HISTORICAL GEOLOGY

Earth is a Dynamic and Evolving Planet

Changes in its surface

Changes in life

Historical Geology
The study of the origin and evolution of the earth and life.
Placing events in order Explaining how and why events took place
Plate Tectonics: Earths outermost part is composed of a series of moving plates whose interactions have affected the planets physical and biological history. Organic Evolution Geologic Time

PLATE TECTONICS

Historical Geology
The study of the origin and evolution of the earth and life.
Placing events in order Explaining how and why events took place
Plate Tectonics Organic Evolution: Earths biota has evolved or changed throughout its history. Geologic Time

ORGANIC EVOLUTION

Historical Geology
The study of the origin and evolution of the earth and life.
Placing events in order Explaining how and why events took place
Plate Tectonics Organic Evolution Geologic Time: The physical and biological changes that have occurred on Earth have done so over very long periods of time.

Historical Geology
The study of the origin and evolution of the earth and life.
Placing events in order Explaining how and why events took place
Plate Tectonics Organic Evolution Geologic Time

In all cases, principles and theories of Historical Geology are derived from data gathered by Scientific Method

Geology
Study of the Earth
Earth as a system and subsystems p.3 fig. 1.1
Atmosphere Hydrosphere Biosphere Lithosphere (plates) Mantle Core

Atmosphere

Hydrosphere

Biosphere

Lithosphere, Mantle, Core

Fig. 1-1, p. 3

What is Geology ?
Physical Geology
Earth materials Physical processes

Historical Geology
Earth materials and processes Origin and evolution of Earth Origin and evolution of Life

Earth Materials and Processes

Minerals and Rocks Processes such as weathering, sedimentation, lithification, uplift/orogeny, folding and faulting, formation of unconformities

Historical Geology
In historical geology we study
changes in our dynamic planet how and why past events happened implication for todays global ecosystems

Principles of historical geology

not only aid in interpreting Earths history but also have practical applications

William Smith, an English surveyor/engineer

used his study of rock sequences and fossils to predict the kinds and thicknesses of rocks to be excavated in the construction of canals

ORIGINS

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UNIVERSE FORMS 13.7 Billion Years Ago

THE BIG BANG

How Do We Know?
The Doppler Effect

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Redshift

Absorption lines in the optical spectrum of a supercluster of distant galaxies (right), as compared to absorption lines in the optical spectrum of the Sun (left). Arrows indicate redshift. Wavelength increases up towards the red and beyond (frequency decreases )

The Red Shift

Observed by Edwin Hubble in 1929, the optical spectra ( and red shift) of distant galaxies indicated that galaxies were moving away from Earth and the more distant galaxies were moving faster. The Universe is expanding.

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Expanding Universe
Raisin Bread Analogy

Big Bang Theory

Evidence for the Big Bang
The redshift indicates that the universe is expanding.
Expansion suggests an origin at a single point. Rate of expansion indicates explosion at 13.7 billion years ago

Everywhere is a background radiation of 2.7 K above absolute zero, thought to have originated with the big bang.

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Photons from the earliest days of the universe

Cosmic Microwave Background

Background Radiation
Discovered by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson of Bell Telephone Laboratories A pervasive microwave radiation everywhere in the Universe measured as 2.7 Kelvin above absolute zero. Thought to be the gradually fading radiation (photons) from the Big Bang; an afterglow.

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Big Bang Theory

Cosmologists do not know the nature of the universe at time zero of the Big Bang. Big Bang occurred Forces followed in the first second
Gravity (attraction of bodies) Electromagnetic Force (electricity and magnetism; holds atoms in molecules) Strong Nuclear Force (binds protons and neutrons together) Weak Nuclear Force (force that causes radioactive decay)

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Big Bang Theory

At 300,000 years: Hydrogen, Helium, Light Next 200 million years stars and galaxies, chemicals (denser elements) from the death of stars

GALAXIES FORM 12.7 Billion Years Ago

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12.7 Billion Years Ago First Stars and Galaxies

Origin of the Solar System

Solar Nebula Theory
Solar system formed from collapse of a huge molecular cloud, a nebula, about 4.6 billion years ago. 90% of material condensed into the center of a counterclockwise rotating disk, forming the sun. Planetesimals formed from collisions eventually forming planets

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Interstellar Material The most accepted theory of the origin of stars and planetary systems is the collapse of interstellar gas and dust.

