Chapter: 1

Introduction to Microprocessors
A microprocessor incorporates the functions of a computer's central processing

unit (CPU) on a single integrated circuit (IC), or at most a few integrated circuits. It is a multipurpose, programmable device that accepts digital data as input, processes it according to instructions stored in its memory, and provides results as output. It is an example of sequential digital logic, as it has internal memory. Microprocessors operate on numbers and symbols represented in the binary numeral system. The advent of low-cost computers on integrated circuits has transformed modern society. General-purpose microprocessors in personal computers are used for computation, text editing, multimedia display, and communication over the Internet. Many more

microprocessors are part of embedded systems, providing digital control of a myriad of objects from appliances to automobiles to cellular phones and industrial process control.

1.1 History of Microprocessors

During the 1960s, computer processors were constructed out of small and mediumscale ICs each containing from tens to a few hundred transistors. For each computer built, all of these had to be placed and soldered onto printed circuit boards, and often multiple boards would have to be interconnected in a chassis. The large number of discrete logic gates used more electrical powerand therefore, produced more heat than a more integrated design with fewer ICs. The distance that signals had to travel between ICs on the boards limited the speed at which a computer could operate.

The transistor, invented in 1947, works by controlling the flow of electrons through a structure embedded in silicon. This structure is composed of nothing more than adjoining regions of silicon with different concentrations of impurities. These impurities are atoms of elements like boron, phosphorous, and arsenic. By combining silicon with oxygen you get silicon dioxide, SiO2, a powerful insulator that allows you to separate regions of silicon. By evaporating (or sputtering) aluminum on to the surface of a silicon chip, you can create contacts and connectors. By putting all these elements together, several transistors can be combined to create a simple functional circuit, rather than a component. This is the IC (or integrated circuit)

whose invention is attributed to Jack Kilby of TI and Robert Noyce of Fairchild The first practical IC was fabricated in 1959 at Fairchild and Texas Instruments and Fairchild began its commercial manufacture in 1961 [Tredennick96]. As manufacturing technology evolved, more and more transistors were put on single silicon chips with the maximum number of transistors per chip doubling every year between 1961 and 1971 [Tredennick96]. The basic functional units evolved from simple gates to arithmetic units, small memories, and special-purpose functions such as multiplexers and decoders. In 1967 Fairchild introduced an 8-bit ALU chip that included its own accumulator. It was inevitable that someone would eventually invent the microprocessor because, by the late 1960's, computers built from discrete transistors and simple integrated circuits already existed. Moreover, integrated circuits were getting more and more complex day by day.

1.1.1 Intel 4040

Credit for creating the world's first microprocessor, the Intel 4004, goes to Hoff and Fagin, although William Aspray [Aspray97] in the Annals of the History of Computing points out that the microprocessor's development was a more complex and interesting story than many realize. In 1969 Bob Noyce and Gordon Moore [FaginHoff97] set up the Intel Corporation to produce semiconductor memory chips for the mainframe industry. A year later Intel began to develop a set of calculator chips for a consortium of two Japanese companies. One of Hoff's major contributions was to replace the complex and slow shift registers used to store data in the calculator with the DRAM memory cells that Intel was developing as storage elements. This step provided the system with more and faster memory.

1.1.2 Intel 4004

Announcing a new Era of Integrated Electronics -Headlines, Intel 4004 Ad

The first functioning 4004 chip was created in 1971. Busicom's actual calculator was constructed from a 4004 CPU, four 4001 ROMs, two 4002 RAMs and three 4003 shift registers appeared in 1971. By the end of 1971 the 4004 was beginning to generate a significant fraction of Intel's revenue.

1.1.3 Intel 8008

Intel's 8008 microprocessor didn't last a long time. As the first 8-bit microprocessor it was relatively crude and unsophisticated. It had a poorly implemented interrupt mechanism and multiplexed address and data buses. The first really popular generalpurpose 8-bit microprocessor was Intel's 8080 (in production in early 1974). This had a separate 8-bit data bus and 16-bit address bus. This address bus could address up to 216 = 64K bytes of data (a gigantic memory space in 1975).

1.1.4 Intel 8080

The Intel 8080 was the second 8-bit microprocessor designed and manufactured by Intel and was released in April 1974.[1] It was an extended and enhanced variant of the earlier 8008 design, although without binary compatibility. The initial specified clock frequency limit was 2 MHz and with common instructions having execution times of 4, 5, 7, 10 or 11 cycles this meant a few hundred thousand instructions per second. The 8080 has sometimes been labeled "the first truly usable microprocessor", although earlier microprocessors were used for calculators and other applications. The architecture of the 8080 strongly influenced Intel's 8086CPU architecture, which spawned the x86 family of processors.

