SALT 2011: An Examination of Adult Learning

Running head: ADULT DEVELOPMENT AND ANDRAGOGY IN ONLINE LEARNING

Adult Development and Andragogy in Online Learning T. M. Stafford, MS

Adult Development and Andragogy in Online Learning

Abstract When teaching and designing coursework for adults, it becomes inextricably clear early in the process that adult learning is paradigmically unique in many different aspects than teaching for children, teenaged students, or even young adults. The adult learning populace operates from a holistic worldview that must be considered when teaching and more importantly when designing coursework; Teaching adults, young adults and teenagers, for instance, have many similarities, and difficult concepts often have to be taught in multiple learning methods in a similar manner such as educating teenagers, for example. This paper will explore some of the issues surrounding the learning theory involved in the creation of coursework for adults especially within the context of an online environment.

Adult Development and Andragogy in Online Learning

Application of Adult Development and Andragogy When teaching and designing coursework for adults, it becomes inextricably clear early in the process that adult learning is paradigmically unique in many different aspect than teaching children, teenaged students, or even young adults. The adult learning populace operates from a holistic worldview that must be considered when teaching and certainly when designing coursework. Teaching adults and teenagers, for instance, have many similarities. Difficult concepts often have to be taught in multiple learning methods to adults much like teenagers, for example (Reigeluth, 1999, pp. 2-3). Collaborative learning is also as difficult for adults in some cases as it is for teenagers. Helping adults understand the reasoning behind learning and the objectives of a course is critical. Those who have taught teenagers know of the "When will we ever use this?" question, but truthfully adults ask it as well. Having made these comparisons, there are a large number of contrasts between the two groups. First, adults are much more often intrinsically motivated than teenagers. Adults also have many differing distractions than teenagers. Children, careers, job expectations, all of these things are possible for the teenager, but most of the time they are well defined distractions for the adult learner. Global economy, changing demographics, and changing technological trends and expectations are also issues for the adult where the teenager views these as part of normal living (Mirriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007, p. 7). If it is true that all teachers teach to change the world (Brookfield, 1995, p. 1), then the potential for teaching teenagers and adults is the same; the only difference being that in teaching teenagers there is a sense of delayed satisfaction but for the instructor of adults, changes in the world can be seen almost immediately. This comparison and contrast yield to the conversation of note: How do adults learn?; What about their learning modes and methods should one consider when approaching the

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education of adults on any level? A comparison and contrast of four learning theories will be the approach with an emphasis on looking at applicable means within the context of corporate training and furthering the education of adults in a corporate business model.

The Aging Mind Adult learning does not occur in a vacuum (Mirriam et al., 2007, p. 25) so there must be a set of critically reflective tools that one must use when appealing to the adult learner and the adult learning mind from a cognitive and intellectual framework. Even memory can be a factor for the mind as it is aging. This is not to say that an aging mind necessarily forgets things, but the aging mind remembers in a certain context that must be understood when teaching adults. For instance, recently a lecture was given on the application of technology in the modern classroom and how the developing technologies of today will impact the educational atmospheres of tomorrow. During the lecture, the presenter asked how computers had affected career paths. Many shared that the computer had completely changed the way they work by making their workflow more synchronous and the data they needed readily available. These stories of the past gave the rest of the listeners a real sense of the framework in which they worked and a history of their career path. Many of them expressed a learning model that seemed to be informal in its nature and many used the term on the job training, but a few expressed that their formal education fueled a real dependency on technology in a way their parents did not espouse. However, there were those detractors that talked of the good ol days where slide rules and apothecaries reigned and everything was so much simpler - life was easy going and learning was an indigenous reality, you learned what you needed to survive (Mirriam et al., 2007, p. 33). Technology has now forced out need-to-know survival relationships and introduced

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a more pixel driven approach to life. Almost all of these detractors reflected a distain with the fact that a hand shake is not contractual anymore and that corporate business has changed. Here one can see that the aspects of cognitive, intellectual, and even domains in memory are all reflective in a learning scenario that is unique to adults. This scenario seems to be a true gauge even among adult learners who are thirty-five to forty years old. In this scenario, the attendees of the lecture were of all ages and the comments came from a wide range of age groups. So when one considers learning theory, these are items that should be kept in mind.

