History of Ancient India

The Harappan Fort in the shape of a parallel square is 460 yards in length (north-south) 215 yards in breadth (east-west) and 15-17 yards in height. The script of Indus civilization was pictorial in which there were more than 600 picture-letters and 60 original letters. The excavations of Chanhudaro were carried out in 1925 under the leadership of Earnest Mckay. This town had no fort. Naal, Daburkot, Rakhi Garhi, Banawali, Rangpur, Lothal, Des Morasi, Kulli, Rana Ghundai, Anjira, Gumla, Amri, Ghundai, Mundigak, Diplabaga, Sahar-i-Sokhta, Bampur and Queta etc. are famous historical sites where the remains of Indus civilization and pre Indus civilization have been excavated. Daburkot, Periano, Ghundai, Kulli, Mehi, Chanhudaro, Amri, Lohumjodaro, Alimurad, Ropar, Rangpur, Sutkegender are the prominent (spots) places of Indus Valley civilization. The excavations of Kalibangan, a historical place in Rajasthan began in 1961 under the direction of B. K. Thapar and B. B. Lal. From the lower layer of the excavation, the remains of pre Indus civilization and from the upper layer of the Indus civilization are discernible. The fortress and the city both were surrounded with walls. The excavations at Rangpuran Indus site in Gujarat were carried out in 1953-54 under the leadership of Rangnath Rao. Forts of raw bricks, drainage, terrecota utensils, weights and slabs of stone have been found but the idol of mother Goddess (Matridevi) and coins have not been found. Lothal was situated at that time near the ocean. In excavations the remains of a dockyard have been found which testify to the trade relations of Indus people with western Asia. In the district of Kutchh in Gujarat state, 12 kms north-east of Adesar is situated Surkotda which was explored and excavated in 1964 under the guidance of Jagatpati Joshi. In the excavation of Indus civilization, a very big building has been explored. It is 242 ft long and 112 ft broad. The walls are 5 ft thick. Some figurines on tables have been found in Indus civilization in the centre of which is a round shaped Sun and around it are the pictures of 6 gods arranged in a way that they appear as if they are the Sun beams. This testifies to the worship of Sun in the period. The proof of the existence of a Man-like being are 1 crore to 20 lacs years old. In the Indian population, there are four basic racial sub-difference. These are Negrito, Astro Australians, Kakeshisi and Mongoloids. In India, skeletons (human body in bones-kankal) have been found in Sarai Nahar Rai near Allahabad, Bataikhor and Lekhania. High in length, flat nose and broad mouth are their characteristics. These belong to Mesolithic age. The pre stone civiliation came to be knwon in the region of river Sohan a subsidiary of Sindhu. Hence it is called Sohan civilization. The Vatikapoom in the form of (Gandasa) axe and Khandak were its main implements. In Harappan culture, the worship of Earth as goddess was in vogue. This is indicated by the idol of a woman with a plant growing out of her womb. Along with the Elephants, Rhinoceros, Buffalos, Lions and Deers, the picture of Yogi engraved on a seal (Muhar) suggests the worship of Shiva in Harappan civilization. This god had three heads and he sat with crossed legs. The Talismans obtained in large numbers indicate that the people of Harappan culture believed in witchcraft or the dead souls. These talismans were made of bronze and copper in the form of plate. In Harappan culture the weight (for measuring) were 16 or of its multiplied numbers. The dogs and cats were the domesticated animals and their foot prints confirm this fact. The remains of the horses have been found at Surkotda. The existence of the horse is not known from the upper layer of Mohanjodaro excavation. The terrecota small figurines provide knowledge about it. The people of Lothal used rice in 1800 B.C. As Sindh was one of the oldest region for cultivating cotton, the Greeks named it as Sedon. In Harappan culture, silver was obtained from Afghanistan, Iran, South India, Arabia and Baluchistan. Gold was imported from Afghanistan and Persia. The stone Lajward was brought from Badakshan, Feroza was brought from Iran. Jayumani was brought from Maharashtra, Moonga and redstone were brought from Saurashtra and Western India and the precious greenstone (Panna) was brought from Central Asia. The Ahar culture (Rajasthan) belonged to the Copper age. The houses were built of stone and a mixture of lime and soil. Paddy was cultivated and Metal Work in Bronze were in vogue. All these were the characteristics of this culture which existed about 2000 B.C. The remains of Malwa stone and Bronze culture have been found in Navdatoli where the houses were built of mud, bamboo and dry grass in a square and round shape. The terrecota utensils and agricultural products

