and windy weather is to let the personnel sit on the pack for an hour and eat cold food. Even if it takes 5 minutes to pitch the tent, and 5 more minutes to strike it, there still remain 50 minutes during which the personnel can be comfortable within the shelter of the tent. If the halt is to be of longer duration, the personnel must put on warm clothing as necessary.

29 75. It is important to avoid perspiration on the march. On the other hand, the clothing must be sufficient to keep personnel from freezing to death if pinned down for a considerable period of time. Therefore, in certain tactical situations, it is a good idea to have the jersey on while moving, and adjust the clothing with the quilted trouser liner, which is quick to take on and off.
Land Navigation 76. Navigation in wintertime is of ten more difficult than in summer. Many terrain

features that are used for navigation in summertime, vanish under the snow in winter. Therefore, the map reader must be very attentive during the march, and good at picking out points for each leg of the march. Measuring distance can be very difficult for a ski unit. On a good crust the speed of the unit is much greater than in deep, loose snow, and the time it takes to cover a given distance is consequently less.
77. if a unit is to move in fog, or during a heavy snowfall, or on the high plateaus where there are few distinguishing features, or none at all, the unit must deploy a compass patrol to lead the way to the destination. The compass patrol may consist of: - leader, with map and compass - compass man, who is to see that the right course is followed. The compass man also assists in measuring distance - distance measuring man, with watch and means for measuring (cord) The patrol can be reinforcd by radio operators and trail breakers. Weather and visibility might make it necessary to proceed as follows.

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Figure 15 The compass patrol

The compass man and the distance measuring man are used as movable bearing points for the man in charge. The march proceeds slowly and surely. 78. In very poor visibility, the compass patrol works as follows.

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A i

i
1
1
1

> c:>
>

* i 0 P i
i l i l i

o
1

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i
I
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(51)

Phase 1 Pha se 2 Phase 3

Figure 17 Compass march

Phase I. The patro! at the starting point. The man in charge stands in the rear, reading the direction of the compass.

Phase 2. First bearing point moves forward until the leader orders him to halt. A ny deviation from the course is corrected by the command of "Right" or "Left".

Phase 3. First bearing point stands still, while second bearing point and leader move forward. New starting position as in Phase 1.

If the visibility is so poor that you have to proceed in this manner, the compass has to be reliable, and you have to be absolutely accurate in starting out on a
course.