Learning Theories Many have sought to define a holistic framework by which instruction and design can be developed that will address the core concepts surrounding the adult learner and thus the study of andragogy was born. Malcolm Knowles found that there were some intriguing realities behind the educating of adult learners and sought to form causal links to some of the realities of the adult learner (Jarvis, 1987). Thus the following realities were developed and, in a sense, became the basis by which many others have developed their theories of adult learning: (1) Self-concept in an adult shifts from dependency to independency. (2) Experience acts as a reservoir that enhances the adult learning scenario. (3) Sociability plays an important role for adult learners. (4) Adults are often motivated by urgency to learn for their own sense of self-preservation which leads to a greater motivation to learn (Mirriam et al., 2007, p. 84). In addition to these, Morrison, Ross, and Kamp add that adult learners: (5) are eager to be a part of the decision making process making learning a truly cooperative effort. (6) Tend to be less flexible than younger students due to the habitual and routine nature of adulthood (Mirriam et al., 2007, p. 61).

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McCluskys Theory of Margin In an attempt to marginalize adult learning into a more formulaic approach, McClusky postulates that the adult learner desires to strike a balance between what he calls the (L) load of life which expends energy and the (P) power of life which enables the learner to deal with load. This ratio of P:L determines the margin by which one can participate in learning (Mirriam et al., 2007, p. 93) (see Figure 1). This idea is a reflection of Knowles idea that there are external mitigating factors that play into the ability of the adult to learn. Families, career, job responsibilities, and the like are all real issues for the adult learner and thus must be considered. The difference here is that McClusky puts a strong weight on this issue as a real mitigating factor of success for the adult learner. Figure 1 - Life is balanced between power and load of life

Illeriss Three Dimensions of Learning Model While McCluskys model focuses on the marginal ration between the weight of the life responsibility of the learner and his/her ability to mitigate those responsibilities in light of taking on new learning, Illeris is solely interested in the process of learning itself. He uses an inverted triangle to show the relationships between cognition, emotion, and society and then looks at these three dimensions individually and as a whole and gives examples of how this model might play out in a real word scenario like a chemistry lesson (Mirriam et al., 2007, pp. 97-100) (see Figure 2). This comprehensive, yet simple model provides strength to Knowles idea that the

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question of why is as important to the adult as the what, who, or hows that are associated with traditional learning models. The adult needs to find a balance between his/her cognitive ability to understand how something works, but also emotionally and socially, the reasons for why and for what purpose are equally Figure 2 - Illeris's model focuses on more traditional thought mapping important. In fact, this theory could be used to explain young adult learning as well and, for the most part, this need of

equilibrium is even found in middle and high school students as well as children who have a tendency to be more inquisitive. Jarviss Learning Process Jarvis attempts to bring a synergy between the cognitive, emotional, and social aspects of the learner by beginning with adult experience as the catalyst of understanding learning. Jarvis begins with the overarching philosophy that all learning begins with experience and thus he determines that there can be a disjuncture between what he calls biography and experience (Mirriam et al., 2007, p. 101). He believes that all learning begins through the biological five senses and through their intense functionality, and one can begin to discern things that are different and learn the nuances of many different experiences that the human has within his/her environment on a moment by moment basis. What makes Jarviss theory even more specific to the learner is that each persons life within a flow of time, within a life world, and within that life world the learner experiences and learns things differently than perhaps another learner in context of his./her own flow of time and life world (Mirriam et al., 2007, p. 101-102). This is a

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significant addition to the study of learning because of its intense personal aspect that would make each learner independent of other learners, however. Capturing the essence and nuances of this type of model may be difficult when designing instruction for large groups of learners. However, even in this scenario, it would behoove any instructional designer or course instructor to consider the demographics of his/her classroom and to utilize these demographics to help craft design concepts that would resonate in a greater way with each group of students.

