Solar Photovoltaic Introduction

Do It Yourself (DIY) Instructions

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Introduction
Inthisguidewewillbetakingalookattheeverevolvingworldofsolar photovoltaics, or PV for short. In essence, we will be examining how we have learned to take the suns energy and convert that into electricity.Thesunhasanenormousamountofenergy,evidentbythe sunburnswehaveallputourselvesthrough.Humanshavelearnedto passively harness this energy for thousands of years, using the suns raystowarmtheirhomesordrytheirfoodandclothing.Notuntilthe latter part of the 19th century, however, did we discover how to convertthosepowerfulraysofsunlightintousableenergyintheform of direct current (DC) electricity. This important breakthrough will be discussed, with the various types of solar cells that have been developedandtheprosandconsofeach.Themaincomponentsofa solar electric system will be identified and discussed, and, finally, we willdiscussthestepstowardsconstructingyourownsolarPVpanelto harnessthesunsfullpotential. 4 Copyright 2009

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PVHistory
Therootsofphotovoltaicscanbetracedallthewaybackto1839when 19yearoldphysicistAlexandreEdmondBecquerelwasexperimenting withanelectrolyticcellmadeupoftwometalelectrodesandstumbled uponthephotovoltaicconcept.Fortyyearslater,in1873,Willoughby Smith discovered the photoconductivity of selenium and in 1883 Charles Fritts, an American inventor, describes the first solar cell derivedfromseleniumwafers. Even Nikola Tesla and Albert Einstein got into the concept of photovoltaicsintheearlyyears,withTeslareceivingaUSpatentforthe "method of utilizing, and apparatus for the utilization of, radiant energy"andEinsteinreceivingtheNobelprizefora1904paperonthe photoelectric effect. Then, in 1954 Bell Labs exhibits first highpower silicon PV cell. Based upon the momentum of the photovoltaic sciences, the New York Times forecasts that solar cells will eventually 5 Copyright 2009 GreenDIYenergy.com

leadtoasourceof"limitlessenergyofthesun".This,consideringthat the cells back then were only about 5.5% efficient compare that to the 20%+ efficient cells now! From there the commercial age of photovoltaics began and some of the names you hear now, including NASA,SiemensandSharpgotinvolvedandtherestishistory.

TheScienceofSolarandElectricity
Thesunsraysarecomprisedofmanytinyphotonsoflight.These photons,whiletechnicallymatterless,dopossessenergy.Theselittle ballsofenergymultipliedmanytimesoverstrikethesurfaceofthe solarpanelandcausethenecessarycommotiontoknocktheelectron freeinthesolarcell.Solarcellsaretypicallymadeupofhighgrade siliconasthesemiconductor,butdotoitschemistrythisaloneisnot sufficienttocreateanefficientsolarcell.However,ifadopingagentis introduced,commonlyboronandphosphorus,itcausesanunbalanced chemicalstructure,withasurplusofelectronsinthesiliconphosphorus 6 Copyright 2009

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layeronthefrontsurfaceofthecells.Thiscreatesanegativecharge andisreferredtoastheNlayer.Boronisoftenaddedtothebacklayer ofthecells,creatingasiliconboronmixturethathasapositivecharge andcaneasilyacceptextraelectrons,oftenreferredtoasthePlayer. Inbetweenthetwoisapositive/negativejunction,orP/Njunction. Thismiddlejunctionbetweentheothertwolayershasaneutralcharge andwillonlyallowtheflowofelectronsinonedirection;fromtheP layertotheNlayer.Inherently,electronsliketomovefromnegativeto positivecharges,andtheonlypathwayfortheelectronstoreturnto thePlayerfromtheNlayeristhroughtheconductor,whichoffers themverylittleresistanceandallowsthemtoflowoutofthesurfaceof thesolarcell.Itthenreturnstothesolarcellthroughthecompleted circuitintothePlayer.Bytakingthisflowofelectrons,orelectricity, andattachingaloadtoitscircuityoumaketheelectronsdoworkand haveusable,renewableenergy.

