OnLiminality

KajParkerBenson Anthropology211:IntroductiontoAnthropology October19,20121

Mosttraditionalsmallscalesocietiespracticeaformofritualthateffectsafunda mentaltransformationinsocialstate.Theseritualsarethoseofinitiationintothesocial group,andusuallycorrespondtothetransitionfromchildhoodtosociallyrecognized adulthood.Suchinitiationriteseffectaprofoundtransformationonthosesubjectto them.VictorTurnerarguedinhisessayBetwixtandBetween:TheLiminalPeriodinRitesde Passage,thatduringinitiationritestheinitiatesnearinvariablyundergoaperiodin whichtheyareonthethresholdbetweentheirprevioussocietallyascribedmodesof definitionandthosetheywilltakeuponcompletionoftheritual.Thissocalledliminal periodisnotasocialstateinitself,but...aprocess,abecoming,atransformation (Turner1967,94).Itisintheseliminalperiodsthatsocietymakesitsindelibleimprinton bothbodyandmind. Theform,function,andsignificanceofliminalperiodsareintertwined.Finding patternsinthesymbolismsurroundingtheritualsandtheinitiatessubjecttothemcan helpustounderstandtheirfunction.Duringliminalperiodstheinitiatesaremadeto shedtheirpreviousidentityandtakeononespecifictotransitionalbeings.Theyare forcefullystrippedoftheirname,rank,position,possessions,andfactorsofselfdefini tion.Throughpainfultorture,theyaregrounddowntobefashionedanew(Turner 1967,101).Initiatesarereducedtotheircoreelementsandmadenakedreceptorsofthe
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lessonstocome.Thereforeakeysymbolrelatingtotheseliminalpersonaeisthatofthe formless,orofundefinedroughmaterial.Theprocessoflosingonesidentitywhilesub mittingtotheordeal,therebyattainingformlessness,islikenedtodeath.Emergenceat theendoftheritualissymbolizedbyrebirth.Personsintheliminalperiodaretherefore oftensymbolicallyrelatedsimultaneouslytocorpsesandnewborns,waxingandwan ingmoons,andtosnakessheddingtheirskins(Turner1967,969). Duetotheundefinednatureofliminalpersonae,theyaresymbolicallyinvisi ble(Turner1967,94).Becauseofthistheyarealwayshiddenorremovedfromdailylife. Theterminmanysocietiesfortheliminalperiodisrelatedtothoseforseclusionsites (Turner1967,98).ToexplainthisTurnerappliesMaryDouglassnotionoftheimpureas thatnoteasilydefined(Turner1967,97).Initiatesmustbekeptapart,ordisguisedwith paint,costumesandmasks,preciselybecausetheydonotcorrespondtoseculardefini tions(Turner1967,94),andarethereforerituallypolluted.AccordingtoTurner...itisa paradox,ascandal,toseewhatoughtnotbethere!(Turner1967,98)Initiatesarethere foreoftenlikenedtootherthingswhicharekeptapartfromeverydaysociety,suchas corpsesormenstruatingwomen(Turner1967,96). Atthesametime,thatsetapartbecomessacred.Thelessonstaughtininitiation ritualsarekeptsecret:liminalperiodsareonlywitnessedbytheinitiates,theelderscon ductingtherites,andtheethnographersrecordingthem.Uninitiatedpersonsarekept
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away.Thisexclusionhelpsimbuetheriteswithsignificance.Thehidden,sacred,foun dationalknowledgetaughtduringinitiationisgivenonlytothosewhoarepreparedto receiveit. ThelessonsarecommunicatedusingwhatTurnertermsthesacra,theobjects shown,actionstaken,andinstructiongivenduringliminalperiods(Turner1967,102). Physicalsacraareoftenstatuesorfigureswithamonstrousordistortedelement.Turner arguesthatthefunctionofcommunicatingsacraistoreducetheculturedowntoitsba siccomponents,torecombinethemintofantasticformsthatprovokereflectionabout theculture,andtothenrecombinethebasicelementsinwaysappropriatetothenew statustheinitiateswillattain(Turner1967,106).Forexample,theBembapeopleofSu danuseCoshiwangoma,alegendarywomanrepresentedbyanenormouslypregnant figurinecarryingmultiplechildren,toteachyoungwomenacautionarytalethatem phasizesthecustomofweaningachildbeforehavingmorechildren.Thesuffering motherdepictedbythefigurineshowsyounggirlstheconsequencesofnotabidingby tribalcustom.Suchstoriesemphasizethesupremacyofcustomoverindividualdesire, buttheyarealsopractical,intendedtobedirectlyappliedinlaterlife. Besidesthepracticalvalueofteachingsgiventotheinitiates,thelearningtrans formsthemfromonekindofhumanbeingintoanother(Turner1967,108).Thistrans formationisconceivedofasaformofgrowthintoafullperson.Turnermentionsthat