Our understanding of the solar nebular theory is that planets form as a by-product of star formation. 1. If the nebula is compressed (overcoming the gas pressure), then gravity may take over and the nebula will collapse inward. 2. As nebular particles come closer together, the gravitational attraction increases (remember the law of gravitation). The increased attraction and collapse results in an increase in temperature. As the cloud collapses, it begins to slowly rotate and flatten into a disk.

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. There are several observations about the solar system that are evidence in favor of the Solar Nebula Theory. 1. All of the planets revolve around the Sun in the same plane (planetary plane). 2. The Suns rotational equator lies roughly in the planetary plane.

3. All of the planets revolve around the Sun in the same direction. 4. Planet orbits are nearly circular.

Planets, including EARTH finish accreting from asteroids 4.6 BILLION YEARS AGO

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Formation of Planets
Inner terrestrial planets formed in high heat and solar winds blew away gases. Outer Jovian planets formed with inner core of solids and are composed of gases that condense at low temperatures Asteroid belt Comets

The Hoba Meteorite, in Namibia

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Photo by Howard Edin, American Meteor Society

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COMETS

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MOHO

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Earth as a Dynamic System

Division into layers results from variations in
Density (Core=10-13 g/cm3; crust 2.7 g/cm3) Composition (Fe,Ni; Fe,Mg; Si,Al) Temperature Pressure

Layers Oceanic crust Continental crust Mantle Outer core Inner core

Thickness Composition 3-10 km Si, O, Fe, Mg, Al = Basalt 30-50 km Si, O, Al = Granite 2900 km 2200 km 1300 km Mg, Fe, Si, O Fe, Ni (S, Si) Fe, Ni (S, Si)

State/Density 2.9 g/cc SOLID 2.7 g/cc SOLID 4.5 g/cc SOLID 11 g/cc LIQUID 16 g/cc SOLID

Overlaid layers: Lithosphere 100-200 km 100% Crust + Upper Mantle RIGID, SOLID, BRITTLE: breaks into plates Plastic (flows), but SOLID

Asthenosphere 100-350 km

Portion of mantle

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Earths Core
Divided into two parts
Inner solid Outer liquid

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Earths Mantle
Divided into Three Parts
Solid lower mantle Asthenosphere mushy behaves plastically and generates magma Upper mantle is solid and with the crust constitutes the lithosphere

MOHO

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Earths crust
Divided into two types
Continental crust (thicker, more Si rich rocks) Oceanic crust (thinner, more mafic)

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Lithospheric Plates
Lithosphere is divided into rigid plates Plates move on the asthenosphere probably due to convection Plates interact to cause earthquakes, mountain building, volcanoes

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Lithospheric Plates
Theory of Plate Tectonics Plate tectonics and earth systems (p.11, fig.1.2

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Organic Evolution and the History of Life

Theory of organic evolution provides framework for study of history of life. Integrated with and consistent with Plate Tectonic theory

Organic Evolution and the History of Life

Fossils
As evidence of organic evolution As evidence of history of life As evidence of earth history (Plate Tectonics)

Mesosaur

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Geologic Time
Immensity of Geologic time is hard to comprehend Time Scale stems from early need to divide Geologic Time into units. Advantages of the Time Scale
Sedimentary Rocks and fossils More refined units

Time Scale

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Uniformitarianism
James Huttons insight into processes and time Catastrophism and catastrophic events Rates and Intensities vary in geologic history Uniformitarianism Present is the key to the pastLaws of nature have not changed with time.Processes changing and shaping earth are basically the same as in the past.Given enough time, present day processes account for what we see in the rock record.

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