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Wheneachphotonhitsthecellitcarriesenoughenergyfromthesun withittoexciteoneelectroninthecellintothemovementthatcreates the electricity. That is where the importance of the sun comes in. Without an outside energy source, the circuit would not flow. However,whenthereisenoughsunlight,theelectronsfromthePlayer leave their unbalanced atom and leave holes behind, which are easily filledbynewelectronsintheNlayerreturningfromtheirworkinthe 8 Copyright 2009

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circuit. This process happens until the sun sets for the day and then theylayinwaitforanewday.Ablockingdiodeonthepositiveleadout of the panel prevents any current from flowing back into the cells at night and draining the batteries. When wired together the solar cells formasolarpanel.Whensolarpanelsarewiredtogethertheyforma solararray. Solar cells are typically comprised of one of three solid types: monocrystalline, polycrystalline and amorphous cells. While many differentmaterialsareusedtomakethesolarcells,themostcommon elementusedforthemonoandpolycrystallinecellsissilicon.Silicon, whilethesecondmostabundantelementontheEarthscrust,mustbe of the highest grade to be used in solar cell production. It must be cleanedofanyimpuritiesandsuperheatedtoformtheingotsthatare thenthinlycutintothecrystallinesolarcells.Amorphousorthinfilm cells are comprised of many different elements, commonly cadmium, tellurideorindium,amongothers.Thesecellsaretypicallyappliedtoa 9 Copyright 2009

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flexible substrate such as aluminum, certain plastics or even glass by evermoretechnicallyadvancedmethods. Of the three, monocrystalline cells are the most efficient, while polycrystalline cells are a close second. Amorphous cells, while considerably less efficient tend to cost only a fraction of what the crystalline cells do. The crystalline cells comprise the panels that are typically used in residential installation. Because they are so much moreefficientthattheamorphouscellsyoudonotneedasmuchroof or ground space to provide enough energy to offset a typical homes usage.However,duetoamorphouspanelslowcoststheytendtobe preferredformanycommercialapplications,sincespaceisnotanissue inmanycases. Solarcellsoutputpowerthatcanbemeasuredinvoltsandamps.To comparethisconcepttowater,thevoltageofadevicecanberelated tothepressureofthewater,whiletheamps(measuredinamps)can

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be compared to the amount of water flowing. This is an important concepttoremember. Whenyouknowboththevoltageandcurrent(oramps)ofasolarcell youcanmultiplythemtogethertofinditsratinginwatts.Completed solar panels are rated in watts, so its important to understand this formula.Knowingjusttwopartsoftheformula,youcanalsoderivethe third component. For example, understanding the basic formula V (volts)xA(amps)=W(watts)allowsustoderivetheampsfroma100 watt18voltpanel. VxA=WorW/V=A 100w/18v=5.55ampsthatthepanelwilldeliver

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The best way to measure this output from the cells is to use a multimeter and touch the positive and negative leads to the positive and negative conductors on the solar cell under full sun. Once you know the voltage and amperage of your solar cells you can begin to wirethemtogethertoformthesolarpanel.

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The solar cells are wired together with conductors, commonly tab ribbon. This allows us to take the single solar cell and pair it with similarcellstocreateasolarpanelwithcustomizablepoweroutputs. Therearetwowaystoconnectthecellstogether.Thefirstisinaseries connection,wherethepositiveelectrodefromthecellisconnectedto the negative electrode of the next cell. The second way is with a parallelconnection.Thiscircuittakesthepositiveelectrodesfromthe cellsandconnectsittothepositiveelectrodesfromtheadjacentcell.It is also important to note that when you wire two cells together in series you add the voltage and the current remains constant, while when you wire two cells together in parallel you add the current and thevoltageremainsconstant.Thisconceptallowsustoconstructsolar panelswithcustomizableoutputs. Sinceeachsolarcell,regardlessofsize,willhaveanoutputofabout.5 volts and wiring the cells together in series adds the voltage a solar panelcanbeconstructedtoachievetheexactvoltagethatwedesire. 13 Copyright 2009

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And since the solar cells physical size determines the current output (assumingthesametypeofcellsarebeingused)wecanparallelcells, orstringsofcells,togethertoachievethepropercurrent.Forexample, ifyouhaveasolarcellwith3.5ampsandyouwire20oftheminseries thiswouldgiveusabout10voltswhenexposedtothesun,whilestill outputting the original 3.5 amps. On the other hand, if you take this same cell with .5 volts and 3.5 amps and wire 20 ofthem together in parallelyouwouldhaveapanelwith35ampsbutstilljust.5volts. Thesameconceptapplieswhenwiringmultiplepanelstogether.Many largersolarinvertershaveavoltagewindow,usuallybetweenabout 150450 volts (depending on the inverter size and manufacturer). In order to kick the inverter on we would have to wire enough solar panels together to raise the voltage high enough for the inverter to operate properly. You can wire multiple solar panels together to achieve a higher current, too, but beware to get this too high as it

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becomes dangerous and you may have a hard time finding fuses that canhandletoomuchcurrent.