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theBembacallfemaleinitiationgrowingagirl(Turner1967,101).AccordingtoTurner, Togrowagirlintoawomanistoeffectanontologicaltransformation;itisnotmerely toconveyanunchangingsubstancefromonepositiontoanother(Turner1967,102). Tobecomeafullperson,onemustfullycomprehendthemysteriesthataretaughtusing whatTurnertermsthesacerimma,themostsacredthings(Turner1967,107).Sacerimma, suchasthemysteryofthethreeriversoftheNdembuareobjectsofdeepercontem plation.Theyarethemostmultifacetedsymbolsinliminalrites,andareidentifiedwith deeplyheldbeliefsaboutthenatureofreality.Inductionintothecultofthesemysteries giveinitiatesultimatestandardsofreferencefortheirworldview(Turner1967,108). Suchpresentationsalmostalwaysexplainrealityusingthebodysattributes.The Ndembumystery,forexample,likensred,white,andblackwatertobodilyemissionsof thesamecolors.Theredisthebloodofwarfareandmenstruation,thewhiteisthese menthatcreateslifeandthemilkthatnurturesit,andtheblackisfecesanddecay (Turner1967,107).Thebodyisalwaysusedasametaphorinthesepresentations,ami crocosmoftheuniverse(Turner1967,107).Thelinkbetweenthebodyandtheworldis heldsacrosanct,asanultimatemysterynottoberevealedtotheuninitiated. Thebodyisnotonlyametaphorfortheuniverse:isalwaysthedirectsubjectof initiationrituals,whichnearinvariablyinflictpainfultortureupontheinitiate.Accord ingtoPierreClastres,whoarguesinhisessayOfTortureinPrimitiveSocietiesforacon
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nectionbetweenwritingandthelaw,societylaysaholdofandtorturestheinitiatefor thepurposeofmarkingthebody.Itisthebodyinitsimmediacythatthesocietyap pointsastheonlyspacethatlendstobearingthesignofatime,thetraceofapassage, andtheallotmentofadestiny(Clastres1989,180). Whentheinitiatesemergefromtheirordeals,theyareindeliblyinscribedwith scarsthatidentifythemasamemberofthatsociety.Thescarswillneverallowthemto forgetwhattheyendured,andwhattheyareapartof.Yetgroupidentificationisnot theonlypurposeofsuchtorture.Thesesocietiesalsomaketheirmarkupontheiniti atesminds.Tothisend,painisemphasized.ClastresreportsthatamongtheGuayak peoplespecialcareistakentochoosestonesthatarenottoosharp,butwhichwillrather tearthefleshofinitiatesinordertocausesufficientlyexcruciatingpain(Clastres1989, 183).HealsorelatesthatintheinitiationriteoftheMandanpeopletheshamanaimsto subjecttheinitiatetosuchtormentastorenderhimunconscious,forhimtobecome entirelydead(Clastres1989,184).Suchterminologymakesexplicitthesymbolicdeath thatinitiatesundergo,whichpreparesthemtobereborninanewrole.Thedeaththat occursunderthecruelhandsoftheinstructorsisasignofcompletesubmission,ofthe initiatebecomingrawmaterialtobeshapedbythesocialgroupintosomethingnew. Suchcompletereformationofidentityis,asClastreslightlyputsit,anassertivepeda gogy,andnotadialogue(Clastres1989,185).Assuch,thereisarequirementthatthe