Important Facts of Indian History

of wheat, oil seeds, pulses (Masur) and green and black gram are the characteristics of this culture. The Rishis (Sages) like Gritsamad, Vishwamitra, Bhardwaj, Atri and Vashishta composed the Suktas or the Vedic Mantras. The prominent female sages were Lopamudra, Ghosa, Shachi and Poulomi. Sam Ved is divided into three branches(1) Kouthum, (2) Ranayaniya, (3) Jaminiya. Prominent among the Ayurvedacharyas were Acharya Ashwini Kumar, Dhanvantari, Banabhatt, Sushrut, Madhav, Jeevan and Lolimbaraja etc. Ayur Ved is an Upaved of Rig Ved, Dhanur Ved is Upaved of Yajur Ved, Gandharva Ved is the Upaved of Sam Ved and Shilpa Ved is the Upaved of Atharva Ved. Rig Ved has two Brahmans(1) Aitereya, (2) Kaushitaki. Krishna Yajur Ved has the BrahmanTaitteriya and Shukla Yajur Ved has the Shatpath Brahman. The Brahmans of Sam Ved are Tandav, Panchvish, Sadvish and Chhandogya. The Aranyakas deal with life, death and other serious themes. These are written and studied in loneliness of the forests. Aitereya and Kaushitaki are the Aranyakas of Rig Ved. The author of Aitereya was Mahidas Aitereya. Taitteriya Aranyaka belongs to Krishna Yajur Veda. Sam Ved and Atharav Ved have no Aranyakas. Prominent among the Upanishads are Ish, Ken, Kath, Prashn, Mundak, Mandukya, Taitteriya, Aitereya, Chhandogya, Vrihadaranyak, Shwetashwara, Kaushitaki and Mahanarayana. During the Rigvedic period Nishk was an ornament for the neck; Karnashobhan was an ornament for the ear and Kumbh was the ornament for the head. In the Rigvedic age, the Aryans domesticated the cow, the buffalo, goat (ajaa), horse, elephant and camel etc. Bheeshaj was the person who treated the sick people. The Rigvedic Aryans worshipped the Sun as Savita, Mitra, Pooshan and Vishnu. Sun was called the Eye of Gods; and Agni the Mouth of Gods. Agni was considered to be the Purohit of the Aryans. They thought that the offering of the Yajna reaches to the gods through Agni. Varun was worshipped as a spatial god. In Rig Veda, Usha, Sita, Prithvi, Aranyani, Ratri, Vak are worshipped as goddesses. Besides Rig Ved, the reference of Sita as the goddess of agriculture is made in Gomil Grihya Sutra and Paraskar Grihya Sutra. The ancient idols of Ganesh show his main weapons as Paash and Ankush. In the Rigvedic age the traders were called Pani. They stole away the cattle of the Aryans. Das or Dasyas were more hated than the Pani. They have been referred as black complexioned inauspicious and opposed to Yajnas. They were the worshippers of Phallus (Shishnadev). In the Rigvedic age, the cow was the backbone of economy. It was called Aghanyanot to be killed, war has been referred as Gavisthi, the guest as Mohan and the daughter as Duhiti. One Rik refers to the domestication of sheep. Vashishtha who replaced Vishwamitra as Purohit of King Sudas, has been mentioned as adopted son of Urvashi, and born of the Virya of Mitra and Varun on an earthen pot. Ballabh and Tarukshadas were chieftains who lavishly donated to the Purohits and through their grace obtained respect and high place in the Aryan society. Savitri is referred in the famous Gayatri Mantra. In Rig Ved the maximum reference is made of Indra. After him Varun is referred to. In the earlier Richas Varun and Marut have been mentioned as Gan. Twasta also was a Vedic God. Prajapati has been referred as the Adi Purushthe first human (male). The gods were his children. In Rig Ved, the king has been mentioned as the Protector of the clan or the Gopta Janasya. The reference to Sabha, Samiti, Gan, Vidath is made as the Tribal Councils. No bureaucracy developed in Rigvedic age. Yet the officer of Gochar land were called Vrajpati, the officer of the village was called Gramani. He was the commander. The chief of the family is referred as Kulap. The words like Vrat, Gan, Gram and Shardh have also been used for indicating the group of Soldiers. In Rig Ved Jan is used 275 times, Vish is used 170 times. Sangram is the word which indicates war between the villages. The God of Vegetation. It was also an intoxicating drink and the method of its preparation is referred in the Rig Ved. The later Vedic literature was written during 1100 to 600 B.C. The painted grey warebowls and plates were used and the tools which they used were made of iron. The main crop of the later Vedic age was wheat and paddy instead of barley. In the later Vedic age, the Vidath were extinct but the Sabha and the Samiti existed. In this period, the King performed the rites of Rajsuya Yajna with a desire to obtain divine power, Ashwamedha Yajna to expand the empire and the Vajpeya Yajna for chariot racing with friends and relatives of his Gotra. The Gotra system began in the later Vedic age. The custom of marrying outside the Gotra also started.

 In the literature of later Vedic age, the first three Ashrams are mentioned(1) Brahmcharya, (2) Grihastha, (3) Banprastha. The Sanyas Ashram is not mentioned. In later Vedic period the plant Som could not be obtained easily. As such other drinks were also used. Gold and Silver were mainly used for making ornaments and utensils. Other metals were used for making many other implements in the later Vedic era. In later Vedic period, the commercial classes (Traders) organized themselves in Sangh. The Aryans conducted sea trade. Nisk, Satman and Krishal were usded as coins for trade purposes. In comparison to the religion of Rigvedic period, the later Vedic religion had become very complex. Purohits, Yajna and sacrifice were considered important. Many types of Yajnas were performed. The Shatpath Brahman refers to the various steps in progress of cultivationJutai (ploughing), Buwai (planting), Lawani (weaning), Mandai (cutting) are the various processes mentioned in it. Sangam literature is compiled in 8 books. They are(1) Narune, (2) Kuruntoge, (3) Aigunuru, (4) Padirupyuttu, (5) Paripadal, (6) Karlittorga, (7) Nedultoge, (8) Purnanuru. In the Sangam age, the Tamil Grammar was written in a detailed book, Tolakappiyam. With the songs of the musicians, the dancers known as Panar and Widelier used to dance. Pedinekilkanku is a famous composition of Sangam literature. Sangam is a Sanskrit word meaning a Congregation and a Council. The main theme of the Sangam literature is Romance (Shringar) and heroism (Veergatha). Shringar is called as Aham and Veergatha has been called as Puram. The first Sangam was organized at Madurai under the chairmanship of Rishi Agastya. The second Sangam was organized at Kapatpuram again under the chairmanship of Rishi Agastya. The third Sangam was organized at Madurai and it was chaired by Nakkirar. Avey was the family of Sangam age which meant Sabha (assembly). Panchvaram was the assembly of the advisors of the King of Sangam age. Ur was the institution which looked after the city administration. The excavation of Arikmedu, provide enough evidence to prove that once opon a time, the cantonements of the Roman traders resided there. The teachers in the Sangam age were called as Kanakkaters. The students in the Sangam age were called Bhanwan or Pillai. Parshvanath arranged for fourfold vows (Chaturvrata) for the Bhikshus (monks)(1) I shall not kill the living beings, (2) I shall always speak the truth, (3) I shall not steal, (4) I shall not keep any property. Mahavir Swami has been called Nigashtha, Naatputra and Nirgranth Saatputra. Mahavir Swami left his mortal frame and attained Nirvana at Pawapuri near Patna in Bihar. The Triratna in Jainism are described as Samyak Shraddha (veneration), Samyak Gyan (knowledge) and Samyak Acharana (conduct). According to Jainism, Nirvana (redemption) to free the soul from the physical bondage. Mahavir Swami has described five vows for the common people which are called as Panchmaha-vrat. These areTruth, Non-violence, No stealing, No collection of wealth or anything and celibacy (Satya, Ahimsa, Astey, Aparigrah and Brahamacharya). To these was later added, Not to eat at Night. Kaivalya is total knowledge which the Nirgranthget. Buddha was born in the Lumbini forest, 14 km beyond Kapilvastu in Nepal Tarai. Kaundinya, a Brahmin astrologer, was contemporary of Buddha. Gautam obtained knowledge at Gaya. Hence the place is called Bodh Gaya. The first sermon of Buddha is known as Dharma Chakra Pravartan. Mahatma Buddha delivered his first sermon at Rishipattan (Sarnath). The followers of Buddha were divided into four sections(1) Bhikshu or the monks, (2) Bhik-shuni or lady monks, (3) Upasaks or devotees, (4) Upasikas or lady devotees. After delivering his teachings for constant 45 years, Mahatma Buddha attained Mahaparinirvan at the age of 80 at Kushinara (Kushinagar). Tripitaks are(1) Vinay Pitak, (2) Suttpitak, (3) Abhidhamma Pitak. Vinay Pitak is divided into 3 sections(1) Sutta Vibhag, (2) Khandhak, (3) Pariwar. Suttpitak containsDiggh Nikay, Majjhim Nikay, Anguttar Nikay and Khuddak Nikay. In Abhidhamma Pitak, philosophical and spiritual thoughts are contained. There are seven treatises of Abhidhamma Pitak (1) Dhamma Sangeeti, (2) Vibhang, (3) Dhatu Katha, (4) Puggal Panjati, (5) Katha Vastu, (6) Yamak, (7) Patthan. The eightfold paths are(1) Right belief, (2) Right thought, (3) Right speech, (4) Right action, (5) Right means of livelihood, (6) Right execution, (7) Right remembrance, (8) Right meditation. In Buddhism, the Astangikmarg (eight fold path) is classified as(1) Praja Skandh, (2) Sheel Skandh, (3) Samadhi Skandh. Under Praja Skandh comeSamyak Drishti, Samyak Sankalp and Samyak Vani (speech). Under Sheel Skandh comeSamyak Karmant, Samyak Aajeev. Under Samadhi Skandh comeSamyak Vyayam, Samyak Smriti and Samyak Samadhi.