SolarElectricSystemComponents
Therearethreemaintypesofsolarelectricsystems:offgrid,gridtied or gridtied with battery backup. Off grid systems typically use batteries as their form of energy storage and have been around for manydecades.Thesesystemstypicallyrelyonabackuppowersource like a generator for when the sun does not come out for prolonged periods.Gridtiedsystemshaveonlygainedpopularityinrecentyears, asutility,stateandfederalincentiveshavemadethesolarsystemmuch morecostcompetitivewithitsdirtyrivals:thefossilfuels.Thesegrid tiedsystemsusetheutilitygrid(thenetworkofwiresandcablesthat span every city and town in the US) to store their energy, sending excessenergyintothegridduringthedayandpullingfromitatnight.

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Agoodresourcetochecktosee whatincentivesareavailableinyour localityiswww.dsireusa.org. Every solar system, no matter which type, will always start at the solar panel. This is where the energy starts, and from there it must enter some conductor to reach its destination. This conductor is typically an insulated copper wire. The amount of energy and the distance of the wire will determine what size wire to use. Inelectricalcircuits,Ohm's lawstatesthatthecurrentthroughaconductorbetweentwopointsis directlyproportionaltothepotentialdifferenceorvoltageacrossthe twopoints,andinverselyproportionaltotheresistancebetweenthem. Themathematicalequationthatdescribesthisrelationshipis:

Visthepotentialdifferencemeasuredacrosstheresistanceinunits ofvolts;Iisthecurrentthroughtheresistanceinunitsofamperes (amps)andRistheresistanceoftheconductorinunitsofohms.A

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morethoroughdiagramtoexpresstherelationshipbetweenthese unitsisshownbelow.

Typically you will want no more than 2% loss through your DC wire runs.Thereareseveralonlinecalculatorsfordeterminingthis,oryou maychoosetodothemathyourselfusingthetablebelow.

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Voltage Drop Per 100 FT Run of Paired Wire

Forexample: Given a load current of 4 amps, and using 14 AWG wire, how much voltagedropcanweexpectattheloadendfora250footrunofpaired wire? Using the chart, we match the row for 14 AWG and the column for 4 amps and determine that voltage drop per 100 feet is 2.02 Volts. By 18 Copyright 2009

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dividingthepairedwirelengthby100,wegetthefactorbywhichwe needtomultiplyvoltagedropper100feettodeterminetotalvoltage drop. Therefore, 250 feet divided by 100 equals 2.5. Multiply 2.5 by 2.02 volts drop per 100 feet to get your total voltage drop. Thus the totalvoltagedropis2.5times2.02,or5.05voltagedropfor250feet.If your system voltage is 250 volts or more this may be acceptable loss. Note that the higher the voltage the lower the current, as they are inverselyrelated.Ifyouhavealongwireandhavelowsystemvoltage youhave3mainchoices.Thefirstistobuyverythickwire,although the cost of copper these days may prohibit this. The second is to reduce the wire run by situating your solar array closer to your load. The third option is to increase the voltage by wiring more panels in seriesorbyinvertingtheDCpowertoACpoweratthesiteinsteadof the point of contact with the load. This may require putting the batteries closer to the array in an enclosure separate from your residence,butcanresultinsomebigsavingssinceyouwillberunning AC power at 120 or 240 volts instead of 12 volts. 19 Copyright 2009

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In an offgrid application, the energy from the sun typically flows throughthesecomponents:

From the solar panel the current flows into a charge controller. This unitisinessencearegulatorofenergy.Itisacustomizable unitthat 20 Copyright 2009

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regulatestheflowofenergytothebatteryanddetermineshowmuch energy is being pulled from the batteries at nighttime or in cloudy weather. Depending on the size of the solar array you may spend anywherefromabout$25toover$100foryourchargecontroller(s). Controllersareavailableinavarietyofsizesandappearances.