Studying the Jarvis model brings to the forefront a measure by

Figure 3 Worldviews are like lenses by which one sees the world through various disciplines.

which a model could be constructed that used a persons worldview as the catalyst or understanding how the individual learner will embrace the materials being presented and by what capacity they can and will learn new ideas and ways of thinking. A worldview has been defined as the set of beliefs about fundamental aspects of reality that ground and influence all one's perceiving, thinking, knowing, and doing. It includes but is not limited to beliefs about: (1) Epistemology: beliefs about the nature and sources of knowledge. (2) Metaphysics: beliefs about the ultimate nature of reality. (3) Cosmology: beliefs about the origins and nature of the universe, life, and especially man. (4) Teleology: beliefs about the meaning and purpose of the universe, its inanimate elements, and its inhabitants. (5) Theology: beliefs about the existence and nature of God. (6) Anthropology: beliefs about the nature and purpose of man in general and, oneself in

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particular. (7) Axiology: beliefs about the nature of value, what is good and bad, what is right and wrong (Hartshorne, 1984) (see Figure 4). These elements would make up an interesting model of understanding learning through the filter of these areas. If it is true that all thinking is connected in the sense that how one believes has an effect on how other ideas are formed and shaped about anything and everything else that he/she may Figure 5 Noetic Structures are schema driven through a various set of connective filters of thought. The example shown here transcends religious belief.

or may not believe, then it would be surprising to see how significant these noetic structures would play a role in the learning process (Plantinga & Wolterstorff, 1984). This would especially be true in light of the corporate world and the knowledge industries. Many of the adult learners in knowledge industries are being continually educated so as to remain ahead of the curve of learning for the sake of their careers, yet many of them bring a wide variety of beliefs to the table about epistemology (as an example). Could it be that in the future, corporations will have to help shape the world view of stakeholders, managers, and employees for the sake of the company staying current in the Figure 4 - The reflective teacher understands the layering of the lenses of differing worldviews within educational theory. Each lens adds a dimension, yet has the propensity to blur the outcomes as well.

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marketplace? What about corporations like Disney? Are they not already shaping the worldviews of their employees? These are interesting questions that have a real place in the future of learning theory. Brookfield contends that there are four critical lenses of the reflective teacher, (1) autobiography, (2) the lens of the student, (3) the lens of experience in relation to colleagues, and (4) theoretical literature (Brookfield, 1995, pp. 29-30) (see Figure 5). These lenses must be in place in addition to the model that one uses to teach or design from so that all aspects of the learning experience and all factors of the learning environment are considered and acknowledged for the security of the learning within these structures.

Adult Learning Theory Analysis

Gary Marx in his book, Sixteen Trends: Their Profound Impact on the Future (2006) outlines sixteen different shifts in trend that will not only profoundly impact education, but the whole of society. These sixteen trends have very real implications for the next generation of learners, instructors and institutions of elementary, secondary, and especially higher learning. The current Millennial Generation is insistent on solutions to the many issues that have accumulated within the context of education as well as a litany of social issues. Very soon the old will outnumber the young and ongoing challenges continue to assert themselves in the area of diversification and social cohesion (Marx, 2006). These issues coupled with the rising cost of doing business in America are quickly creating a pandemic scenario for higher learning institutions. Without sufficient funding, students cannot attend the local university. Without higher education, we will quickly

Adult Development and Andragogy in Online Learning lose our edge in the world economy, and that will in turn exponentially alienate those who are uneducated (Gamoran, 2001). There is now and continually needs to be an understanding that sustained poverty in the country will only continue to grow in expense, social debilitation, and leave a long lasting lack of security for the members of our country and society (Yankelovish, 2005). So it is up to the higher education institution to reach out beyond the ivy covered walls and embrace them where they are and give them the educational tools for the 21st century in a 21st century classroom environment.