1.1.5 Other Microprocessors

Shortly after the 8080 went into production, Motorola created its own competitor, the 8bit 6800. Although the 8080 and 6800 were broadly similar in terms of performance, they had rather different architectures. Frederico Faggin left Intel with Ralph Ungerman in 1994 to found Zilog. Their first processor, the Z80, was manufactured in 1976. This device represented a considerable advance over the 8080 and was object-code compatible with the 8080. That is, the Z80's architecture was a superset of the 8080's architecture and could execute the 8080's machine code instructions. Just as Fagin left Intel to create the Z80, Chuck Peddle left Motorola to join MOS Technology and to create the 6502. The 6502's object code was not backward compatible with the 6800. Ed Roberts, the owner of a small company called MITS developed a microcomputer was called Altair 8800.

1.2 Introduction to Intel 8085

The Intel 8085 is an 8-bit microprocessor introduced by Intel in 1977. It was binary compatible with the more-famous Intel 8080 but required less supporting hardware, thus allowing simpler and less expensive microcomputer systems to be built. The "5" in the model number came from the fact that the 8085 requires only a +5volt (V) power supply, 80 is because of it is invented in decade 80 and 8 is due to 8 bit.

Both processors 8085 and 8080 were sometimes used in computers running the CP/M operating system, and the 8085 also saw use as a microcontroller, by virtue of its low component count. Both designs were eclipsed for desktop computers by the compatible Zilog Z80, which took over most of the CP/M computer market as well as taking a share of the booming home computer market in the early-to-mid-1980s. The 8085 had a long life as a controller. Once designed into such products as the DECtape controller and the VT100 video terminal in the late 1970s, it served for new production throughout the life span of those products (generally longer than the product life of desktop computers). The 8085 is a conventional von Neumann design based on the Intel 8080. Unlike the 8080 it does not multiplex state signals onto the data bus, but the 8-bit data bus was instead multiplexed with the lower part of the 16-bit address bus to limit the number of pins to 40. Pin No. 40 is used for the power supply (+5v) and pin No. 20 for ground. Pin No. 39 is used as the hold pin. Pins No. 15 to No. 8 are generally used for address buses. The processor was designed using nMOS circuitry and the later "H" versions were implemented in Intel's enhanced nMOS process called HMOS, originally developed for fast static RAM products. Only a 5 Volt supply is needed, like competing processors and unlike the 8080. The 8085 uses approximately 6,500transistors.[1] The 8085 incorporates the functions of the 8224 (clock generator) and the 8228 (system controller), increasing the level of integration. A downside compared to similar contemporary designs (such as the Z80) was the fact that the buses required demultiplexing; however, address latches in the Intel 8155, 8355, and 8755 memory chips allowed a direct interface, so an 8085 along with these chips was almost a complete system. The 8085 has extensions to support new interrupts, with three maskable interrupts (RST 7.5, RST 6.5 and RST 5.5), one non-maskable interrupt(TRAP), and one externally serviced interrupt (INTR). The RST n.5 interrupts refer to actual pins on the processor, a feature which permitted simple systems to avoid the cost of a separate interrupt controller.

Like the 8080, the 8085 can accommodate slower memories through externally generated wait states (pin 35, READY), and has provisions for Direct Memory Access (DMA) using HOLD and HLDA signals (pins 39 and 38). An improvement over the 8080 was that the 8085 can itself drive a piezoelectric crystal directly connected to it, and a built in clock generator generates the internal high amplitude two-phase clock signals at half the crystal frequency (a 6.14 MHz crystal would yield a 3.07 MHz clock, for instance). The 8085 is a binary compatible follow up on the 8080, using the same basic instruction set as the 8080. Only a few minor instructions were new to the 8085 above the 8080 set.

Chapter: 2 Architecture of 8085 Microprocessor

Intel 8085, introduced by Intel in 1977 is an 8-bit microprocessor. It was an update of Intel 8080 microprocessor. The 8080 processor was updated with Enable/Disable instruction pins and Interrupt pins to form the 8085 microprocessor.