 Mahatma Buddha was silent on the existence of God or otherwise but he did not believe in the existence of soul. The first Buddhist Council was convened after a few years of Buddhas death under the chairmanship of Mahakassap in Saptparna caves near Rajgrih. The second Buddhist Council was organized at Vaisali. The third Buddhist Council was convened at Patliputra during the regime of Asoka. The fourth Buddhist Council was convened at Kashmir during the regime of Kanishka. Purans are said to be 18 in number of which Bhagwat Puran is very renowned. Bhagwatism is mentioned for the first time in the Bhishm Parva of Mahabarat. The Dravida Vaishnav devotees are known as the Alwars. A Brahman named Kautilya or Chanakya played a significant role in the establishment of the Mauryan empire. In the Greek writings, Chandra Gupta Maurya is called Sandrocottus. Arien and Plutarch have called him Androcottus. In the Mudra Rakshas written by Vishakhdutt, Chandra Gupta Maurya is called Chandragiri Chandrashree. In Buddhist literature, Mahavansh Tika is the book which throws ample light on the life of Chandra Gupta Maurya. Indika was written by Megasthenese. In the book Mahavansh, Chandra Gupta Maurya is said to be Kshatriya by caste. After being defeated in war with Chandra Gupta, Selukose offered him Gadrosia (Baluchistan), Acrosia (Kandahar), Aria (Herat) and a part of Hindukush. Sudarshan Lake at Junagarh was built by Chandra Gupta Maurya. The Mahasthan inscription points out Chandra Guptas ascendancy over Bengal. The Rudradaman inscription of Girnar testifies to the suzerainty of Chandra Gupta over Saurashtra. According to Jain Texts, Chandra Gupta in the last years of his life, accepted Jainism and went to Mysore with the Jain monk Bhadrabahu. The empire of Chandra Gupta spread from Himalaya in the north to Mysore in the south; and from Bengal in the east to Baluchistan in the west. It covered Punjab, Sindh, Kashmir, Doab of Ganga and Yamuna, Magadh, Bengal, Malwa, Saurashtra and the region of Mysore. The administrative system of Chandra Gupta Maurya was Monarchy. In order to administer well, Chandra Gupta Maurya appointed a Council of Ministers. In the Mauryan age, the officer who collected the trade taxes was called Shulkadhyaksha. The Chairman of the Government services was known as Sutradhyaksha in the Mauryan age. The officer-in-charge of Weight and Measures was known as Peetadhyaksha in the Mauryan age. In Mauryan age, the officer who controlled the manufacture of wine, its sale and purchase and its consumption was Suradhyaksha. The chairman of the agricultural department was called Seetadhyaksha in Mauryan age. There were many officers such as Ganikadhyaksha,` Mudradhyaksha, Navadhyaksha, Ashwadhyaksha and Devtadhyaksha etc. in the Mauryan Age. The officer who kept the details of total income and expenditure of the State and decided the economic policy was called Sannidhata. Under him, worked officers like Treasurer and Shulkadhyaksha. In Mauryan age, the minister of factories and mines was called Karmantirak. His main task was to excavate different metals from the mines and look after the factories. In Mauryan age the Amatya of Fauzdari (Criminal) Court was called Pradeshta. The Amatya of the Civil Court was known as Vyavaharik. The Greek scholars have described the Amatyas as the seventh caste. The successor of Chandra Gupta Maurya is called name Bindusara in majority of the Puranas. Ceylonese works, Buddhist textsand in Deepvansh and Mahavansh. In Vayu Puran, his name is given as Bhadrasaar. In some of the Purans he is called as Varisaar. In the Chinese textFa-Uen-Chu-Lin, he is called as Bindupal. In another book Rajabalikatha, the successor and son of Chandra Gupta is called as Sinhasen. Ptolemy, the ruler of Egypt sent Dioniyas as his ambassador to the Court of Bindusaar. In Chandra Gupta Mauryas time, the chief of the city was called Nagaradhyaksha who worked like the modern District Magistrate. The smallest unit of the administration was the village. Its chief officer was called Gramik or Gramani. Gramani was elected by the people of the village. In every village, there was an officer who was called Gram Bhojak. In the administration of Chandra Gupta Maurya the department of espionage was well organized. According to Kautilya, there were two sections of the secret service(1) Sansthan, (2) Sancharan. In the inscriptions, Asoka is called Devanampriya and Priyadarshi. The Ceylonese sources and Deepvansh, call him, Priyadarshan and Priyadarshi. Scholars think that these were his titles. Asoka appointed an officer called Mahamatras in every city and district.