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painofritualtorturebeenduredinsilence.Silenceundertorturenotonlyindicates bravery,butmoreimportantlyindicatesacompletesubmissiontothewillofsociety,a submissionsharedbytheotherinitiates. Assuchthefunctionofritualtortureisnotonlytoproveonesworthortounder scorethepracticallessonstaughttoinitiates.Italsoservestocommunicateanotiones sentialtotriballife.Thehierarchiesofeverydaylifedonotexistwithinthegroupofini tiates(Turner1967,99).Everyinitiateundergoesthesametorturesandisthereby grounddownintothesamerawmaterial.Everyinitiateisequallysubjecttotheauthor ityoftheinstructors.Thisisnottosaythattheinstructorshaveabsolutepoweroverthe initiates.Rather,Turneremphasizesthatthepoweroftheeldersisapersonificationof theauthorityoftradition(Turner1967,100).Everyoneoftheinitiatesmustsubmit equallytothecustomsoftheirsociety,andtherebygainknowledgeofasimplesocial fact.Themessagecommunicatedbythesharedexperienceoftorture,imprintedonthe mindsoftheinitiatesthroughinscriptionsontheirflesh,isthat: Youareoneofus.Eachoneofyouislikeus;eachoneofyouisliketheothers. Youarecalledbythesamename,andyouwillnotchangeyourname.Eachone ofyouoccupiesthesamespaceandthesameplaceamongus:youwillkeep them.Noneofyouislessthanus;noneofyouismorethanus.Andyouwillnever beabletoforgetit.Youwillnotceasetorememberthesamemarksthatwehave leftonyourbodies.(Clastres1989,186)

Thisisthebasiclawofthetribalgroup.Allmustsubmitequallytotraditional custom,thereforeallareequalunderit.Sharedsufferingformsbondsbetweentheiniti ates,whichareoftenmaintainedfortherestoftheirlives(Turner1967,101).Forthe groupofinitiates,aswellasthelargerinitiatedgroup,thetraditionsoftheirsociety havebeenmadesacredthroughthepainfulritualsbywhichtheyarecommunicated. Nomemberofthegroupforgetstheprimacyoftradition.Nomemberdesirespower overothersorsubmissiontothem.Thislawisinscribedoninitiatesbodiesbysociety, buttheyalsointernalizeit,oftentothepointwherenoinstructorisnecessarytotorture them.ClastresmentionsaMandanyouthwhosubjectshimselftoanordealofthree dayswithoutfoodorwater,whilewaitingforapieceofbonetodropoutofhisfleshso thathemaycompletetheinitiation.Hismotivation?Tobefaithfultothelaw,tomeetthe challengeofbeingequaltotheotherinitiateswhohavecompletedtherite(Clastres 1989,187). Othersocietalobligationsbearsimilarstrength.Turnermentionsamanofthe Omahapeoplewhodreamedofawomansburdenstrapduringhisinitiation,andwas thereforeforcedaccordingtotraditiontobecomeamixuga,amanwholivesasawom an.Againsthiswillheobeyedthetraditionandlivedasamixuga,butstillmarrieda womanandwenttowar(Turner1967,100).Suchexamplesunderscorethenotionthat

regardlessofindividualpreference,traditionistheultimaterulerwithinwhatClastres termssocietiesofthemark(Clastres1989,188). InClastresessaySocietyAgainstTheStatehearguesthatsuchalawofequality undertraditionisoneofthemainreasonsthatsmallscaletraditionalsocietiesresistthe developmentofbothexploitativeclassesandaState.Everyonewithinasocietyofthe markisregulatedbythegroup.Thescopeofthetribeseconomicactivityisdelineated notbythedesiresofprivatepower,butbytheabilitiesandneedsofeachmemberofthe group.Nobodyworksmorethantheyneedto,andnobodycompetestogainmorethan others(Clastres1989,168).UnlikeaStatesociety,inwhichthefruitsofoneslaborare takenbyothers,inthesesocietiescustomsofexchange,nottaxesanddebts,establish therelationbetweenmanandhiseconomicproduct(Clastres1989,167).Thesocialdivi sionthatunderliestheeconomicmodeloflaborexploitationdoesnotexist.FortheState anditsenforcementofsuchaneconomicordertoappear,therewouldhavetobeanag onisticsocialstructureinplacethatprecedesit(Clastres1989,172). Suchasocialstructureseemsasifitwoulddevelopeasilywithinatribalgroup. Afterall,thereareambitiousandpowerhungrypeopleineveryculture,anditstands toreasonthataparticularlypersuasiveindividualcouldsomehowtakepower.Doubt lesstherearechiefsthatdesiretobekings.YetClastresinformsusthatchiefsarenearly theoppositeofkings.Thespaceofthechieftainisnotthelocusofpower,andtheprofileof