2.1 Features of 8085 microprocessor

8085 microprocessor is an 8-bit microprocessor with a 40 pin dual in line package. The address and data bus are multiplexed in this processor which helps in providing more control signals. 8085 microprocessor has 1 Non-Maskable interrupt and 3 Maskable interrupts. It provides serial interfacing with serial input data (SID) and serial output data (SOD). It has a set of registers for performing various operations. The various registers include Accumulator (register A) Registers: B, C, D, E, H and L Stack pointer Program Counter Temporary register Instruction register

2.2 Architecture of 8085 microprocessor

8085 consists of various units and each unit performs its own functions. The various units of a microprocessor are listed below: Accumulator Arithmetic and logic Unit General purpose register Program counter Stack pointer Temporary register Flags Instruction register and Decoder Timing and Control unit Interrupt control Serial Input/output control Address buffer and Address-Data buffer Address bus and Data bus

2.2.1 Accumulator
Accumulator is nothing but a register which can hold 8-bit data. Accumulator aids in storing two quantities. The data to be processed by arithmetic and logic unit is stored in accumulator. It also stores the result of the operation carried out by the Arithmetic and Logic unit. The accumulator is also called an 8-bit register. The accumulator is connected to Internal Data bus and ALU (arithmetic and logic unit). The accumulator can be used to send or receive data from the Internal Data bus.

2.2.2 Arithmetic and Logic Unit

There is always a need to perform arithmetic operations like +, -, *, / and to perform logical operations like AND, OR, NOT etc. So there is a necessity for creating a separate unit which can perform such types of operations. These operations are performed by the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU). ALU performs these operations on 8bit data. But these operations cannot be performed unless we have an input (or) data on which the desired operation is to be performed. So from where do these inputs reach the ALU? For this purpose accumulator is used. ALU gets its Input from accumulator and temporary register. After processing the necessary operations, the result is stored back in accumulator.

2.2.3 General Purpose Registers

Apart from accumulator 8085 consists of six special types of registers called General Purpose Registers. What do these general purpose registers do? These general purpose registers are used to hold data like any other registers. The general purpose registers in 8085 processors are B, C, D, E, H and L. Each register can hold 8-bit data. Apart from the above function these registers can also be used to work in pairs to hold 16-bit data. They can work in pairs such as B-C, D-E and H-L to store 16-bit data. The H-L pair works as a memory pointer. A memory pointer holds the address of a particular memory location. They can store 16-bit address as they work in pair.

2.2.4 Program counter

Program counter is a special purpose register.

 Consider that an instruction is being executed by processor. As soon as the ALU finished executing the instruction, the processor looks for the next instruction to be executed. So, there is a necessity for holding the address of the next instruction to be executed in order to save time. This is taken care by the program counter. A program counter stores the address of the next instruction to be executed. In other words the program counter keeps track of the memory address of the instructions that are being executed by the microprocessor and the memory address of the next instruction that is going to be executed. Microprocessor increments the program whenever an instruction is being executed, so that the program counter points to the memory address of the next instruction that is going to be executed. Program counter is a 16-bit register.

2.2.5 Stack pointer

Stack pointer is also a 16 -bit register which is used as a memory pointer. A stack is nothing but the portion of RAM (Random access memory). So does that mean the stack pointer points to portion of RAM? Yes. Stack pointer maintains the address of the last byte that is entered into stack. Each time when the data is loaded into stack, Stack pointer gets decremented. Conversely it is incremented when data is retrieved from stack.

2.2.6 Temporary Register

As the name suggests this register acts as a temporary memory during the arithmetic and logical operations. Unlike other registers, this temporary register can only be accessed by the microprocessor and it is completely inaccessible to programmers. Temporary register is an 8-bit register.

2.2.7 Flags In 8085

Flags are nothing but a group of individual Flip-flops. The flags are mainly associated with arithmetic and logic operations. The flags will show either a logical (0 or 1) (i.e.) a set or reset depending on the data conditions in accumulator or various other registers. A flag is actually a latch which can hold some bits of information. It alerts the processor that some event has taken place.

But why are they called flags?

The possible solution is from the small flags which are found on the mail boxes in America. The small flag indicates that there is a mail in the mail box. Similarly this denotes that an event has occurred in the processor. Intel processors have a set of 5 flags. Carry flag Parity flag Auxiliary carry flag Zero flag Sign flag Consider two binary numbers. For example: 100 0000 1000 0000 When we add the above two numbers, a carry is generated in the most significant bit. The number in the extreme right is least significant bit, while the number in extreme left is most significant bit. So a ninth bit is generated due to the carry. So how to accommodate 9th bit in an 8 bit register? For this purpose the Carry flag is used. The carry flag is set whenever a carry is generated and reset whenever there is no carry.