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Application of Adult Learning Theory to Future Trends Including E-Learning To enhance these ideas, it would be helpful to look at a few of these forecasted trends and consider how they might impact adult learning and online learning environments: #1 - Technology will continue to increase the speed of communication and the pace of advancement or decline Distance is already an important component in the educational mix of the United States and is quickly becoming a global reality. Those who engage now have a chance to be a part of the largest educational paradigm shift since the creation of the public education system (Lundt, 2006). The empowering of distance learning will, undoubtedly, lead to more emphasis on self-directed learning than ever before and the goals of self directed learning which are 1) to enhance the ability of adult learners and to be self directed, 2) to foster a new form of transformational learning and, 3) to promote the idea of learning through social action. This will afford the learner the opportunity to construct new tools by which to successfully make an impact on his/her social context and culture (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). This instructional model seeks to take learners from a dependency on an authority figure like a

Adult Development and Andragogy in Online Learning classroom teacher or lecturer and shift that paradigm to a learner with a greater self-direction

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who is willing and able to plan, execute, and evaluate their own learning with or without the help of a subject matter expert (SME) (Merriam et al., 2007). In the corporate sector, there is a great deal of pressure for the professional engineers, contractors, architects, teachers and other professionals to keep their licenses current; this pressure brings into view the idea of these continuing distance learners to form a community that is cooperative in nature for a common goal among a set of professional standards. Each professional knows how competency is defined within their specific discipline and the firm continues to put pressure on these professionals to stay on the cutting edge of what learning needs are prudent to remain in the forefront of their respective fields (LEED certified buildings and their forensic issues as an example).

#2 - Release of human ingenuity will become a primary responsibility of education and society. In her article, ee-Learning: The Best Road to Adulthood? Linda Chisholm discusses the potential of ee-learning to address some of the inherent problems of college campuses. In an era of large campuses and large classes, students are removed from the positive examples once provided by faculty who lived in the campus community (Chisholm, 2007). By putting students in contact with positive adult role models in professional settings, Chisholm goes on to suggest that a new paradigm, ee-learning, can counteract these detrimental developments, giving students the flexibility to continue their studies as they pursue the professional, social, and ethical development the college experience should provide. Not to say that there is not a need for morality on the campus, but that our primary responsibility is to promote an environment for development of human ingenuity and whatever comes with this set of priorities and foci (Chisholm, 2007).

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Here is the very nature of the ideas that surround transformational learning. By engaging a learner in an environment that brings him/her to a point of not only knowing information but understanding their place in the world, this kind of transformation will ultimately lead to a greater understanding of self on a holistic level as well as self on a socio-cultural level (Merriam et al. 2007). For the first time, a new and fully believable mantra among learners of all ages will be that one person can make an impact on their community and world in a way that has never been understood or accomplished before. In the spirit of a more transformational approach to learning, some businesses are partnering with local high schools to offer paid internships that provide a more hands-on approach to learning in a variety of disciplines that surround the professional goals of the firm. These internships offer experience to the learner in a real world environment where learners are a part of actual projects where the work of building forensics, technology, and marketing practices for such a firm can be seen from outside of the test tube world of the classroom. This allows for students who return to the classroom, then, to critically reflect on the work that is being performed within these field experiences and the goal is to provide a lasting connectivity between what the students are learning and how these concepts play themselves out in the field. This being said, we see that individual development then is exponential because of mentoring of these professionals in the lives of these learners. As an example, one of the vice presidents of an building consulting firm recently sat in a training session with four high school learners between the ages of fifteen and eighteen years of age and offered a two hour session on how a set of moisture sensors were deployed, activated, and then read for data. This SME has over twenty-five years experience and has won numerous awards for his work in the building forensics world. He has published hundreds of articles and even coauthored a mold and moisture manual that has become one of the standards for the industry. In

Adult Development and Andragogy in Online Learning his blue jeans and safety glasses working along with high school students to show them how

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geometry and algebra play a significant role in understanding how to analyze this data, students were engaged and transformed by the event. They then were sent out on an actual job to watch the sensors being deployed by professionals and took part in the data analysis. The young adults have now experienced that which will set the standard for what education should look like for them in the future and they will continually seek out these types of experiences for the further development and critical thinking.