 In the 13th year of his reign, he appointed Dharma Mahamatra and Dharmayukta for the first time for the happiness and peace of his people. Upagupta was a Bauddhist monk of Mathura under his influence, Asoka changed his religion and accepted Buddhism. Asoka sent his daughter Sanghmitra and son Mahendra to spread Buddhism in Sri Lanka. In the mini edicts Asoka calls himself a Buddha Shakya. Asoka sent Majjhantik to propogate Buddhism in Kashmir. In 1750, it was Teffenthaler who first explored the Asokan pillars. Asokas last edict was found by Beadon in 1915 at Maski. The small edicts of Asoka are of two types. According to Smith, they were written in 259-232 B.C. The first kind of Asokan small pillar edicts are available at Roopnath in Jabalpur district, Sahasaram in Shahabad district of Bihar, Maski, in Raichoor district, and Vairat in Rajasthan. The second type of Asokan edicts have been found at Siddhpur (Chitralahug, Mysore) Jatig, Rameshwar and Brahmagiri. The Bhabru edict was found at Bairath near Jaipur in Rajasthan. In this edict seven precepts of Buddhism have been given which Asoka liked most and he desired that the people should read them and make their conduct accordingly. This edict is preserved in Kolkata Museum. Two edicts about Kalinga have been found at Dhauli and Jaugarh. In these, the principles of behaviour with he people of Kalinga and with the frontier people have been outlined. Asokan small edicts have been found at about 15 places. The Erangudi edict was found in Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh at a place known as Erangudi. The Maski small edict was found from Maski village of Raichoor district of Andhra Pradesh. It contains the name of Asoka. The Rajul Mandgiri edict was found on a mound 20 miles beyond Erangudi in Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh. The Gurjara edict has been found from a village named Gurjara in Datia district of Madhya Pradesh. It also mentions the name of Asoka. Ahraura edict was found from a hill of the village Ahraura in Mirzapur district of U.P. Palgoraria edict was found in 1975. The Sannati inscription (edict) has been found in the village Sannati in the district of Gulbarga of Karnatic State. The cave inscription are three in number which have been found in the Barabar hills of Gaya city in Bihar. These refer to the charity performed by the King to the Ajivaks. The language of the Kandahar edict is Greek and Aramaic. The Topara pillar edict has been found from a village named Topara in Haryana. In the course of time Firoz Tughlaq brought it to Delhi where it is kept at Feroz Shah Kotla ground. Rumindei small pillar edict was found from the Tarai of Nepal. Most of Asokan edicts are written in Prakrit language. In Gupta age ships and boats were manufactured in large numbers. Gujarat, Bengal and Tamil Nadu were the main centres of cotton industry. Trade between India and China was carried on before Gupta age, in 2nd century. India had trade relations with eastern, countries. They were called Swarnabhumi (land of gold). Peshawar, Bharaunch, Ujjaini, Varanasi, Prayag, Patliputra, Mathura, Vaishali and Tamralipti were trade centres. In west Bharaunch and in east, Tamralipti were prominent ports. Gold, silver, bronze, tin, campher, dates and horses were imported. The collective unit of the people who worked in various industries, were known as Kuliks. Kulik Nigam and Shreshthi Nigam were the unions of wealthy traders. The Kulik Nigam had its own seal which was used in commercial correspondence and the trade-goods. In the Gupta age, India maintained trade relations with Arabia. Horses were imported from Arabia and Iran. The Seals of Kulik have been excavated from the town Meeta near Allahabad. From Vaishali 274 Seals of Sarthwah Kulik Nigam have been excavated prove that it was a great institution of the Gupta age. Trade with China, Japan and Sumatra was carried from the port of Tamralipti. In Gupta age the land tax was known as Udrang. Kadur and Charpal were the ports situated in Andhra Pradesh. Kaveripattanam and Tondai were the ports of Chola State. Kokai and Saliyur were the ports of Pandya State. Kottayam and Mujris were the ports of Malwa State. Sindhu, Orhoth, Kalyan and Mibor were other main ports for trade. Hiranya was the tax realized in cash. Bhutavat Pratyaya was the tax levied upon the imports from other

countries. Haldand was the tax charged on the ploughed land. A definite portion of the produce from agricultural land was charged as the land tax by the State. It was called Bhag tax. Generally it was charged in kind. In the Gupta age, the land was donated only to the Brahmans. The land donated to Brahmans was called Brahmdeya. The tax free villages of the Brahmans were called Agrahara. In the Gupta age, the Gram Parishads (village councils) were autonomous and free from the State control. The uncultivated land was the property of the king. The women who remained unmarried throughout their life and passed their time in studies were called Brahmavadinis. Taxila, Varanasi and Ujjaini were prominent centres of education. In the Gupta society, intercaste marriages were performed. The slave system was practised in the Gupta age. The joint family system was in vogue in Gupta society. In the women though not as much respected as in Vedic period, yet enjoyed important position in the society of Gupta age. Sheelbhattarika was an educated and worthy woman of the Gupta age. Widow remarriages were performed in the Gupta age, But some works of the age speak against it. Chandra Gupta II married the widow of Ramgupta, his brother. Her name was Dhruva Swamini. Prostitutes, expert in music and dance, and perfect in sexology were called Ganikas. The traders and commercial professionals had their Shrenis in Gupta age. The Patkar, Tailik (oil traders), Pashan Kottak (stone cutters) were important Shrenis. The author of Swapnavasavaduttam was an eminent prose writer. The author of Bhattikavya or Ravan Vadh, was Bhatti, an eminent poet of Gupta age. Bhartahari worte Niti Shatak, Shringar Shatak and Vairagya Shatak which became very famous. Some scholars believe that Bhartahari is another name for Bhatti. Kuntleshwar Daityam is a drama that testifies to the fact that Kalidas belonged to the Gupta age. Abhigyanshakuntalam Meghdoot Ritusanhar are some of the major works of Kalidas. Kamsutra is a famous book on Sexology written by Vatsyayan. Vaibhashik and Sanghbhadra were the two Acharyas (teachers) of the Gupta age who wrote the literature of the Vaibhashik sect

Sources of Ancient Indian History

Sources of ancient Indian History can be described under the following five headings:1. Literary Sources: The ancient Indian literature were mostly religious in nature and contains no definite date for events and kings eg. the Puranas and the epics. Vedic literature has no trace of political history but has a reliable glimpses of culture and civilisation of the age. The epics like Ramayana, Mahabharata and the Jaina and Buddhist religious texts supply us with some important historical material with doses of religious messeges. Upanishadas: Main source of Indian philosophy; also called "Vedantas" Jaina Parisistapravana, Buddhist Dwipavamsa and Mahavamsa contain traditions which supply us some historical materials. Gargi Samhita , a book on astronomy, the grammer of Panini and Patanjali also contain materials that help us in the recontruction of the history of the ancient period of India. From the second half of the ancient period of Indian history, there are not only panegyrics of kings and emperors but also political treatises dealing with the principles of administration. Kautilya's Arthasastra andManusmriti may be mentioned in this connection. It was a work of the Maurya period. Vishakhadatta'sMudrarakshasa gives a glimpse of Maurya society and

culture. Similarly, events of the Pushyamitra Sunga's reign are mentioned by Kalidasa in Malvikagnimitram. Among the personal accounts of ancient period, Banabhatta's Harshacharita , dealing with the character and achievements of Harshvardhana as also history of his times, Bakpatiraja's Gaudabaho describings how Yasovarman conquered Gauda deserves special mention. Poet Bilhana described the history of the reign of Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI in his Vikramanka Charita . Sandhyaakar Nandi's Ramacharita is a description of the reign of Rampal, a king of the Pala dynasty of Bengal. Kalhana's Rajatarangini is a valuable book on the history of the kings of Kashmir. Likewise, Padmagupta's Nabasahasanka Charita, Hem Chandra's Dwasraya Kavya , Nyaya Chandra's Hammir materials. Kavya , Ballal's Bhoja Prabandha contains important historical