Parity checks whether its even or add parity. This flag returns a 0 if it is odd parity and returns a 1 if it is an even parity. Sometimes they are also called as parity bit which is used to check errors while data transmission is carried out. Zero flag shows whether the output of the operation is 0 or not. If the value of Zero flag is 0 then the result of operation is not zero. If it is zero the flag returns value 1.

 Sign flag shows whether the output of operation has positive sign or negative sign. A value 0 is returned for positive sign and 1 is returned for negative sign.

2.2.8 Instruction Register and Decoder

Instruction register is 8-bit register just like every other register of microprocessor. Consider an instruction. The instruction may be anything like adding two data's, moving a data, copying a data etc. When such an instruction is fetched from memory, it is directed to Instruction register. So the instruction registers are specifically to store the instructions that are fetched from memory. There is an Instruction decoder which decodes the information present in the Instruction register for further processing.

2.2.9 Timing and Control Unit

Timing and control unit is a very important unit as it synchronizes the registers and flow of data through various registers and other units. This unit consists of an oscillator and controller sequencer which sends control signals needed for internal and external control of data and other units. The oscillator generates two-phase clock signals which aids in synchronizing all the registers of 8085 microprocessor. Signals that are associated with Timing and control unit are: Control Signals: READY, RD, WR, ALE Status Signals: S0, S1, IO/M DMA Signals: HOLD, HLDA RESET Signals: RESET IN, RESET OUT

2.2.10 Interrupt Control

As the name suggests this control interrupts a process. Consider that a microprocessor is executing the main program. Now whenever the interrupt signal is enabled or requested the microprocessor shifts the control from main program to process the incoming request and after the completion of request, the control goes back to the main program. For example an Input/output device may send an interrupt signal to notify that the data is ready for input. The microprocessor temporarily stops the execution of main program and transfers control to I/O device. After collecting the input data the control is transferred back to main program.

2.2.11 Serial I/O control

 The input and output of serial data can be carried out using 2 instructions in 8085. SID-Serial Input Data SOD-Serial Output Data Two more instructions are used to perform serial-parallel conversion needed for serial I/O devices. SIM RIM

2.2.12 Address buffer and Address-Data buffer

The contents of the stack pointer and program counter are loaded into the address buffer and address-data buffer. These buffers are then used to drive the external address bus and address-data bus. As the memory and I/O chips are connected to these buses, the CPU can exchange desired data to the memory and I/O chips. The address-data buffer is not only connected to the external data bus but also to the internal data bus which consists of 8-bits. The address data buffer can both send and receive data from internal data bus.

2.2.13 Address bus and Data bus

We know that 8085 is an 8-bit microprocessor. So the data bus present in the microprocessor is also 8-bits wide. So 8-bits of data can be transmitted from or to the microprocessor. But 8085 processor requires 16 bit address bus as the memory addresses are 16-bit wide. The 8 most significant bits of the address are transmitted with the help of address bus and the 8 least significant bits are transmitted with the help of multiplexed address/data bus. The eight bit data bus is multiplexed with the eight least significant bits of address bus. The address/data bus is time multiplexed. This means for few microseconds, the 8 least significant bits of address are generated, while for next few seconds the same pin generates the data. This is called Time multiplexing. But there are situations where there is a need to transmit both data and address simultaneously. For this purpose a signal called ALE (address latch enable) is used. ALE signal holds the obtained address in its latch for a long time until the data is obtained and so when the microprocessor sends the data next time the address is also available at the output latch. This technique is called Address / Data demultiplexing.

2.3 8085 Microprocessor Pin Diagram description

Properties Single + 5V Supply 4 Vectored Interrupts (One is Non Maskable)

Serial In/Serial Out Port Decimal, Binary, and Double Precision Arithmetic Direct Addressing Capability to 64K bytes of memory The Intel 8085A is a new generation, complete 8 bit parallel central processing unit (CPU). The 8085A uses a multiplexed data bus. The address is split Between the 8 bit Address bus and the 8 bit data bus.

Fig.2. : PIN Diagram of Intel 8085 Microprocessor

Fig.2. : Signal Groups of 8085

Pin Description 2.3.1 A6 - A1s (Output 3 State)

Address Bus; The most significant 8 bits of the memory address or the 8 bits of the I/0 Address, 3 stated during Hold and Halt modes.