Thebatteriesareacrucialcomponentofyouroffgridsystem.Thisis what will be powering your appliances when the sun goes down or behindclouds.Mostbatteriesnowareleadacidbatteries,althoughas

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more funding is being put into the R &D of batteries the chemistry is constantly evolving and becoming more efficient. Batteries are also available in unsealed and sealed types. The unsealed types are much more common due to their lower cost. However, they do require weekly maintenance to keep their electrolyte levels above the plates insidethebattery.Thesealedbatteriescomeatapremium,butdonot require the maintenance, since the electrolyte is usually in a gel substance. For either battery you will want to keep them away from anypotentialheatorfiresources.Ashedorawellventedroominyour home will work best. Try to avoid temperature extremes for your batterybank,asthiswillaffecttheperformancenegatively. The charge controller can be programmed to stop flow from the batteries when they reach a certain depth of discharge (DOD). The DODistypicallynolessthan50%ofthebatteryscapacity.Thefurther youdischargeabatteryonaregularbasistheshorterthelifespanofa

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batterywillbe.Forsolarapplicationsyouwillwanttousedeepcycle batteries.Wiredtogether,theyformabatterybank.

These may look very similar to car batteries but are only similar in appearance and greatly differ in their requirements. Car batteries are meant to be fully discharged and then rapidly recharged. Solar deep cycle batteries are slowly charged throughout the day and then dischargedslowlyatnight.Theirenergyinputwillvarythroughoutthe 23 Copyright 2009

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dayandthedischargewillbesporadicatnight,too.Acarbatteryused for a solar application would not be expected to last even one year, while a well maintained deepcycle battery can be expected to last 6 yearsormore,dependingonthedepthofdischargelevelyouhaveset andhowoftenyoukeeptheelectrolytelevelsmaintained. If you are using just direct current (DC) loads you will not need an inverterandcanjustchargetheloadsfromthebattery,assumingthe voltagesmatchup.However,thecostandavailabilityofDCappliances remains an impediment to the solely DC home. Alternating current (AC)appliancesdominatethehomeappliancelandscapeandrequirean invertertochangetheDCcurrentfromthesolararraytoACcurrentfor your refrigerator, TV, lights, etc. You should expect to spend around $0.50/watt or more depending on the size of the inverter needed. Typically,allbutthelargestresidentialsolarsystemswillworkfineon oneinverter.

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Inverters, like the charge controllers, will vary in shape and size dependingupontheinvertersoutputratingandmanufacturer.

Youmaybeabletosavesomemoneyonlargersystemsbypurchasing an inverter that has a charge controller inside its circuitry. Check the spec sheets to determine this. Many of the larger manufacturers of inverters have solar string sizing programs available for free on their website, so you may want to reference this to determine what size inverter to use. The inverters input voltage window is the main determinationtodeterminehowmanypanelsyoucanwiretogetherin aseriesstring,whichiswhytheyareoftencalledstringinverters. You can get by with an inverter that is rated below the name plate ratingofthearray.Forexample,asolararraywithanameplaterating 25 Copyright 2009 GreenDIYenergy.com

of 3,300 watts (3.3 kilowatts) will work just fine with a 3,000 watt inverter,sinceyouwilltypicallyloseupto20%oftheoutputfromthe panels from many factors. Among them, voltage losses in the wires, panel mismatch, dirt or pollen on the panels and the DC to AC inversion. Disconnectswitchesareoftentimesbuiltintotheinverters,butmany municipalities require a separate disconnect switch for either the DC sideortheACside,orboth.Ifyouareplanningongettingyoursystem inspectedbyalicensedinspectororaregoingtoconnectyoursystem tothegridcheckwithyourlocallawstodeterminewhichdisconnects youwillneedtoinstall.TheNationalElectricalCode(NEC)book,too, has set laws on mounting the equipment, such as how high off the ground, distance from batteries and other components, etc. Disconnectswitches,dependingonhowmanystringsofpanelsyouare creatingmayneedtohaveanintegratedfuse.Thesedisconnectscan bepurchasedatalocalelectricalsupplyorhardwarestore. 26 Copyright 2009