2. Archaeological Evidence :The archaeological evidence is obtained by the systematic and skilled examination of building monuments, and work of art. The credit for excavating the preAryan past goes to Sir William Jones of Asiatic Society of Bengal (established on 1st January 1784). General Sir Alexander Cunningham, one of its Royal Engineers, dugged out the ruins of ancient site of pre-Aryan culture. From his arrival in India in 1831, Cunningham, the Father of Indian Archaeology devoted every minute he could spare from his military duties to the study of material remains of ancient India, until in 1862, the Indian government established the post of Archaeological Surveyor, to which he was appointed. Until his retirement in 1885, he devoted himself to the unravelling of India's past with complete single-heartedness. In 1901, Lord Curzon revived and enlarged the Archaeological Survey and appoint John Marshall its Director General. The discovery of India's oldest cities dating back to the second Inter-Glacial period between 400,000 and 200,000 BC in 1921 by Daya Ram Shahni was the biggest achievement of Archaeological Survey of India under Marshall, the first relics of which were noticed by Cunningham. The cities discovered were named Harappa and Mohenjodaro and the civilisation as the Indus Valley Civilisation. In 1922, an Indian officer of the Archaeological Survey, R.D.Banerjee, founded further seals at Mohenjodaro in Sindh, and recongnized that they were remains of a pre-Aryan civilisation of great antiquity. Under Sir John Marshall's direction, the sites were systematically excavated from 1924 until his retirement in 1931. 3. Inscriptions : Inscriptions are the most reliable evidence and their study is

called epigraphy . These are mostly carved on gold, silver, iron, copper, bronze plates or stone pillars, rocks temple walls and bricks and are free from interpolations. Inscriptions again are mainly of three types:- royal eulogy, official documents like royal rescripts, boundary marks, deeds, gift, etc. and private records of votive, donative or dedicative type. Inscriptions in Prakrit, Pali, Sanskrit, Telgu, Tamil and other languages have been discovered. But most of the inscriptions are in Brahmi and Kharosti scripts.

James Prinsep, the Secretary of the Asiatic Society of Bengal succeeded for the first time in deciphering the Brahmi script. Among the inscriptions of ancient past, those of emperor Ashoka are by far the best historical evidence about his reign. Inscriptions of Kharvela, king of Kalinga, Saka rular Rudradamana, Allahabad Prasasti by Harisena, the court poet of Samudragupta, are important evidences for the reconstruction of the history of India. 4. Coins : The study of coins is known as numismatics. Thousands of ancient Indian coins have been discovered from which idea about the contemporary economic condition, currency system, development of the matallurgical art has been obtained. The image of Samudragupta playing on a lyre gives us an idea of his love of music. From the dates on the coins, it has been possible to understand the contemporary political history. Samudragupta's Aswamedha coins and Lion-slayer coins gives us an idea of his ambition and love of hunting. 5. Accounts of the Foreigners : A great deal of our knowledge of ancient Indian History are supplemented by the writing of foreigners. The below table gives a brief survey of important literary works of foreign scholars, mentioning the subjects their works deals with.

Literary Works of Foreign Authors

Author Magasthenes(G) Indica Ptolemy(G) Pliny(G) Anonymous(G) Fa-Hien(C) Geography Naturakus Historia Periplus of the Erythrean Sea Record of the Buddhist Countries Book Subject Valuable information on administration and socio-economic of Mauryan India Geographical Century AD Accounts trade relations between Rome and India in 1st Century AD Records personal voyage of Indian coasts in 80 A.D. Records the Gupta Empire in the 5th Century AD treatise on India in 2nd

Hiuen Tsang(C)

Describes the social, economic and religious Buddhist Records of the Western conditions of India in the 5th and 7th World Century AD. A record of the Buddhists religion as Studies the Gupta period under Sri Gupta in practised in India and Malay the 7th Century AD. Archipelago. Life of Hiuen Tsang Accounts Hiuen Tsang's travel in India.

I-tsing(C) Hwuili(C)

G-Greek,C-Chinese

Introudction

The ancient civilization of India grew up in a sharply demarcated subcontinent bounded on the north by the world's largest mountain rangethe chain of the Himalayas, which, with its extensions to east and west, divided India from the rest of Asia and the world. The long sea coasts of India facilitated the growth of maritime trade and a large number of harbours were established through which trade relations with Rome, China, Malaya, South East Asian archipelago were set up. India's centralised position in Indian Ocean is also of great strategic economic importance. and

India is a curious meeting place of diverse religions, races, manners and customs. From the point of religion, India is the home of the Hindus, Muslims, Buddhists, Christians, Jains, Sikhs and the Paris. Diversity is also to be seen in the languages of the Indian people. From the points of view of race, religions, language, manners and customs, the Indians constitute a composite population. In ancient literature, mention is found of five natural divisions of India:1. Madhyadesa,i.e. Indo Gangetic plain stretcing from the valley of the river Saraswat to the Rajmahal Hill. This division has been known as Aryavarta from the ancient times. 2. Uttarapatha or Udichya i.e. North-West India 3. Pratichyaor Aparanta i.e. Western India 4. Dakshinapatha or Dakshinatya i.e. the area south of Madhyadesa 5. Prachya or Purvadesa, the region east of Madhyadesa The course of history is also shaped through geographical factors, such as geology, climate, etc. The study of Indian physiography, therefore, can be classified into three territorial compartments, such as the northern plains of the Indus and Ganga basin, the Deccan plateau lying to the south of the Narmada and to the north of Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers and the far south Tamil states. Rivers made the irrigation easier by continuous supply of perennial water to this tract which includes the states of Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan. The horizontal and vertical excavations have helped uncover the period-wise sequences of cultres and of ancient remains. Excavations have brought to light the cities which the people established around 2500 BC. They also reveal the layouts of the settlements in which people lived, the types of pottery they used, the form of house in which people dwelt, the kind of food they ate, and the types of

implements they used. The vast variety of rich vegetation and congenial regular weather chain suited the human habitat and the pages of history and replete with the stories of their linux. The Mahajanapadas attracted the risings of smaller states. As early as in 5th century BC, Herodotusobserved that "of all the nations, that we know, it is India has the largest population."

Sources of Ancient Indian History Pre Historic Period Indus Valley Civilisation Vedic Age Rise of Mahajanapadas

Points to Remember

Father Hameleden was the first to master Sanskrit language and compile a grammer book.

Father Coeurdoux recognised the kinship of Sanskrit and languages of Europe in 1767.

Alexander Hamilton (1762-1824), a French, was the first person to teach Sanskrit in Europe.

Freidrich Schlegel was the first German Sanskritist.

Franz Bopp (1791-1867) succeded in reconstructing the common ancestor of classical languages of Europe and Sanskrit in 1816.

Friedrich Max Muller (1823-1900) edited the translation of Rig Veda

Otto Bohtlingk and Rudolf Roth produced the Sanskrit-German dictionary known as the StPetersburg Lexicon

James Prinsep successfully interpreted for the first time the earliest Brahmi script in 1837. He was able to read the edicts of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka.

William English.

Jones translated

in

1789

Kalidasa's

masterpiece Abhijnana-Shakuntalam into

Wilkins translated the Bhagwat Gita into English in 1785.

Indias history and culture is ancient and dynamic, spanning back to the beginning of human civilization. Indian History in Short:The History of India begins with the Indus Valley Civilization, which spread through in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent, from 3300 BC to 1300 BC. This Bronze Age civilization collapsed at the beginning of the second millennium BC and was followed by the Iron Age Vedic period, which extended over much of the Indo-Gangetic plains and which witnessed the rise of kingdoms known as the Mahajanapadas.