2.3.2 AD0 - 7 (Input/Output 3state)

Multiplexed Address/Data Bus; Lower 8 bits of the memory address (or I/0 address) appear on the bus during the first clock cycle of a machine state. It then becomes the data bus during the second and third clock cycles. 3 stated during Hold and Halt modes.

2.3.3 ALE (Output)

Address Latch Enable: It occurs during the first clock cycle of a machine state and enables the address to get latched into the on chip latch of peripherals. The falling edge of ALE is set to guarantee setup and hold times for the address information. ALE can also be used to strobe the status information. ALE is never 3stated.

2.3.4 SO, S1 (Output)

Data Bus Status. Encoded status of the bus cycle: S1 S0 O O HALT 0 1 WRITE 1 0 READ 1 1 FETCH S1 can be used as an advanced R/W status.

2.3.5 RD (Output 3state)

READ; indicates the selected memory or 1/0 device is to be read and that the Data Bus is available for the data transfer.

2.3.6 WR (Output 3state)

WRITE; indicates the data on the Data Bus is to be written into the selected memory or 1/0 location. Data is set up at the trailing edge of WR. 3stated during Hold and Halt modes.

2.3.7 READY (Input)

If Ready is high during a read or write cycle, it indicates that the memory or peripheral is ready to send or receive data. If Ready is low, the CPU will wait for Ready to go high before completing the read or write cycle.

2.3.8 HOLD (Input)

HOLD; indicates that another Master is requesting the use of the Address and Data Buses. The CPU, upon receiving the Hold request. will relinquish the use of buses as soon as the completion of the current machine cycle. Internal processing can continue. The processor can regain the buses only after the Hold is removed. When the Hold is acknowledged, the Address, Data, RD, WR, and IO/M lines are 3stated.

2.3.9 HLDA (Output)

HOLD ACKNOWLEDGE; indicates that the CPU has received the Hold request and that it will relinquish the buses in the next clock cycle. HLDA goes low after the Hold request is removed. The CPU takes the buses one half clock cycle after HLDA goes low.

2.3.10 INTR (Input)

INTERRUPT REQUEST; is used as a general purpose interrupt. It is sampled only during the next to the last clock cycle of the instruction. If it is active, the Program Counter (PC) will be inhibited from incrementing and an INTA will be issued. During this cycle a RESTART or CALL instruction can be inserted to jump to the interrupt service routine. The INTR is enabled and disabled by software. It is disabled by Reset and immediately after an interrupt is accepted.

2.3.11 INTA (Output)

INTERRUPT ACKNOWLEDGE; is used instead of (and has the same timing as) RD during the Instruction cycle after an INTR is accepted. It can be used to activate the 8259 Interrupt chip or some other interrupt port. RST 5.5 RST 6.5 - (Inputs) RST 7.5 RESTART INTERRUPTS; These three inputs have the same timing as I NTR except they cause an internal RESTART to be automatically inserted. RST 7.5 ~~ Highest Priority RST 6.5 RST 5.5 o Lowest Priority The priority of these interrupts is ordered as shown above. These interrupts have a higher priority than the INTR.

2.3.12 TRAP (Input)

Trap interrupt is a nonmaskable restart interrupt. It is recognized at the same time as INTR. It is unaffected by any mask or Interrupt Enable. It has the highest priority of any interrupt.

2.3.13 RESET IN (Input)

Reset sets the Program Counter to zero and resets the Interrupt Enable and HLDA flipflops. None of the other flags or registers (except the instruction register) are affected The CPU is held in the reset condition as long as Reset is applied.

2.3.14 RESET OUT (Output)

Indicates CPlJ is being reset. Can be used as a system RESET. The signal is synchronized to the processor clock.

2.3.15 X1, X2 (Input)

Crystal or R/C network connections to set the internal clock generator X1 can also be an external clock input instead of a crystal. The input frequency is divided by 2 to give the internal operating frequency.

2.3.16 CLK (Output)

Clock Output for use as a system clock when a crystal or R/ C network is used as an input to the CPU. The period of CLK is twice the X1, X2 input period.

2.3.17 IO/M (Output)

IO/M indicates whether the Read/Write is to memory or l/O Tristated during Hold and Halt modes.

2.3.18 SID (Input)

Serial input data line The data on this line is loaded into accumulator bit 7 whenever a RIM instruction is executed.