#3 - The Millennial Generation will insist on solutions to accumulated problems while the emerging Generation E will call for equilibrium. Marx summarizes the generation situation in America in this way- by 2030 the Boomers will be between the ages of 66 and 84 and they will be competing for services and attention alongside the then 90 million Generation Xers and more than 75 Million Millennials. The Millennial will be focused on the solvency of accumulated issues and creating a sense of civic order. The equilibrium or E generation will begin Kindergarten in 2008-2010 and in college in 2022. Their given name indicates what they will be in search of and they will be looking for resources and opportunities to create scenarios that not only speak of equilibrium but provide it (Chisholm, 2007). Experience will be the encapsulant of such equilibrium in the sense that when adaptation and autonomy are understood in light of application, both critical and vocational, and expression then social practice rapidly changes and therefore a greater impact can be made (Merriam, et al 2007). In an experiential learning model, the adult learner couples the ideas of autonomy and adaptation to real application and expression so that a well-rounded understanding of the learning is achieved (Merriam, et al 2007). There are many situations that lend themselves to this

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type of learning model. Many times, companies will hire workers that may or may not be trained in the specifics of the business itself, but nevertheless their experience make them an excellent candidate for the position and then they will learn based on the experiences of the position itself. As an example, the firm recently hired an accountant who had all of the qualifications for managing a complicated accounting scenario, but the world of the firm being billable through time and materials is a new set of realities for this particular person. However, she was up to the challenge and is learning how to do the things that she knows in a new way every day. Here, the firm more or less becomes the educator, in that it was able to assess the prior experience of the applicant and then provide opportunities for her to learn by solving a specific set of problems and by overseeing a certain type of dilemma. Opportunities to see best practices modeled, providing the scaffolding needed for the new employees to make approximations and ultimately move into a place where that scaffolding is no longer need are all apart of how these new employees are trained by virtue of the nature of the business itself. The firm relies on employees having a sense of self-direction already a part of their person and practice to help guide them to a self directed and generalized stage of working within the firm (Merriam et al., 2007). For this new employee, all of these areas have helped her to become the specific team member that the firm needed even though at first she was not a perfect fit. Her ability to learn from experience has shaped her into the employee that is an asset to the firm. From a professional standpoint, the firm in its need to evaluate the employees, will help to direct this employee as well as any of the others through the four phases of the described cognitive apprenticeship above, and, in fact is also doing this for its student interns as well.

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Ways of Knowing and Issues of Epistemology Harry Blamires wrote, It is commonplace that the mind of man has been secularized. For instance, it has been deprived of any orientation towards the supernatural (Blamires, 1963). Dr. Blamires hits on a reality that often academia tends to try to dismiss as it wrestles with the philosophy of epistemology. In a Western sense, the mind has become synonymous with personal achievement and a focus on the human as defined by his/her doings and leaves any real reference to the human as a being to those who are thought to be more esoteric and metaphysical in their approach to life as a general rule. However, the reality of the work place, classroom, and communities in every corner of America is that spirituality plays a very real role in the lives of those who are now being educated - especially in the adult world. So the question of how this will impact the training that both corporate and higher educational facilities employ for its professional learners is critical and the goal here will be to try to find an approach to understanding these ways of knowing and how to understand the modeling behind trying to design instruction to embrace some of the epistemic core values that each way of understanding knowledge presents. In Michael Williams acclaimed book on the study of epistemology, he lists five prominent problems with the philosophy of epistemology and how it impacts a philosophy of any kind (Williams, 2001): (1) Defining knowledge as a whole is difficult. (2) What can be absolutely known and what can only be understood given rational opinion? (3) How is knowledge obtained? (4) What is the role of skepticism in truly knowing or not knowing? (5) How is knowledge valuable? These five issues are at the heart of the epistemic conversation that ultimately will impact an educational philosophy at its very core. In a spirit of diversity and trying to understand the needs of those who have differing faiths, it must be generally assumed

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that these differing ideas stem from a platform of differing epistemologies and once this has been embraced and there is an understanding of the differing worldviews of others, it becomes easier to see through the quagmire of perceived needs of a diverse people and get to the root of what must be taught so that most everyone arrives at the same understanding, or at very least a frame of reference, of how to think through a set of given learning objectives. The danger here is to leave epistemology and the study of worldview to the throes of merely an esoteric or metaphysical pursuit without realizing the real value of understanding these ideas can be to design instruction or teaching designed instruction to a diverse group of people. Ultimately, all epistemology stems from the discussion of the value of knowledge (Williams, 2001). If knowledge is not valuable to the learner then the imparting of that knowledge will never be as effective a knowledge that is at even the lowest level perceived as valuable. For adult learners, instructional designers must always remain cognizant of the value of the information being taught to the learner. Realizing this value will ultimately help battle skepticism and evolve towards a more inspirational model that will affect the surrounding community both locally and thereby leaving a legacy of knowledge behind.