In the fifth century, large parts of India were united under Ashoka. He also converted to Buddhism, and it is in his reign that Buddhism spread to other parts of the Asia. In the reign of Mauryas, Hinduism took shape fundamentally. In the eight century Islam came to India and by the 11th century it firmly established itself in India. The North Indian dynasties of the Lodhis, Tughlaqs, and numerous others, whose remains are visible in Delhi and scattered elsewhere around North India, were finally succeeded by the Mughal empire, under which India once again achieved a large measure of political unity.

The European presence in India date to the seventeenth century, and it is in the latter part of this century that the Mughal empire began to disintegrate, paving the way for regional states. During the first half of the 20th century, a natiowide struggle for independence was launched by the Indian National Congress, and later joined by the Muslim League. The subcontinent gained independence from Great Britain in 1947, after being partitioned into the dominions of India and Pakistan.

The History of India can be broadly divided into following three categories.

Ancient India

Starting from Harappa Civilization in 3000 BC till Chola Dynasty in 985 AD.

Medieval India

Starting from Ghazni sacks Somnath Temple in 1026 AD till Siraj-ud-daulah captures Calcutta (Now Kolkatta) in 1756 AD.

Modern India

Starting from Battle of Plassy in 1757 Till Partition of India and Independence on 15 August 1947.

See Also:-

Imp. Dates of Indian History Imp. Battles of Indian History

Indus Valley Facts at a Glance

The state which has accounted for highest number of Harappan independence : Gujarat sites after

Evidence of cultivation of peas. Till has been traced from Harappa, paddy from Lothal

Three Harappan sites that have yielded three stages of Harappan Civilization (PreHarappan, Harappan and post-Harappan : Rojde, Desalpur and Surkotada )

Harappans had trade relations Mesopotamians around 2300 BC.

with

Largest Harappan site in India is situated in Haryana Rakhigarhi, second largest is Dholavira in Gujarat. Dimension of Brick-length 11 inches, width -5.5 inches, depth -2.75 inches, ratio 4 2:1

Most commonly engraved animal Harappan seals : Humpless bull

on or

unicorn Site which have yielded evidence of a preHarappan settlement: Kot-Diji, Kalibangan and Harappa

Harappan wheels were axeless Mohenjo-daro had 10.5 mt wide road. In Harappa, perhaps because of river Ravi the Granery is outside the fort. In the Lothal Port, there was a dockyard which is 216 meters in length and 37 meters in breadth Sukotada is the only Indus site where remains of a horse have actually been found.

Major Harappan cities that acted as ports : Lothal, Balakot, Suktagendor and Allahdin (Pakistan) The Harappan city with most impressive drainage system : Mohenjo-daro The geometric shape of the region covered by the Indus civilisation : Triangle Wheeler said: Indus Valley is the colony of Sumerians Lions have not been found anywhere in Harappa. Mother goddess was not worshipped at Rangpur. A Kushana period Stupa has been found from Mohenjo-daro

Terracoota seals at Mehargarh were the precussors of Harappan seals. Wider road of Harappa was 30 foot.

found earliest

Most common materials used for the Harappan stone sculpture : Limestone and steatite Time span of the Harappan civilization as fixed on the basis of radio-carbon dating: 2300 BC - 1750 BC.

The name 'India' is derived from the River Indus, the valleys around which were the home of the early settlers. The Aryan worshippers referred to the river Indus as the Sindhu. The Persian invaders converted it into Hindu. The name 'Hindustan' combines Sindhu and Hindu and thus refers to the land of the Hindus Algebra, Trigonometry and Calculus are studies, which originated in India. The world's highest cricket ground is in Chail, Himachal Pradesh. Built in 1893 after leveling a hilltop, this cricket pitch is 2444 meters above sea level Ayurveda is the earliest school of medicine known to mankind. The Father of Medicine, Charaka, consolidated Ayurveda 2500 years ago. India exports software to 90 countries. Jainism and Buddhism were founded in India in 600 B.C. and 500 B.C. respectively.

Islam is India's and the world's second largest religion. Jews and Christians have lived continuously in India since 200 B.C. and 52 A.D. respectively Sikhism originated in the Holy city of Amritsar in Punjab. Famous for housing the Golden Temple, the city was founded in 1577.

In 1924, scholars in history were roused by the announcement ofSir John Marshall that his Indian aides, particularly R.D.Banerjee , discovered (1922-23) at Mohenjo-daro in the Larkana district of Sind, now in Pakistan, the remains of a civilisation, one of the oldest of the world. A few hundred miles towards the north of Mohenjo-daro, four or five superimposed cities were excavated at Harappa in the Montgomery district of the Punjab, now in Pakistan. That the civilisation was not confined to the limits of the Indus Valley can be understood from the finds of relics of the same civilisation at the Sutkagendor on the sea board of the south Baluchistan, in the west of Alamgirpur in the Uttar Pradesh in the east. Until the discovery of the remains of the Indus Civilisation, it was believed by scholars that the history of India practically began with the coming of the Aryans. But this theory is an exploded one and the pre-historic civilisation of India, that is, the Indus Valley Civilisation.

Controversial Period Economic Life Geographical Extent Political Life Social and Religious Life Town Planning Indus Valley Facts

Name of Sites

Year of Excavation

Excavators

Region/River

Features 1. City followed grid

Harappa

1921

Daya Sahni

Ram

Montgomery district of Punjab (Now in Pak) on the left bank of Ravi

planning 2. Row of six granaries 3. Only place having evidences of coffin burial 4. Evidence of fractional burial and coffin burial 5. Cemetery-H of alien

people.

1. City followed planning

grid

2. A large granary and Great Bath, a college 3. Human skeletons showing invasiona and massacre. 4. Evidence of Horse

Mohenjodaro

1922

R.D.Banarjee

Larkana district in Sind on the right bank of Indus(Now in Pak)

come from superficial level. 5. A piece cotton spindle needles 6. Town more times. of woven alongwith whorls was then and

flooded seven

1. The city has no citadal 2. Famous for makers shop bead

Chanhudaro

N. 1931

Gopal

3. A small pot, possibly an inkpot Situtated in Sind on the bank of Indus 4. Foot prints of a dog chasing a cat 5. Three cultural Indus,Jhukar Jhangar different layers, and

Majumdar, Mackey

1. Shows

both

Pre and

Harappan Harappan phase

2. Evidence of furrowed land Kalibangan 1953 A. Ghosh Situated in Rajasthan on the Bank of Ghaggar 3. Evidence of seven fire altars and camel bones 4. Many houses had

their own well 5. Kalibangan stand for black bangles 6. Evidence of wooden

furrow

1. A titled bears

floor which intersecting

design of circles 2. Remains of rice husk 3. Evidence from a Situated in Gujarat on Lothal 1953 S.R. Rao Bhogava river Gulf of Cambay near of horse terracotta

figurine 4. A ship designed on a seal 5. Beads & trade ports 6. An instrument measuring for

angles,pointing to modern day compass

1. Shows both Harappan Banwali 1974 R.S. Bisht Situated in Hissar district of Haryana Harppan phase 2. Good quantity barley found here 3.