2.3.19 SOD (output)

Serial output data line. The output SOD is set or reset as specified by the SIM instruction.

2.3.20 Vcc
+5 volt supply.

2.3.21 Vss
Ground Reference.

2.4 8085 microprocessor Functional Description

The 8085A is a complete 8 bit parallel central processor. It requires a single +5 volt supply. Its basic clock speed is 3 MHz thus improving on the present 8080's performance with higher system speed. Also it is designed to fit into a minimum system of three IC's: The CPU, a RAM/ IO, and a ROM or PROM/IO chip. The 8085A uses a multiplexed Data Bus. The address is split between the higher 8bit

Address Bus and the lower 8bit Address/Data Bus. During the first cycle the address is sent out. The lower 8bits are latched into the peripherals by the Address Latch Enable (ALE). During the rest of the machine cycle the Data Bus is used for memory or l/O data. The 8085A provides RD, WR, and lO/Memory signals for bus control. An Interrupt Acknowledge signal (INTA) is also provided. Hold, Ready, and all Interrupts are synchronized. The 8085A also provides serial input data (SID) and serial output data (SOD) lines for simple serial interface. In addition to these features, the 8085A has three maskable, restart interrupts and one non-maskable trap interrupt. The 8085A provides RD, WR and IO/M signals for Bus control.

2.4.1 Status Information

Status information is directly available from the 8085A. ALE serves as a status strobe. The status is partially encoded, and provides the user with advanced timing of the type of bus transfer being done. IO/M cycle status signal is provided directly also. Decoded So, S1 Carries the following status information:

2.4.2 HALT, WRITE, READ, FETCH

S1 can be interpreted as R/W in all bus transfers. In the 8085A the 8 LSB of address are multiplexed with the data instead of status. The ALE line is used as a strobe to enter the lower half of the address into the memory or peripheral address latch. This also frees extra pins for expanded interrupt capability.

2.4.3 Interrupt and Serial l/O

The8085A has5 interrupt inputs: INTR, RST5.5, RST6.5, RST 7.5, and TRAP. INTR is identical in function to the 8080 INT. Each of the three RESTART inputs, 5.5, 6.5. 7.5, has a programmable mask. TRAP is also a RESTART interrupt except it is nonmaskable. The three RESTART interrupts cause the internal execution of RST (saving the program counter in the stack and branching to the RESTART address) if the interrupts are enabled and if the interrupt mask is not set. The non-maskable TRAP causes the internal execution of a RST independent of the state of the interrupt enable or masks. The interrupts are arranged in a fixed priority that determines which interrupt is to be recognized if more than one is pending as follows: TRAP highest priority, RST 7.5, RST 6.5, RST 5.5, INTR lowest priority This priority scheme does not take into account the priority of a routine that was started by a higher priority interrupt. RST 5.5 can interrupt a RST 7.5 routine if the interrupts were re-enabled before the end of

the RST 7.5 routine. The TRAP interrupt is useful for catastrophic errors such as power failure or bus error. The TRAP input is recognized just as any other interrupt but has the highest priority. It is not affected by any flag or mask. The TRAP input is both edge and level sensitive.

2.4.4 Basic System Timing

The 8085A has a multiplexed Data Bus. ALE is used as a strobe to sample the lower 8bits of address on the Data Bus. Figure 2 shows an instruction fetch, memory read and l/ O write cycle (OUT). Note that during the l/O write and read cycle that the l/O port address is copied on both the upper and lower half of the address. As in the 8080, the READY line is used to extend the read and write pulse lengths so that the 8085A can be used with slow memory. Hold causes the CPU to relingkuish the bus when it is through with it by floating the Address and Data Buses.

2.4.5 System Interface

8085A family includes memory components, which are directly compatible to the 8085A CPU. For example, a system consisting of the three chips, 8085A, 8156, and 8355 will have the following features: 2K Bytes ROM 256 Bytes RAM 1 Timer/Counter 4 8bit l/O Ports 1 6bit l/O Port 4 Interrupt Levels Serial In/Serial Out Ports In addition to standard l/O, the memory mapped I/O offers an efficient l/O addressing technique. With this technique, an area of memory address space is assigned for l/O address, thereby, using the memory address for I/O manipulation. The 8085A CPU can also interface with the standard memory that does not have the multiplexed address/data bus.