Final thoughts: Culture, Self and Transformational Learning The Culture of Self Within the boundaries and established mores and norms of every culture is the individual sense of self who one is and how one views himself within that culture. This view of self helps to define the persons overall worldview and within the context of that worldview there are sets of beliefs about everything within the world to be quite literal this is known as a persons noetic structure, what he/she believes about anything and everything, and it is here that the

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greatest paradigm shifts of all are occurring. As one looks at any level of future predictions for future generations, especially within the context of education, there is a very real sense of a cultural change of self that can not be ignored any longer if success is to be achieved in making a difference locally and globally in the lives of people (Marx, 2006, p. 119-120). Inclusiveness and connectedness are the newest tools that are primary to the new leader. Being collegial and having excellent people skills will demand that the ideas of many are considered and that there is a genuine desire to hear the voices of many and connect with those ideas in some way (Marx, 2006, p. 16). A new trend of thinking in scenarios will force strategic conversation in a way that will employ a more collaborative approach to problem solving and stimulate new visionary thinking by redefining the whys of what is being done and focus on the whos, whats and hows as well. In business this is standard practice, unfortunately in education this is often not the case because the status quo and tradition have dominated reasoning for so long (Think Scenarios., 2006, p. 22-23). The individual will be the new vehicle and knowledge the new currency and the absence of self within the context of any organization will be the death of that organization, for the future organization will be made up of individuals who have equal standing; management will be a part of the improvement process that will finally award meritorious commitment and work in order protect academic freedom by fairly evaluating performance and not the nepotistic pork barreling of the early twentieth century corporate culture.

Continuous Improvement and Transformational Learning The paradigm has shifted and continues to shift, just as it has always done. Storey and Tebes present this idea of continuous improvement for the educator as an understanding of the Ethic of Care. The classroom presents a number of scenarios in which the instructor must apply care to

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for the safety of the institution, the student or a combination of these. This form of altruism is provided usually at great risk to the individual instructor because of the meandering and vague definition of educational terminology like excellence, authentic learning, plagiarism, truth and many others (Marx, 2006, p. 182-184). It also can provide scenarios where benign neglect can occur because of an ignorant avocation that either: A. There are policies in place and so there is no need to review them, or B. the policies that currently exist should more than suffice and so further review in unnecessary (Gamoran, 2001, p. 141). With these slippery slopes established it should come as no surprise that there are situations where an instructor makes a decision that is not supported by the institution, or the institution makes a decision even if that decision violates the rights of the instructor. The Ethic of Care addresses this by establishing the symbiotic nature of support and critique. In order for either to be effective the other must be exercised with fairness so that the end result is an environment where the instructor can engage in personal mastery and leading through authentic self-expression and not engage in the manipulation and self-serving behaviors that have so often permeated professions that undergo this kind of observation (Cashman, 1998, p. 56-57). This echoes Meizrows (1997) and Chapmans (2007) work in transformational learning theory which states that (1) adults exhibit two kinds of learning: instrumental (e.g., cause/effect) and communicative (e.g., feelings); (2) Learning involves change to meaning structures (perspectives and schemes); (3) Change to meaning structures occurs through reflection about content, process or premises, and (4) Learning can involve: refining/elaborating meaning schemes, learning new schemes, transforming schemes, or transforming perspectives.

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Ultimately, the question remains, will education finally make a move towards the future and lead society like it did with the forefathers, or will it furiously grip onto the traditions of the past and finally fall prey to the inevitable, agonizing death of progress? How we handle adult learners will be a part of the grand design of creating the desired answer to this question. It is an ongoing issue that must be addressed as the adult learning world continues to utilize e-learning solutions for their continuing education. Principles must be mastered to assure that all best practices in instructional design for online learning are synchronized and prescriptive in nature without homogenizing creativity and the ability to customize learning for a variety of situations. This will assure that the adult learner will embrace the future of education and also embrace the responsibility of mentoring those who will follow in the legacy of their scholarship.

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References

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