Preand of

Situated Surkotada 1964 J.P. Joshi (Bhuj) Gujarat

in district

Kutch of

1. Bones of horses, Bead making shops

1. Trade point between Harappa and Babylon, Sutkagendor 1927 Stein, R.L. Situated in Baluchistan on Dast River belong phase to mature

2. Evidence of horse

Amri

1935

N.G. Majumdar

Situated in Sind on the bank of Indus

1. Evidence of antelope

1. Seven cultural stages Situated in Gujarat in Rann of Kutch 2. Largest site 3. Three party of city 4. Unique management water

Dholavira

1985-90

R.S. Bisht

Rangpur

1953

M.S. Vats, B.B. Lal & S.R. Rao

Situated on the bank of Mahar in Gujarat

1. Rice was cultivated

1. Wheel made painted pottery 2. Traces of Kot Diji 1953 Fazal Ahmed Situated on the bank of Indus defensive

wall and well aligned streets 3. Knowledge metallurgy, toys etc of artistic

1. Evidence of burying a dog below the human bural 2. One Ropar 1953 Y.D. Sharma Situated in Punjab of the banks of Sutlej example of

rectangular mudbrick chamber was noticed 3. Five fold cultures Harappan, PGW, NBP, Kushana - Gupta and Medieval

1. Remain Harappan

of

pre and

Balakot

1963-76

George Dales

F Situated Arabian Sea

on

the

Harappan civilisation 2. The mounds rise to the height of about 9.7mts and are spread 2.8 sq hectare of area

1. The

impression

of

cloth on a trough is discovered Alamgirpur 1958 Y.D. Sharma Situated on Hindon in Ghaziabad 2. Usually considered to be the eastern boundary of the Indus culture

India.gov.in

Ancient History
India's history and culture is dynamic, spanning back to the beginning of human civilization. It begins with a mysterious culture along the Indus River and in farming communities in the southern lands of India. The history of India is punctuated by constant integration of migrating people with the diverse cultures that surround India. Available evidence suggests that the use of iron, copper and other metals was widely prevalent in the Indian sub-continent at a fairly early period, which is indicative of the progress that this part of the world had made. By the end of the fourth millennium BC, India had emerged as a region of highly developed civilization.

The Indus Valley Civilization

The History of India begins with the birth of the Indus Valley Civilization, more precisely known as Harappan Civilization. It flourished around 2,500 BC, in the western part of South Asia, what today is Pakistan and Western India. The Indus Valley was home to the largest of the four ancient urban civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, India and China. Nothing was known about this civilization till 1920s when the Archaeological Department of India carried out excavations in the Indus valley wherein the ruins of the two old cities, viz. Mohenjodaro and Harappa were unearthed. The ruins of buildings and other things like household articles, weapons of war, gold and silver ornaments, seals, toys, pottery wares, etc., show that some four to five thousand years ago a highly developed Civilization flourished in this region. The Indus valley civilization was basically an urban civilization and the people lived in well-planned and wellbuilt towns, which were also the centers for trade. The ruins of Mohenjodaro and Harappa show that these were magnificent merchant cities-well planned, scientifically laid, and well looked after. They had wide roads and a well-developed drainage system. The houses were made of baked bricks and had two or more storeys. The highly civilized Harappans knew the art of growing cereals, and wheat and barley constituted their staple food. They consumed vegetables and fruits and ate mutton, pork and eggs as well. Evidences also show that they wore cotton as well as woollen garments. By 1500 BC, the Harappan culture came to an end. Among various causes ascribed to the decay of Indus Valley Civilization are the invasion by the Aryans, the recurrent floods and other natural causes like earthquake, etc.

Vedic civilization
The Vedic civilization is the earliest civilization in the history of ancient India associated with the coming of Aryans. It is named after the Vedas, the early literature of the Hindu people. The Vedic Civilization flourished along the river Saraswati, in a region that now consists of the modern Indian states of Haryana and Punjab. Vedic is synonymous with Aryans and Hinduism, which is another name for religious and spiritual thought that has evolved from the Vedas. The largely accepted view is that a section of Aryans reached the frontiers of the Indian subcontinent around 2000 BC and first settled in Punjab and it is here, in this land, where the hymns of Rigveda were composed. The Aryans lived in tribes and spoke Sanskrit, which belonged to the Indo-European group of languages. Gradually, the Aryans intermingled with the local people and a historic synthesis was worked out between the Aryan tribes and the original inhabitants. This synthesis broadly came to be known as Hinduism. The Ramayana and Mahabharata were the two great epics of this period.

The Buddhist Era

During the life time of Lord Gautam Buddha, sixteen great powers (Mahajanpadas) existed in the 7th and early 6th centuries BC. Among the more important republics were the Sakyas of Kapilavastu and the Licchavis of Vaishali. Besides the republics, there were monarchical states, among which the important ones were Kaushambi (Vatsa), Magadha, Kosala and Avanti. These states were ruled by vigorous personalities

who had embarked upon the policies of aggrandisement and absorption of neighbouring states. However, there were distinct signs of the republican states while those under the monarchs were expanding. Buddha was born in BC 560 and died at the age of eighty in BC 480. The place of his birth was a grove known as Lumbini, near the city of Kapilavastu, at the foot of Mount Palpa in the Himalayan ranges within Nepal. Buddha, whose original name was Siddhartha Gautama, was the founder of Buddhism, the religion and the philosophical system that evolved into a great culture throughout much of southern and eastern Asia.

Alexander's Invasion
In 326 BC, Alexander invaded India, after crossing the river Indus he advanced towards Taxila. He then challenged king Porus , ruler of the kingdom between the rivers Jhelum and Chenab. The Indians were defeated in the fierce battle, even though they fought with elephants, which the Macedonians had never before seen. Alexander captured Porus and, like the other local rulers he had defeated, allowed him to continue to govern his territory. During this trip to rivers Hydaspes and Indus in the south, Alexander sought out the Indian philosophers, the Brahmins, who were famous for their wisdom, and debated with them on philosophical issues. He became legendary for centuries in India for being both, a wise philosopher and a fearless conqueror. One of the villages in which the army halted belonged to the Mallis, who were said to be one of the most warlike of the Indian tribes. Alexander was wounded several times in this attack, most seriously when an arrow pierced his breastplate and his ribcage. The Macedonian officers rescued him in a narrow escape from the village. Alexander and his army reached the mouth of the Indus in July 325 BC, and turned westward for home.