2.5 The 8085 Programming Model

In the previous tutorial we described the 8085 microprocessor registers in reference to the internal data operations. The same information is repeated here briefly to provide the continuity and the context to the instruction set and to enable the readers who prefer to focus initially on the programming aspect of the microprocessor. The 8085 programming model includes six registers, one accumulator, and one flag register, as shown in Figure. In addition, it has two 16-bit registers: the stack pointer

and the program counter. They are described briefly as follows.

Fig.2. : Programming Model of 8085 Microprocessor

Chapter: 3

Instruction Set of 8085

3.1 Instruction Naming Conventions:
The mnemonics assigned to the instructions are designed to indicate the function of the instruction. The instructions fall into the following functional categories:

3.1.1 Data Transfer Croup:

The data transfer instructions move data between registers or between memory and registers. MOV Move MVI Move Immediate LDA Load Accumulator Directly from Memory STA Store Accumulator Directly in Memory LHLD Load H & L Registers Directly from Memory SHLD Store H & L Registers Directly in Memory An 'X' in the name of a data transfer instruction implies that it deals with a register pair (16bits); LXI Load Register Pair with Immediate data LDAX Load Accumulator from Address in Register Pair STAX Store Accumulator in Address in Register Pair XCHG Exchange H & L with D & E XTHL Exchange Top of Stack with H & L

3.1.2 Arithmetic Group:

The arithmetic instructions add, subtract, increment, or decrement data in registers or memory. ADD Add to Accumulator ADI Add Immediate Data to Accumulator ADC Add to Accumulator Using Carry Flag ACI Add Immediate data to Accumulator Using Carry SUB Subtract from Accumulator SUI Subtract Immediate Data from Accumulator SBB Subtract from Accumulator Using Borrow (Carry) Flag SBI Subtract Immediate from Accumulator Using Borrow (Carry) Flag INR Increment Specified Byte by One

DCR Decrement Specified Byte by One INX Increment Register Pair by One DCX Decrement Register Pair by One DAD Double Register Add; Add Content of Register Pair to H & L Register Pair

3.1.3 Logical Group:

This group performs logical (Boolean) operations on data in registers and memory and on condition flags. The logical AND, OR, and Exclusive OR instructions enable you to set specific bits in the accumulator ON or OFF. ANA Logical AND with Accumulator ANI Logical AND with Accumulator Using Immediate Data ORA Logical OR with Accumulator OR Logical OR with Accumulator Using Immediate Data XRA Exclusive Logical OR with Accumulator XRI Exclusive OR Using Immediate Data The Compare instructions compare the content of an 8-bit value with the contents of the accumulator; CMP Compare CPI Compare Using Immediate Data

3.1.4 Rotating Group:

The rotate instructions shift the contents of the accumulator one bit position to the left or right: RLC Rotate Accumulator Left RRC Rotate Accumulator Right RAL Rotate Left Through Carry RAR Rotate Right Through Carry

3.1.5 Complement and carry flag instructions:

CMA Complement Accumulator CMC Complement Carry Flag STC Set Carry Flag

3.1.6 Branch Group:

The branching instructions alter normal sequential program flow, either unconditionally or conditionally. The unconditional branching instructions are as follows: JMP Jump

CALL Call RET Return Conditional branching instructions examine the status of one of four condition flags to determine whether the specified branch is to be executed. The conditions that may be specified are as follows: NZ Not Zero (Z = 0) Z Zero (Z = 1) NC No Carry (C = 0) C Carry (C = 1) PO Parity Odd (P = 0) PE Parity Even (P = 1) P Plus (S = 0) M Minus (S = 1) Thus, the conditional branching instructions are specified as follows: Jumps Calls Returns C CC RC (Carry) INC CNC RNC (No Carry) JZ CZ RZ (Zero) JNZ CNZ RNZ (Not Zero) JP CP RP (Plus) JM CM RM (Minus) JPE CPE RPE (Parity Even) JP0 CPO RPO (Parity Odd) Two other instructions can affect a branch by replacing the contents or the program counter: PCHL Move H & L to Program Counter RST Special Restart Instruction Used with Interrupts

3.1.7 Stack I/O, and Machine Control Instructions:

The following instructions affect the Stack and/or Stack Pointer: PUSH Push Two bytes of Data onto the Stack POP Pop Two Bytes of Data off the Stack XTHL Exchange Top of Stack with H & L SPHL Move content of H & L to Stack Pointer

3.1.8 The I/O instructions are as follows:

IN Initiate Input Operation OUT Initiate Output Operation

3.1.9 The Machine Control instructions are as follows:

EI Enable Interrupt System DI Disable Interrupt System HLT Halt NOP No Operation

3.2 Addressing Modes

Addressing mode Register - references the data in a register or in a register pair. Register indirect - instruction specifies register pair containing address, where the data is located. Direct, Immediate - 8 or 16-bit Instructions can be categorized according to their method of addressing the hardware registers and/or memory.