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If you are constructing a small array, you may get away with just one battery, a small charge controller and a low wattage inverter, like the kind you can plug into your car adaptor. You can plug many AC electronicsorevenappliancesdirectlyintotheinverter,solongasthe inverterisratedtohandletheloadrequirements.Forlargersystems, you should opt to run the inverter AC wires directly into your homes breaker panel with breaker slots allotted for the inverter. A master electriciansservicesshouldbesoughtforthisstep.Tomakesureyour breaker panel can handle the backfed current take the busbar rating found on the inside cover, multiply it by 1.2 and then subtract your mainbreakersize.Themaxcontinuousoutputcurrentoftheinverter multipliedby1.25(dependingonwhichNECCodeyearyoureference) must be below this number. For example, a 200 A breaker panel (standard in most new construction) with a 200 A main breaker will allowfor40Atobebackfed(200x1.2200=40A).Youcantypically fit up to about 7000 watts on a 200 A breaker panel since the max continuousoutputofa7,000wattinverterisusuallycloseto32A.The 27 Copyright 2009

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maxcontinuousoutputoftheinverterisfoundinthespecsheetorby contacting the manufacturer. Reference the National Electrical Code (NEC)bookforthelatestrequirementswhensizinganelectricalarray. Gridtied systems substitute the utility grid for the batteries. Most homesthatareconnectedtothegridoptforthisservice.Ifgoingthis route,youwillwantyourutilityprovidertoinstallanetmeterforyou. Thismeterrecordstheflowofelectricityinbothdirections,essentially crediting your account for sending excess electricity into the grid. When the sun is out and your panels are producing more electricity thanyourhomeneeds,yourmeterwillspinbackwards.Whenthesun goesdownandthelightscomeonyoubegintopullelectricityfromthe grid and your meter spins forwards again. Most states have now adoptednetmeteringforrenewableenergysystems.Ifyoudontgeta net meter your old meter may actually charge you for energy consumedandenergyproduced!

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It is important to note that when you lose power from the grid, you wontbeabletousethepowerfromyoursolararray.Thisisasafety feature built into the inverters so that if you have a utility lineman working on the power lines in your front yard they can be confident there is no current in the lines. If your array were in the backyard feeding the grid and he was working in the front he would run the chanceofhavingabadelectricshock. Asmallpercentageofhomeownersoptforagridtiedsolarsystemwith battery backup. This is more common in places with an unreliable utility connection like very remote areas or places with inclimate weather.Asidefromtheextramaintenanceandintroducingmoretoxic chemicals into your home and the environment, you could pay up to 50% more on the total cost of an installed system by adding battery backup. There are inverters out there that have gridtied/battery backup capabilities, but you may need two inverters for this option. Having a crucial load subpanel is a good option for when the power 29 Copyright 2009

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goesdownandyouaredrawingfromthebatteries.Thisisolatessome ofyourelectricloadsonaseparatebreakerpanelsothatyouwontpull downthebatterysstoragetoofastbyrunningunnecessaryloads.

SiteDetermination
Thebiggestfactorwhendeterminingthelocationisaccesstothesun. The way the panels are wired together, it is very important that your panelswillgetatleast6hoursofunobstructedsunperday.Thissolar windowistypicallyfrom9amto6pm,butmayadjusttoearlierorlater in the day depending on the orientation of the panels. The optimal pitchforthepanelsisequaltoyourlatitude,althoughinmanylocations with cloudy winters, it may be optimal to subtract about 15 degrees fromyourlatitudeforoptimalpitch.AsolarpathfinderoraSolmetric Sun Eye are two popular options for determining the sites sun potential.Theyareusefultoolsthatwillshowwhatshadeissuesyou willhavewithaparticularspotatalltimesoftheyearandevenwhat timeoftheday.Shadeistobeavoidedatallcostssincethecellsand 30 Copyright 2009

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panelsaremainlywiredinseries,andshadingevenonecellofapanel canwipeoutaportionoftheentirearray. The National Renewable Energy Laboratories (NREL) has developed a very useful online resource to determine the potential output of your array.TheprogramiscalledPVWattsandisfreetouseonline.Itcan befoundonlineat:http://www.nrel.gov/rredc/pvwatts/.Simplyinput yourarraysizeinkilowatts,theorientationandangleofyourpaneland your zip code and the program will give you your estimated kilowatt hour (kWh) output for each month of the year. If you cannot mount the panel to your roof, another consideration for site selection is to keepthearrayasclosetoyourhomeasreasonablypossible,sincelong wirerunswillhavehigherpowerlossesandwillrequirethickerwires, increasingthecostofyoursystemandrequiringlongertrenches. Once you have determined the necessary size of you solar array and whichcomponentstogowithitbaseduponyourneedsyouareready

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to begin the final steps of completing the installation and wiring everythingtogethertobeginproducingenergyrightinyourbackyard.

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