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theprimitivechiefinnowayforeshadowsthatofafuturedespot(Clastres1989,174). Thelawofthemark,ofequality,ensuresthatinthesesocietiesthechiefisjustanother memberofthegroup.Hisonlypoweristhatofspeech.Hesuggestscoursesofaction andmediatesdisputes,buthisspeechesareonlyobeyedbecausethechiefhasgiven goodadvicetothegroupinthepast.Hisqualificationsaretechnical,andhispositionis basedonhispreviousandfuturecompetence.Clastresunderscoresthechiefsequal subordinationtothegroupbystatingthat:thechiefistheretoservesociety;itissoci etyassuchthereallocusofpowerthatexercisesitsauthorityoverthechief.(Clastres 1989,175).Ratherthanbeingabletoexploithisposition,thechiefisakindofprisoner inaspacewhichthetribedoesnotlethimleave(Clastres1989,175).Thechiefsorders canbewhollyrejectedbythegroup,leavinghimaspowerlessastherestofthem. Thereforewhileheisallowedtoattainprestigethroughsuccessesinbattleandgover nance,hisprestigenevertranslatesintounilateralpower. Aswehaveseen,primitivesocietydoesnotallowprivatepowerbecausethena tureofsuchsocietiesistocorrecttheactionsoftheirmembers,maintainingthelimits andgoalssetbytradition.Primitivesocietiesareselfsustaining.Theyarethosefrom whichnothingescapesforalltheexitsareblocked(Clastres1989,180).However,they haveavulnerabilityinthattheyseemtohavetherequirementtomaintainasmallsize. Clastresindicatesthatitisprobablethatsmallsizeisarequirementforthelawofthe
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mark,thelawthatmaintainsequality(Clastres1989,180).Smallsizeiseasilymain tainedamonggroupswithascarcityofresources,orgroupsthatintentionallylimit theirpopulation.Inevitably,however,agroupwillgettoobig.Clastresimpliesthatthe naturaltendencyisforasmallergrouptosplitofffromthemaingroup,becomingonly looselyassociated.Heseesthisatomizationofgroupsasawaythatprimitivesocieties maintaintheirequalstructureandavoidtheemergenceofStatepower(Clastres1989, 180).ClastresobservesthispatternintheTupiGuarani,atribewithpowerfulchiefson thevergeofStatehood,thatexperiencedasocialmovementinwhichthousandsofpeo plesplitofftofollowthetribesprophetclass.Thismigrationwasbothreligiousinna tureandserved,accordingtoClastres,asawaytopreventTupiGuaranichiefsfrombe comingkings(Clastres1989,184). Thischaracterizationofsocietiesofthemarksuggeststhatgroupsunitedby equalsubmissiontoinitiationritesarefragilethings.Theydevelopinisolation,relyon maintainingsmallnumbers,andcanbedestroyedbyoutsideforces.Theimpositionof Statepower,andthepropertyrightsdefinedbytheState,areamajorfactorinthecul turalassimilationofthesesocietiesintoothergroups.Huntergatherersocieties,which comprisemanysocietiesofthemark,arevulnerableduetotheirrelianceonwhattheir landscapecanprovidethem.Theirwayoflifeisthreatenedbyentitiessuchasoiland loggingcompanieswhichthreatentodestroythelandsinwhichtheytraditionallyhunt
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andgather.EvenagriculturalistssuchastheGuaran,whooncemigratedenmasseto avoidsubjugationfromwithin,arenowsubjecttoStatepower.Thecontemporarypri macyofcorporateinterests,backedbytheState,seemsadeathsentencefortheeconom icmodesofthesesocieties,whicharedefinedbyneedratherthandebtandthedesire forsurplus.Change,howeverdestructive,seemsinevitable.However,thesesocieties haveprovedthemselvesquiteresilientinthefaceofthreatsbothinternalandexternal. Perhapsitispossiblethatritesofinitiationwillbecontinued.Yettheywilllikelynot havethesameeffectoncesocietiesofthemarkareexposedtotheculturesoftherestof theworld.Whatissureisthattheconditionsthatpreviouslyallowedtraditionalsoci etiestoflourishandstayunitedbyequalsubmissiontotheirsacredtraditionsnolonger obtain.ThisistheageoftheState,forbetterorforworse.

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Bibliography Clastres,Pierre.1989.SocietyAgainstTheState:EssaysinPoliticalAnthropology.Cam bridge,Massachusetts:ZoneBooks. Turner,Victor.1967.TheForestofSymbols:AspectsofNdembuRitual.Ithaca,NewYork: CornellUniversityPress.

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