3.2.1 Implied Addressing:

The addressing mode of certain instructions is implied by the instructions function. For example, the STC (set carry flag) instruction deals only with the carry flag, the DAA (decimal adjust accumulator) instruction deals with the accumulator.

3.2.2 Register Addressing:

Quite a large set of instructions call for register addressing. With these instructions, you must specify one of the registers A through E, H or L as well as the operation code. With these instructions, the accumulator is implied as a second operand. For example, the instruction CMP E may be interpreted as 'compare the contents of the E register with the contents of the accumulator. Most of the instructions that use register addressing deal with 8-bit values. However, a few of these instructions deal with 16-bit register pairs. For example, the PCHL instruction exchanges the contents of the program counter with the contents of the H and L registers.

3.3.3 Immediate Addressing:

Instructions that use immediate addressing have data assembled as a part of the instruction itself. For example, the instruction CPI 'C' may be interpreted as compare the contents of the accumulator with the letter C. When assembled, this instruction has the hexadecimal value FE43. Hexadecimal 43 is the internal representation for the letter C. When this

instruction is executed, the processor fetches the first instruction byte and determines that it must fetch one more byte. The processor fetches the next byte into one of its internal registers and then performs the compare operation. Notice that the names of the immediate instructions indicate that they use immediate data. Thus, the name of an add instruction is ADD; the name of an add immediate instruction is ADI. All but two of the immediate instructions uses the accumulator as an implied operand, as in the CPI instruction shown previously. The MVI (move immediate) instruction can move its immediate data to any of the working registers including the accumulator or to memory. Thus, the instruction MVI D, OFFH moves the hexadecimal value FF to the D register. The LXI instruction (load register pair immediate) is even more unusual in that its immediate data is a 16-bit value. This instruction is commonly used to load addresses into a register pair. As mentioned previously, your program must initialize the stack pointer; LXI is the instruction most commonly used for this purpose. For example, the instruction LXI SP,3OFFH loads the stack pointer with the hexadecimal value 30FF.

3.3.4 Direct Addressing:

Jump instructions include a 16-bit address as part of the instruction. For example, the instruction JMP 1000H causes a jump to the hexadecimal address 1000 by replacing the current contents of the program counter with the new value 1000H. Instructions that include a direct address require three bytes of storage: one for the instruction code, and two for the 16-bit address

3.3.5 Register Indirect Addressing:

Register indirect instructions reference memory via a register pair. Thus, the instruction MOV M,C moves the contents of the C register into the memory address stored in the H and L register pair. The instruction LDAX B loads the accumulator with the byte of data specified by the address in the B and C register pair.

3.3.6 Combined Addressing Modes:

Some instructions use a combination of addressing modes. A CALL instruction, for example, combines direct addressing and register indirect addressing. The direct address in a CALL instruction specifies the address of the desired subroutine; the register indirect address is the stack pointer. The CALL instruction pushes the current contents of the program counter into the memory location specified by the stack pointer.

3.3.7 Timing Effects of Addressing Modes:

Addressing modes affect both the amount of time required for executing an instruction and the amount of memory required for its storage. For example, instructions that use implied or register addressing, execute very quickly since they deal directly with the processors hardware or with data already present in hardware registers. Most important, however is that the entire instruction can be fetched with a single memory access. The number of memory accesses required is the single greatest factor in determining execution timing. More memory accesses therefore require more execution time. A CALL instruction for example, requires five memory accesses: three to access the entire instruction and two more to push the contents of the program counter onto the stack. The processor can access memory once during each processor cycle. Each cycle comprises a variable number of states. (See below and the appendix of USING THE SDK85 MICROPROCESSOR TRAINER). The length of a state depends on the clock frequency specified for your system, and may range from 480 nanoseconds to 2 microseconds. Thus, the timing for a four state instruction may range from 1.920 microseconds through 8 microseconds. (The 8085 have a maximum clock frequency of 5 MHz and therefore a minimum state length of 200 nanoseconds.)