The Mauryan Empire

The period of the Mauryan Empire (322 BC-185 BC) marked a new epoch in the history of India. It is said to be a period when chronology became definite. It was a period when politics, art, trade and commerce elevated India to a glorious height. It was a period of unification of the territories which lay as fragmented kingdoms. Moreover, Indian contact with the outside world was established effectively during this period. The confusion following the death of Alexander gave Chandragupta Maurya an opportunity to liberate the countries from the yoke of the Greeks, and thus occupy the provinces of Punjab and Sindh. He later overthrew the power of Nandas at Magadha with the aid of Kautilya, and founded a glorious Mauryan empire in 322 BC. Chandragupta, who ruled from 324 to 301 BC, thus, earned the title of liberator and the first emperor of Bharata. At a higher age, Chandragupta got interested in religion and left his throne to his son Bindusar in 301 BC. Bindusar conquered the Highland of Deccan during his reign of 28 years and gave his throne to his son Ashoka in 273 BC. Ashoka emerged not only as the most famous king of the Maurya dynasty, but is also regarded as one of the greatest king of India and the world. His empire covered the whole territory from Hindu Kush to Bengal and extended over Afghanistan, Baluchistan and the whole of India with the exception of a small area in the farthest south. The valleys of Nepal and Kashmir were also included in his empire. The most important event of Ashoka's reign was the conquest of Kalinga (modern Odisha) which proved to be the turning point of his life. The Kalinga war witnessed terrible manslaughter and destruction. The sufferings and atrocities of the battlefield lacerated the heart of Ashoka. He made a resolve not to wage war any more. He realised the wickedness of worldly conquest and the beauty of moral and spiritual triumph. He

was drawn to the teachings of Buddha and devoted his life to the conquest of men's heart by the law of duty or piety. He evolved a policy of Dharma Vijaya, 'Conquest by Piety'.

End of the Mauryan Empire

Ashoka was succeeded by weak rulers, which encouraged the provinces to proclaim their independence. The arduous task of administering such a vast empire could not be executed by the weak rulers. The mutual quarrel among the successors also contributed to the decline of the Mauryan Empire. In the beginning of the 1st century A.D., the Kushanas established their authority over the north-west frontier of India. The most famous among the Kushana kings was Kanishka (125 A.D.-162 A.D.), who was the third in the Kushana dynasty. The Kushana rule continued till the middle of 3rd century A.D. The most notable achievement of their rule was the development of Gandhara School of Art and further spread of Buddhism into distant regions of Asia.

Gupta Dynasty
After the Kushanas, the Guptas were the most important dynasty. The Gupta period has been described as the Golden Age of Indian history. The first famous king of the Gupta dynasty was Ghatotkacha's son Chandragupta I. He married Kumaradevi, the daughter of the chief of the Licchavis. This marriage was a turning point in the life of Chandragupta I. He got Pataliputra in dowry from the Lichhavis. From Pataliputra, he laid the foundation of his empire and started conquering many neighbouring states with the help of the Licchavis. He ruled over Magadha (Bihar), Prayaga and Saketa (east Uttar Pradesh). His kingdom extended from the river Ganges to Allahabad. Chandragupta I also got the title of Maharajadhiraja (King of Kings) and ruled for about fifteen years. Chandragupta I was succeeded by Samudragupta in about 330 A.D., who reigned for about fifty years. He was a great military genius and is said to have commanded a military campaign across the Deccan, and also subdued the forest tribes of the Vindhya region. Samudragupta's successor Chandragupta II, also known as Vikramaditya, conquered the extensive territories of Malwa, Gujarat and Kathiawar. This provided exceptional wealth, which added to the prosperity of the Guptas. The Guptas in this period engaged in sea trade with the countries of the west. It was most probably during his reign that Kalidas, the greatest Sanskrit poet and dramatist, as well as many other scientist and scholars flourished.

Decline of Gupta Dynasty

The decline of the Gupta power in northern India between the close of 5th and the 6th century A.D. gave rise to various small independent kingdoms and attracted foreign invasions of Huns. Toramara was the leader of the Huns and was successful in annexing large parts of the Gupta Empire. His son, Mihirakula was a cruel barbarian and one of the worst tyrants known. Two native powerful princes, Yasodharman of Malwa and Baladitya of Magadha crushed his power and put an end to his reign in India.

Harshavardhana
With the commencement of the 7th century, Harshavardhana (606-647 A.D.) ascended the throne of Thaneshwar and Kannauj on the death of his brother, Rajyavardhana. By 612 Harshavardhana consolidated his kingdom in northern India. In 620 A.D. Harshavardhana invaded the Chalukya kingdom in the Deccan, which was then ruled by Pulakesin II. But the Chalukya resistance proved tough for Harshavardhana and he was defeated. Harshavardhana is well known for his religious toleration, able administration and diplomatic relations. He

maintained diplomatic relations with China and sent envoys, who exchanged ideas of the Chinese rulers and developed their knowledge about each other. The Chinese traveller, Hiuen Tsang, who visited India during his reign, has given a vivid description of the social, economic and religious conditions, under the rule of Harsha spoke highly of the king. Harsha's death, once again, left India without any central paramount power.

The Chalukyas of Badami

The Chalukyas were a great power in southern India between 6th and 8th century A.D. Pulakesin I, the first great ruler of this dynasty ascended the throne in 540 A.D. and having made many splendid victories, established a mighty empire. His sons Kirtivarman and Mangalesa further extended the kingdom by waging many successful wars against the neighbours including the Mauryans of the Konkans. Pulakesin II, the son of Kirtivarman, was one of the greatest ruler of the Chalukya dynasty. He ruled for almost 34 years. In this long reign, he consolidated his authority in Maharashtra and conquered large parts of the Deccan. His greatest achievement was his victory in the defensive war against Harshavardhana. However, Pulakesin was defeated and killed by the Pallav king Narasimhavarman in 642 A.D. His son Vikramaditya, who was also as great a ruler as his father, succeeded him. He renewed the struggle against his southern enemies. He recovered the former glory of the Chalukyas to a great extent. Even his great grandson, Vikramaditya II was also a great warrior. In 753 A.D., Vikramaditya and his son were overthrown by a chief named Dantidurga who laid the foundation of the next great empire of Karnataka and Maharashtra called Rashtrakutas.

The Pallavas of Kanchi

In the last quarter of the 6th century A.D. the Pallava king Sinhavishnu rose to power and conquered the area between the rivers Krishna and Cauveri. His son and successor Mahendravarman was a versatile genius, who unfortunately lost the northern parts of his dominion to the Chalukya king, Pulekesin II. But his son, Narsinhavarman I, crushed the power of Chalukyas. The Pallava power reached its glorious heights during the reign of Narsinhavarman II, who is well known for his architectural achievements. He built many temples, and art and literature flourished in his times. Dandin, the great Sanskrit scholar, lived in his court. However, after his death, the Pallava Empire began to decline and in course of time they were reduced to a mere local tribal power. Ultimately, the Cholas defeated the Pallava king Aparajita and took over their kingdom towards the close of the 9th century A.D. The ancient history of India has seen the rise and downfall of several dynasties, which have left their legacies still resounding in the golden book of Indian history. With the end of the 9th century A.D., the medieval history of India started with the rise of empires such as the Palas, the Senas, the Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas, and so on.