Practical Guide to the

Optimisation of Chemical Dosing,

Coagulation, Flocculation and
Clarification

Bruce Murray and Peter Mosse

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Contents
Chapter 1

Chapter 2

Chapter 3

Hazards, Risks and Control Points

Hazards and Drinking Water...........................................................................................8
Pathogens are the Main Hazards in Drinking Water........................................................8
Other Hazards............................................................................................................... 11
Control Points............................................................................................................... 11
Critical Limits and Target Criteria..................................................................................12
Monitoring.....................................................................................................................13
Responsibilities.............................................................................................................13

Coagulation, Flocculation and Clarification

The Importance of Coagulation, Flocculation and Clarification....................................... 15
Coagulation .................................................................................................................... 16
Mixing................................................................................................................. 17
Dilution Water........................................................................................ 18
Mixing Systems..................................................................................... 18
Coagulation or Dosed Water pH...................................................................... 19
Alkalinity............................................................................................................. 20
Alkalinity Contribution By Alkalis........................................................... 21
Enhanced Coagulation.................................................................................................... 21
Flocculation..................................................................................................................... 23

Coagulants and Polymers

Coagulants...................................................................................................................... 26
Basicity..................................................................................................................... 26
Specific Gravity......................................................................................................... 26
Aluminium Sulphate (Alum)...................................................................................... 27
Aluminium Chlorohydrate (ACH)............................................................................... 28
Polyaluminium Chloride (PACl)................................................................................. 28
Ferric Chloride.......................................................................................................... 28
Ferric Sulfate............................................................................................................ 28
Sodium Aluminate..................................................................................................... 29
PolyDADMAC........................................................................................................... 29
Which Coagulant to Use................................................................................................. 32
Coagulation, Flocculation and Filtration Aids.................................................................. 34
Which Polymer.......................................................................................................... 35
Polymer Dose Rates................................................................................................. 35
Making Up Polymers................................................................................................. 36
Dosing....................................................................................................................... 37
Chemical Dosing Sequences.......................................................................................... 38


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Chapter 4

Chapter 5

Chapter 6

Chapter 7

Chemical Quality Assurance

Risks Associated with Drinking Water Chemicals........................................................... 39
Managing Risks.................................................................................................. 40
Specifications for Drinking Water Treatment Chemicals................................................. 42
Contaminant Levels........................................................................................................ 42
Maximum Dose Rates..................................................................................................... 45

Jar Testing
Jar Testing....................................................................................................................... 46
Jar Test Equipment............................................................................................. 48
Stock Jar Testing Solutions................................................................................ 48
Basic Jar Testing Procedure............................................................................... 50
Modifications of the Basic Jar Test.................................................................................. 52
Enhanced Coagulation....................................................................................... 52
Direct and Contact Filtration............................................................................... 52
Dissolved Air Flotation (DAF)............................................................................. 52
Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC).................................................................... 53
Procedure for pH Correction for Jar Testing.................................................................... 54

Chemical Dosing Calculations

Step 1. Calculate the Concentration of the Active Ingredient.......................................... 55
Step 2. Calculate the Dose Rate in the Plant.................................................................. 56
Liquid Chemicals................................................................................................ 57
An Alternative Method for Expressing Liquid Dose Rates..................... 57
Actual Dose Rates........................................................................................................... 58
Polymeric Coagulants..................................................................................................... 59

Clarification
Clarifiers.......................................................................................................................... 60
Settling Clarifiers............................................................................................................. 61
Sedimentation Tanks and Settling Clarifiers....................................................... 61
Shallow Depth Settling Clarifiers (High Rate Settlers)........................................ 63
Upflow Clarifiers................................................................................................. 64
Adsorption Clarifiers........................................................................................... 67
Dissolved Air Flotation........................................................................................ 68
Clarifier Loading Rates.................................................................................................... 71
Sludge Management and Removal................................................................................. 71
Sludge Blow Down or Desludge......................................................................... 72
Re-establishment of Sludge Blanket in an Upflow Clarifier............................................. 73
Comparison of Clarifier Performance.............................................................................. 74
Clarifier Operation and Trouble Shooting........................................................................ 75
Operational Variables......................................................................................... 75
Trouble Shooting Guide..................................................................................... 75


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Chapter 8

Chapter 9

Optimisation of Coagulation, Flocculation and Clarification

Operating Criteria and Performance Parameters for Coagulation and Flocculation....... 78
Operating Criteria and Performance Parameters for Clarification................................... 78
1. Optimise Coagulation.................................................................................................. 79
2. Ensure Coagulant is Added After Any Return Streams............................................... 80
3. Optimise Coagulant Dosing Point............................................................................... 80
4. Monitor Coagulation pH............................................................................................... 81
5. Optimise Flocculation.................................................................................................. 81
6. Determine Coagulation and Flocculation Times.......................................................... 82
7. Minimise The Effect of Weather and Temperature...................................................... 82
8. Operate Flocculation Systems Continuously............................................................... 84
9. Observe and Monitor Flocculation and Clarifier Operation ........................................ 84
10. Monitor Sludge Blanket Depth................................................................................... 85
11. Control Algae............................................................................................................. 86
12. Keep Flocculation Tanks and Clarifiers Clean........................................................... 87
13. Check and Maintain DAF Distribution Systems......................................................... 88
14. Monitor Residual Coagulant Levels........................................................................... 88
15. Record and Use Past Experience (Look Up Tables)................................................. 89
16. Other Methods for Controlling Coagulant Dose......................................................... 89
Streaming Current Detectors.................................................................................... 89
Compass................................................................................................................... 90
mEnCo...................................................................................................................... 90

Other Chemical Processes

1. Water Softening........................................................................................................... 91
Lime Soda (Chemical) Softening........................................................................ 91
Partial Lime Softening........................................................................... 92
Excess Lime Softening.......................................................................... 92
Lime Soda Ash Softening...................................................................... 92
Caustic Soda Softening......................................................................... 92
Mixing................................................................................................................. 93
Softening and Conventional Clarification........................................................... 94
Solids Management............................................................................................ 95
Lime Crystallisation............................................................................................ 95
Sequestering...................................................................................................... 96
2. Removal of Manganese by Potassium Permanganate............................................... 96
pH and Alkalinity................................................................................................. 97
Temperature....................................................................................................... 97
NOM and Sulfide................................................................................................ 97
Reaction Time.................................................................................................... 98
Mixing of KMnO4................................................................................................ 98
Dosing Control................................................................................................... 98


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Chapter 10

Closing Words........................................................................................................ 99

References. .......................................................................................................................................... 99
Appendices
Appendix 1
Appendix 2
Appendix 3
Appendix 4
Appendix 5
Appendix 6

Mixing............................................................................................................................ 100
Some Polymers Used In Water Treatment.................................................................... 103
Example Product Specifications for Alum...................................................................... 106
Example Jar Test Record Sheet.................................................................................... 107
An Alternative Method for Expressing Alum Concentrations......................................... 108
Floc Size Chart.............................................................................................................. 108


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